Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 189 (2018) 202–206
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvrad
Geochemical signature of NORM waste in Brazilian oil and gas industry
a,∗
a
a
G.T. De-Paula-Costa , I.C. Guerrante , J. Costa-de-Moura , F.C. Amorim
T
b
a
Department of Radioactive Waste Management and Transport, Brazilian Nuclear Agency (CNEN - Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear), General Severiano Street 82,
22290-901, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal Center for Technological Education of Rio de Janeiro, CEFET-RJ, UnED, Itaguaí, RJ, Brazil
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Geochemical signature
Geochemical fingerprints
Radioactive waste management
Oil NORM
TENORM
The Brazilian Nuclear Energy Agency (CNEN) is responsible for any radioactive waste storage and disposal in the
country. The storage of radioactive waste is carried out in the facilities under CNEN regulation and its disposal is
operated, managed and controlled by the CNEN. Oil NORM (Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials) in this
article refers to waste coming from oil exploitation. Oil NORM has called much attention during the last decades,
mostly because it is not possible to determine its primary source due to the actual absence of a regulatory control
mechanism. There is no efficient regulatory tool which allows determining the origin of such NORM wastes even
among those facilities under regulatory control. This fact may encourage non-authorized radioactive material
transportation, smuggling and terrorism. The aim of this project is to provide a geochemical signature for oil
NORM waste using its naturally occurring isotopic composition to identify its origin. The here proposed method
is the modeling of radioisotopes normally present in oil pipe contamination such as 228Ac, 214Bi and 214Pb
analyzed by gamma spectrometry. The specific activities of elements from different decay series are plotted in a
scatter diagram. This method was successfully tested with gamma spectrometry analyses of oil sludge NORM
samples from four different sources obtained from Petrobras reports for the Campos Basin/Brazil.
1. Introduction
I – The radioactive waste type identification, origin and the location of its
container;
Among other nuclear and radioactive subjects, the Brazilian Nuclear
Energy Agency (CNEN) controls the storage and transportation of
radioactive waste. Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM)
from oil exploration has been an issue along the last decades. Gas and
oil exploration processes produce waste contaminated with NORM. The
main concern with such NORM occurrences is the difficulty to determine the primary source of such waste, especially, in the absence of
regulatory control. Such oil NORM occurs by precipitation or incorporation of these materials in the oil sludge, pipe cleaning, in scales
inside pipes, vessels, heat exchanger, pieces of pumps, and others (Afifi
and Awwad, 2005).
One of the main responsibilities of the CNEN as the official ruler is
to develop efficient tools to control the radioactive waste in the
country. Due to the dynamics and versatilities of gas and oil production
as well as the amount of oil productive wells, it is hard to determine the
origin of the many so-called NORM wastes produced by such facilities.
Regarding this, the CNEN-8.01 act regulates as follows (CNEN, 2004):
II – The radioactive waste origin and destination.
Art. 42 All facilities must keep an updated record system of the radioactive waste, including:
∗
Concerning waste management of oil production, “the hazardous
characteristics of such waste depend on the type of oil produced” (Cunha,
2009). Thus, origin and provenance of oil wastes are extremely important subjects in determining the risk levels for the environment and
the people.
Nowadays, there is already a serious regulatory control issue regarding metal scraps containing NORM. These scraps are sold by oil
producers to scrap-dealers who resell the scrap to the steel industry.
The steel industry has installed radiation detectors at the entrance access of their plants. Because of this the CNEN is constantly requested to
verify and investigate warnings about the presence of radioactivity in
steel oil tubes. In most of the cases it is impossible to identify the primary source of these scrap tubes contaminated with NORM and thus the
effective control and notification of the primary seller cannot be done.
The goal of this project is to develop a geochemical signature for
each specific NORM waste enabling to identify the radioactive waste
source using its naturally occurring radiochemical components and
support the CNEN in its activities of regulation. This article presents a
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: gilberto.costa@cnen.gov.br, gilbertothiago2000@gmail.com, gilbertothiago@id.uff.br (G.T. De-Paula-Costa).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2018.04.014
Received 8 November 2017; Received in revised form 12 February 2018; Accepted 16 April 2018
0265-931X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 189 (2018) 202–206
G.T. De-Paula-Costa et al.
of columbite-tantalite (coltan) ores in Brazil. It was found out by
modeling the relations (Nb/Ta; U/Th) that such elemental ratios provide fingerprints of the original source location of such ore. This result
helps and allows the CNEN to improve the control of the economical
circulation of those ores in the country.
Graupner et al. (2010) and Melcher et al. (2015), following an UN
request to create a way to avoid the commerce of what is called “bloodcoltan”, described geochemical signatures for coltan (columbite group
minerals) ore mined in Africa. Combining U-Pb mass relations with
associated rare earth elements (REE), geochronological data, REE ratios, and mineralogy they obtained individual signatures for coltan ore
in Africa.
Balboni et al. (2016) presented a methodology for geochemical
signatures of uranium ores demonstrating the importance of geochemical signatures in the investigation on the origin of intercepted
nuclear material, both in local community or cross-border transport.
This study provided a detailed chemical characterization of 11 samples
of USA uranium ore. The authors plotted Th versus Y and U versus Th
contents and the total REE concentration normalized to chondrite REE
standards demonstrating that these chemical indicators can be used to
distinguish depositional areas. The results showed the necessity of
combining multiple chemical features to determine the origin of uranium ore.
El Mamoney and Khater (2004) applied a relation between 226Ra
and 228Ra to determine the highest radiological impact zones involving
oil industry and its waste of the Red Sea region, Egypt. The authors
indicated the regions where radiological impacts would be bigger in
case of accidents involving NORM waste coming from oil facilities in
this region.
Yet, there is no methodology available in the literature for the determination of geochemical signatures in oil NORM waste. However,
Shawky et al. (2001), in their work about oil NORM waste characterization in the oil industry in Egypt, concluded that each oil formation
will produce distinct NORM waste with different NORM concentrations.
The authors identified that the NORM waste characteristics depend not
only on the extraction manner but mainly on the original characteristics
and on the chemical arrangement of those elements in the mineral
matrix. They also highlighted the importance of such knowledge for
regulation and the development of management techniques for those
wastes.
Table 1
2014 and 2015 oil and natural gas volume production and proved reservoirs
(CIPEG, 2016).
2014
OIL in millions of
barrels (MMbbl)
NATURAL GAS in
millions of cubic
meter (MMm3)
2015
OIL in millions of
barrels (MMbbl)
NATURAL GAS in
millions of cubic
meter (MMm3)
Production
Proved
reservoirs
Production
Proved
reservoirs
Production
Proved
reserssvoirs
Production
Proved
reservoirs
offshore
761.35
15,350.06
onshore
61.58
832.22
Total
822.93
16,182.29
offshore
23.,39
399,920.02
onshore
8.50
71,228.17
Total
31.90
471,148.19
offshore
831.30
12,366.90
onshore
58.37
666.34
Total
889.67
13,033.70
offshore
26.74
358,702.31
onshore
8.39
70,754.75
total
35.13
429,457.10
study on the project's viability based on literature data.
2. NORM in oil industry
2.1. Location of oil wells in Brazil
Brazil is the world's 12th largest oil producer (CIPEG, 2016). Brazilian production fields comprise onshore and offshore oil and gas wells
spread out in all country territory. The biggest volumes are produced
offshore. Table 1 shows the volume of oil and gas produced in 2014 and
2015. 93% of the oil and 76% of the gas produced in the country came
from offshore plants. Besides that, pre-salt production represented 40%
of offshore oil production in 2016. In addition, it is expected that many
new wells start production in the near future (Petrobras, 2017).
2.2. Oil NORM history
Since the thirties the occurrence of NORM in the oil extraction tubes
inlays is well known. It is usually associated with sulfate and carbonate
of barium. During the seventies large companies sponsored research to
evaluate risks relative to radon in oil production plants. In the eighties,
researchers in the USA detected relatively high concentration of NORM
in the oily inlays, scale and sludge coming from the oil platforms.
Therefore, the US government and the oil industry initiated research to
characterize and map the main locations where oil NORM occurs
(Attallah et al., 2012).
In Brazil this issue started in the 80s, when Petrobras identified the
presence of radiation in the oil sludge of pipes coming from the
Namorado field (Campos basin). During many years Petrobras had to
store pipes with NORM scales due to the absence of a cleanup technology for decontaminating such pipes. The problem continued until
the early 2000s, when Petrobras developed a process to remove the
inlays from the tubes. After this the scales and oil sludge were stored in
barrels to attend the demands imposed by the CNEN (Matta and Reis,
2002). Nowadays, as already mentioned in section 1, the oil NORM
wastes status inside the country is under control. However, the CNEN,
as the only and official responsible of the government, still needs an
appropriate tool that allows identifying the precise source origin of
those wastes.
4. Method and materials
Here presented is a preliminary study based on literature data and
on Petrobras gamma spectrometry analysis reports to verify the viability of a more complex project that, if continued, will include collection
and multiple analyses of oil NORM samples.
The determination of radionuclides and the measurement of specific
activities in the 238U and 232Th series is done by gamma spectrometry
(Knaepen and Bergwer, 1995; Kolb and Woick, 1984). It consists of
quantifying radioactive elements by gamma-ray emission spectrum
using a high-purity germanium detector (HPGe). Below it is shown how
some radionuclides are determined by this method:
Gamma-spectrometry for radioisotopes of the 238U decay series:
a .226Ra is indirectly measured by the γ-emission peak of 609 keV and
1120 keV of the 214Bi.
.210
b
Pb is directly determined by measuring its γ-emission of
46.5 keV.
Gamma-spectrometry for radioisotopes of the 232Th decay series:
3. Geochemical signatures in nuclear regulation
a .228Ra is indirectly measured by the γ-emission peak of 911.2 keV
and 969 keV of the 228Ac;
b .224Ra is indirectly measured by 212Pb or 212Bi.
The idea of geochemical signatures in nuclear applications is relatively new. Costa-de-Moura et al. (2013) and Costa-de-Moura (2009,
2013) determined geochemical signatures that indicate the provenance
203
Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 189 (2018) 202–206
G.T. De-Paula-Costa et al.
Table 2
Comparison between 214Pb and 214Bi in NORM waste coming from oil/gas
fields.
214
Pb
Bi
214
Namorado field
(Brazil) (Matta and
Reis, 2002)
Abu Rudeis (Egypt)
(Afifi and Awwad,
2005)
Egypt Desert (Shawky
et al., 2001)
Sample A3 (oil sludge)
specific activities (Bq/
g)
Sample before
treatment (oil sludge)
specific activities (Bq/
g)
Sample (oil sludge)
specific activities (Bq/
g)
15.63 ± 2.34
15.22 ± 2.39
66.5 ± 0.5
66.8 ± 2.5
19.39 ± 0.019
18.32 ± 0.050
Table 5
Specific activity (Bq/g) of 46 samples from Garoupa-1 Platform (PGP-1) and
214
Bi/228Ac ratio. Adapted from (Petrobras, 2006a,b,c, 2007a,b, 2008).
Table 3
Specific activity (Bq/g) of 7 samples from Cherne-2 Platform (PCH-2) and
214
Bi/228Ac ratio. Adapted from (Petrobras, 2006a,b,c, 2007a,b, 2008).
Platform
Material
214
Bi
S. D.
228
Ac
S. D.
214
Bi/228Ac
PCH-2
PCH-2
PCH-2
PCH-2
PCH-2
PCH-2
PCH-2
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Not available
Sand
Not available
Rock
Oil sludge
1.18
36.90
56.70
62.80
71.40
84.20
1.73
0.04
0.29
1.18
1.34
1.47
1.75
0.05
0.64
11.80
18.00
18.60
20.90
23.30
0.44
0.03
0.09
0.38
0.40
0.44
0.50
0.02
1.83
3.13
3.15
3.38
3.42
3.61
3.97
Error
0.15
0.05
0.13
0.15
0.14
0.15
0.29
Table 4
Specific activity (Bq/g) of 11 samples from Namorado-1 Platform (PNA-1) and
214
Bi/228Ac ratio. Adapted from (Petrobras, 2006a,b,c, 2007a,b, 2008).
Platform
Material
214
Bi
S. D.
228
Ac
S. D.
214
Bi/228Ac
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
PNA-1
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Cleaning water
Cleaning water
Cleaning water
7.14
9.01
10.50
10.50
12.50
11.50
12.20
12.50
1.55
1.36
1.72
0.08
0.10
0.13
0.09
0.10
0.10
0.11
0.13
0.08
0.04
0.04
4.61
5.63
6.49
6.37
7.42
6.77
7.14
7.25
0.82
0.70
0.84
0.07
0.08
0.11
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.09
0.08
0.03
0.02
1.55
1.60
1.62
1.65
1.68
1.70
1.71
1.72
1.88
1.93
2.05
Error
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.28
0.13
0.11
For this study was verified transient equilibrium between 214Bi and
Ra for the 238U decay series and between 228Ac and 228Ra for the
232
Th decay series. Transient equilibrium is obtained when the ratio of
two short-lived radionuclides of the same decay series is 1 (partial secular equilibrium). In case of transient equilibrium, the radionuclides
cannot be used for obtaining the sought after geochemical signature.
The comparison of 214Pb and 214Bi in NORM waste coming from three
different oil NORM samples, one from Brazil and two from Egypt
(Table 2), indicates that all three sample groups are in secular equilibrium, although each group has different specific activities. It can be
deduced from Table 2 that the ratios 214Pb/214Bi are nearly 1.
This study is based on analyses from oil NORM samples from four
Brazilian platforms in the Campos basin: Cherne, Garoupa-1,
Namorado-1 and Namorado-2 platforms, Campos basin, Brazil. Samples
of oil sludge, scale, sand, rock, and cleaning water were analyzed by
gamma spectrometry using a High-Purity Germanium Detector (CANBERRA) in the Instituto de Radiometria e Dosimetria (IRD/CNEN) and
the results presented in reports by Petrobras (Petrobras, 2006a,b,c,
2007a,b, 2008).
The here described approach to obtain geochemical signatures of
NORM waste is to model isotopic ratios from different decay series of
radionuclides normally present in oil NORM. The specific activities of
214
Bi and 228Ac from NORM samples of different localities are plotted in
Platform
Material
214
Bi
S. D.
228
Ac
S. D.
214
Bi/228Ac
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
PGP-1
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil scale
Sand
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Sand
Oil sludge
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil sludge
Sand
Oil scale
Sand
Sand
Oil scale
Sand
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil sludge
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil sludge
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil scale
Oil Scale
1.020
1.030
1.520
1.400
0.655
3.020
6.900
8.690
11.800
19.400
4.800
1.750
6.830
13.600
12.400
13.400
21.900
33.000
26.400
39.500
76.500
48.700
66.900
134.000
71.000
136.000
83.400
108.000
155.000
75.200
199.000
137.000
138.000
93.000
170.000
128.000
196.000
177.000
177.000
155.000
174.000
154.000
222.000
95.200
166.000
169.000
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.06
0.03
0.07
0.16
0.21
0.27
0.44
0.12
0.06
0.16
0.31
0.29
0.29
0.49
0.74
0.06
0.85
1.72
1.07
1.49
2.92
1.56
2.93
1.88
2.30
3.36
1.69
4.21
3.07
3.01
2.07
3.63
2.81
4.07
3.88
3.84
3.38
3.59
3.36
4.75
2.14
3.60
3.67
0.71
0.66
0.70
0.58
0.26
1.18
2.23
2.74
3.63
5.79
1.43
0.42
1.62
3.21
2.85
2.92
4.33
6.32
4.96
7.23
13.60
8.62
11.40
22.80
12.00
22.80
13.90
17.90
25.60
12.40
32.70
22.40
22.30
15.00
27.40
20.60
31.50
28.30
28.00
24.40
27.30
24.10
34.60
14.80
25.60
24.40
0.08
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.14
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.11
0.17
0.12
0.17
0.36
0.19
0.29
0.55
0.30
0.53
0.42
0.40
0.61
0.34
0.73
0.61
0.54
0.40
0.62
0.53
0.68
0.69
0.65
0.59
0.58
0.59
0.79
0.50
0.60
0.64
1.44
1.57
2.18
2.41
2.49
2.56
3.09
3.17
3.25
3.35
3.36
4.17
4.22
4.24
4.35
4.59
5.06
5.22
5.32
5.46
5.63
5.65
5.87
5.88
5.92
5.96
6.00
6.03
6.05
6.06
6.09
6.12
6.19
6.20
6.20
6.21
6.22
6.25
6.32
6.35
6.37
6.39
6.42
6.43
6.48
6.93
Error
0.25
0.17
0.22
0.32
0.29
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.15
0.16
0.18
0.44
0.20
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.24
0.26
0.14
0.24
0.28
0.25
0.28
0.27
0.28
0.27
0.32
0.26
0.27
0.30
0.26
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.27
0.30
0.26
0.29
0.28
0.29
0.27
0.30
0.28
0.36
0.29
0.33
226
Table 6
Specific activity (Bq/g) of 19 samples from Namorado-2 Platform (PNA-2) and
214
Bi/228Ac ratio. Adapted from (Petrobras, 2006a,b,c, 2007a,b, 2008).
204
Platform
Material
214
Bi
S. D.
228
Ac
S. D.
214
Bi/228Ac
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
PNA-2
Sand
Oil scale
Sand
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Oil scale
Oil sludge
Sand
Oil sludge
Oil scale
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
Oil sludge
0.76
23.70
27.00
23.60
1.58
23.60
1.70
24.90
2.47
23.60
23.60
2.54
1.44
2.00
2.39
24.70
2.91
12.50
0.69
0.01
0.22
0.22
0.23
0.04
0.19
0.07
0.23
0.06
0.20
0.19
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.08
0.09
0.07
0.31
0.26
0.66
15.40
17.00
14.50
0.95
13.90
1.00
14.00
1.38
13.10
12.70
1.36
0.76
1.02
1.21
11.60
1.31
5.33
0.26
0.01
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.03
0.10
0.06
0.13
0.04
0.01
0.09
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.15
0.02
1.15
1.54
1.59
1.63
1.66
1.70
1.70
1.78
1.79
1.80
1.86
1.87
1.90
1.96
1.98
2.13
2.22
2.35
2.67
Error
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.09
0.03
0.16
0.03
0.09
0.02
0.03
0.10
0.11
0.10
0.17
0.02
0.10
0.12
1.23
Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 189 (2018) 202–206
G.T. De-Paula-Costa et al.
Fig. 1. Specific activities (Bq/g) of 228Ac versus 214Bi of NORM waste samples from four oil platforms.
a scatter diagram (228Ac, 214Bi). If they plot in distinct field and show
different trends, this method can be used for creating the desired geochemical signature.
Considering the errors reported for each sample analyzed, the error
of 214Bi/228Ac is calculated by derivative method. Being F(x) = f(x)/g
(x), the error F’(x) is defined as follows:
F ′ (x ) =
f (x ) ⎫
f ′ (x )
+ g ′ (x ) ⎧
2
⎨
g (x )
⎩ [g (x )] ⎬
⎭
industry.
- Relations between radioisotopes of the 238U and 232Th decay series
may provide signatures for oil NORM wastes.
- The results of this case study indicate that the here presented
method is viable and worth further investigation.
- In continuation of this project it is planned to collect samples of oil
sludge, tube scales and crude oil from different Brazilian oil fields
and analyze them for their geochemical and mineralogical composition using methods like ICP-MS, ICP-OES, X-Ray fluorescence and
gamma spectrometry, and finally model more radionuclides relations to obtain precise signatures for the origin of the oil NORM.
(1)
A total of 83 samples was used for this study: 46 samples from
Garoupa-1 platform; 7 samples of Cherne-2 platform; 11 samples from
Namorado-1 platform; and 19 samples from Namorado-2 platform. The
values for the specific activities of 214Bi, 228Ac, 214Bi/228Ac of samples
from each platform and their respective standard deviation and error
are presented in Tables 3–6.
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to the Department of Radioactive Waste of the CNEN
for supporting the project with information and analytical data and to
the anonymous scientific reviewer for constructive comments. This
research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
5. Results and discussions
Modeling of specific activities in a scatter diagram where x = specific activity of 228Ac and y = specific activity of 214Bi shows linear
relations for the samples of four Brazilian oil platforms (Fig. 1). These
relations and resulting equations for each oil NORM waste may serve as
geochemical signature of the reservoirs and so indicate the location of
the NORM.
Fig. 1 shows clearly that most of the oil NORM waste samples from
the four oil fields plot in different areas when modeling radioisotopes of
the 238U decay series versus those of the 232Th decay series, specifically
228
Ac versus 214 Bi. This is expected mainly because each oil well has
distinct geological characteristics. Also using different oil/gas extraction processes may affect the waste characteristics. The platforms Namorado-1 and Namorado-2 (PNA-1 and PNA-2) are in the same oil field
(Namorado field). This may explain why values of their samples are on
the same linear trend line.
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