Journal of Earrth Science, Vol. 30, No. 1, p. 95–108, Februaary 2019
Printed in Chiina
https://doi.org/10.1007/s125883-018-0861-x
IS
SSN 1674-487X
X
Geenesis of
o Xinzh
hai Sand
dstone-Type Copper
C
D
Depositt in
Northern Laos: Geologi
G
ical and
d Geoch
hemical Eviden
nces
Jiangguo Huang
1
, Tao Ren *1, Haijun Zou2
1. Facculty of Land Resources Enginneering, Kunminng University of Science and Technology,
T
Kuunming 650093,, China
2. State Key Laaboratory of Orre Deposit Geocchemistry, Instittute of Geochem
mistry, Chinese Academy
A
of Scieences, Guiyang 550002, China
Jianguo Huangg: https://orcid.oorg/0000-0001-88090-3741;
Tao Ren: https://orcid.org/00000-0001-8951-39
926
ABSTRACT: Xinzhai sand
A
dstone-type coopper depositt located in northern Laaos lies in th
he
J
Jiangcheng-Ph
hongsaly-Phraee Mesozoic basin (JPMB), which
w
is regarrded as southeern extension of
o
t Lanping-Siimao Mesozoicc basin in Chin
the
na. The copper deposit belt is bounded byy the Ailaoshan
nH
Heishui
River fault and the Dian Bien Ph
hu-Luang Prab
bang fault at the east and L
Lancang RiverB
Bannankan
fau
ults at the wesst. Two types of orebodies are
a identified in the Xinzhaii area based on
o
g
geological
investigation. One is lamellar cop
pper orebody hosted by the fine lithic feldspar sandstonees
a feldspar litthic sandstonees; another is vein-type
and
v
orebo
ody. The sulfu
ur isotopic com
mpositions of th
he
c
chalcopyrite
an
nd tetrahedritee are from -111.6‰ to -1.8‰,, indicating that sulfur is derrived from bact
terial
sulfate reeduction (BSR
R). δD values of
o fluid inclusio
ons in ore-bearing quartz saamples are from
m
-99‰
to -78‰.. The calculateed δ18OH2O vallues of ore-forrming fluid vary from -2.3‰
‰ to 0.4‰ usin
ng
t quartz-watter fractionatioon equations an
the
nd the minerallization temperature. Oxygen and hydrogeen
isotopic compoositions show that
t
the ore-foorming fluid was
w derived froom basin fluid
d. Rock-mineral
identifications show that both
h of the minerral grain maturity and the sttructural matu
urity are high in
i
t Jurassic Hu
the
uakaizuo Form
mation, reflectting a far-sourrce accumulation and lake faacies sedimenta
at
tary
environmeent. Based on tectonic determ
mination diagrram of the Al2O3/SiO2-TFe+MgO, the sand
ds
stone
samples collected
c
from
m the Huakaizu
uo Formation were
w
plotted in
n the passive continental marg The collisiion of the Indian and Eurasiian blocks durring the Cenozzoic formed larrge-scale strikegin.
s
slips
and thrusst nappe structtures in margin
n of the basin. With the tectoonic movement, Cu-rich basiin
f
fluid
from the basement of basin
b
migrated
d upward alon
ng the contem
mporaneous fau
ult and into th
he
h
high
porosity strata.
s
At the same time, in organic matteer-riched cond
dition, bacteriaal sulfate reduct
tion
(BSR) hass been triggereed, forming a large
l
number of
o S2- ions, and
d then precipittation of sulfid
de
s
started.
This mechanism
m
desccribes the proccess of copper mineral depossition in the Xin
nzhai deposit.
K
KEY
WORDS:: Laos, sandstoone-type coppeer deposit, geollogy, geochemistry, genesis.
0
INTRODU
UCTION
The Jianggcheng-Phongsaly-Phrae Mesoozoic basin (JP
PMB)
in northern Laos
L
is linked with
w
the Lanpiing-Simao Bassin in
southern Chinna. The JPMB is an importannt component of
o the
Southeast Asiian metallogeniic belt (Fig. 1aa), extending too the
southern part of
o the “Sanjianng” metallogenic belt in Chinaa (Liu
et al., 2015; Fan
F and Zhang, 1994). Meanw
while, the LanppingSimao Basin (microplate) iss an importantt component of the
Tethyan tectonnic domain. Thhe microplate iss constrained byy the
Lancang Riverr-Bannankan faault, Ailaoshan--Heishui River fault,
and Dian Bienn Phu-Luang Prabang
P
fault, which
w
are show
wn in
Fig. 1b (Li et
e al., 1995). Several
S
depositts are found inn the
Lanping-Simaao Basin, includding the world class Jinding Pb-Zn
P
*Correspondinng author: rtao11982@126.com
m
© China Univeersity of Geosciences (Wuhan) and Springer-V
Verlag
GmbH Germanny, Part of Spriinger Nature 20019
Manuscript recceived June 27,, 2018.
Manuscript acccepted Septembber 3, 2018.
depo
osit (Fig. 1b; Table
T
1; Gao ett al., 2008), thee medium-sizedd
Baiy
yangping Ag-Pbb-Zn-Cu deposit (Fig. 1b; Tab
ble 1; Zou et al..,
2014
4), the medium
m-sized Jinman Cu deposit (Fiig. 1b; Table 1;;
Liu et al., 2003, 20001, 2000), sm
mall-sized Bailo
ongchang, Yao-jiash
han, Wunu, Naanyong and Shaangyong Cu dep
posits (Fig. 1b;;
Table 1; Yuan et all., 2015; Zhengg et al., 2014; Gao
G et al., 2013;;
Miaao et al., 2013; Cui
C and Yang, 11998; Yan, 199
97).
In recent yeaars, studies on fresh rocks, alteration
a
rock,,
ore-controlled struucture sequencee, mineral assemblage, fluidd
prop
perties and orre geochemistrry have been conducted onn
Cu-P
Pb-Zn deposits from Lanpinng-Simao Basin (Xue et al.,,
2007
7, 2002; Zhao, 2006; Li et al.,, 1997, 1995). A great numberr
of geochemical
g
andd geochronologgical data havee been obtainedd
(Tan
ng et al., 2013; Zheng et al., 22012; Wang X H et al., 2011;;
Liu et al., 2003; Wu
W et al., 2003). Ages mainly vary
v
from 23 too
68 Ma,
M showing thhat the mineralizzation is related
d to Himalayann
Mov
vement. The Cuu isotopes in thhe Jinman Cu deeposit (Jiang ett
al., 2001),
2
Zn isotoopes (Deng et all., 2017) and in situ S isotopess
(Den
ng et al., 2017; Xue et al., 20015; Tang et all., 2014) in thee
Jind
ding Pb-Zn deeposit have bbeen measured
d. These new
w
Huang, J. G., Ren, T., Zou, H.
H J., 2019. Gennesis of Xinzhaai Sandstone-Ty
ype Copper Depposit in Northeern Laos: Geolo
ogical and Geo-chemical Eviddences. Journal of Earth Sciencce, 30(1): 95–1008. https://doi.o
org/10.1007/s122583-018-0861--x. http://en.earrth-science.net
96
Jianguo Huang, Tao Ren and Haijun Zou
Figure 1. (a) Sketch map of SE Asia showing location of area studied in Laos (Roger et al., 2000); (b) tectonic framework of the Lanping-Simao Basin (modified from Fan and Zhang, 1994); (c) Sketch map of geological structure of the Laos (modified from Li F X et al., 1995). INDO. Indochina; KP. Khorat Plateau;
LSB. Lanping-Simao Basin.
results show that the deposit in the Lanping-Simao Basin could
have many metal sources and the ore-forming process is more
complex (Deng et al., 2017; Xue et al., 2015). Concerning the
source and the drive force of ore-forming fluid, there are three
opinions: (1) deep source fluid or basin fluid are driven by
magma derived heat (Xue et al., 2002; Li et al., 1997, 1995); (2)
mantle derived heat drove the basin fluid migration (Wang et
al., 2009; Zhao, 2006; Xu et al., 2005); (3) tectonic movement
drove the basin fluid (He et al., 2009; Hou et al., 2008a; Gu et
al., 2007; Li and Song, 2006; Xu and Zhou, 2004; Xu and Li,
2003).
However, the study of the ore deposits in the southern part
of the metallogenic belt is relatively rare, and not many geological, geochemical and chronological studies have been carried
out in a number of ore deposits, which has seriously influeced
the study of basin fluid ore-forming system and exploration of
this type of deposit. This study can provide more information
for the geological scientists to understand the metallogenic mechanism and background of the ore deposits in the region. In this
study, a detailed field geological investigation in the Xinzhai
deposit is presented. The mineral grain size and composition,
major and trace elements of sandstones from the ore-hosted
strata, sulfur isotopic composition of sulfide, oxygen and hydrogen isotopic value of sulfide-bearing quartz are carried out.
Genesis of Xinzhai Sandstone-Type Copper Deposit in Northern Laos: Geological and Geochemical Evidences
97
Yan, 1997
Yan, 1997
Li et al., 1995
Vein
Sandstone
China
Yaojiashan
-2.9 to -1.2
Cu
Tetrahedrite chalcopyrite
Lamellar
Vein
Chalcopyrite
Sandstone
Tetrahedrite chalcopyrite sphalerite
Sandstone
Cu
Bailongchang
-1.9
China
China
Liancheng
-14.3 to -4.9
Cu
Wang X H et al., 2011
Li et al., 1995; Liu et al., 2003
54 to 58
Lamellar vein
Tetrahedrite chalcopyrite
Sandstone
Cu
China
Jinman
-10.6 to 11.0
Tang et al., 2013
Wei, 2003;
29 to 30
Vein
Sphalerite galena
Sandstone
sandstone
1
Pb-Zn-Cu
China
Baiyangping
-7.3 to 18.1
Zhu et al., 2009
Lamellar vein
Vein
Sphalerite galena
Tetrahedrite chalcopyrite
Sandstone
Conglomerate
Cu
Pb-Zn
Jinding
-19.8 to 16.0
Laos
China
Wunu
-7.7 to -1.8
Tetrahedrite chalcopyrite
Laos
Nanyong
-11.1 to -2.9
Cu
Sandstone
Lamellar vein
23 to 68
Wu et al., 2003; Zheng et al., 2012;
Zhu et al., 2009
Mineralization age (Ma)
Orebody type
Ore minerals
Deposit type
association
Metal
δ34S(‰)
Country
Deposit
Table 1 Statistics list of representative ore deposits in the Lanping-Simao Basin
References
Based on newly acquired data, the sedimentary facies and
background of wall rocks, fluid-driving mechanism, the source
of sulfur and metals and the ore genesis of the Xinzhai Cu deposit have been discussed.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
Three major blocks occur in Laos, namely the Indochina,
the South China, and the Simao-Lampang, which are separated
by Dian Bien Phu, the Luang Prabang-Nanfu and the Majiang
suture zones. The northeastern Heishui River rift (VII) belongs
to South China Block (Fig. 1c; Li F X et al., 1995). To the east,
the Indochina Block is bounded by three northwest-trending
faults (Majiang, Lanjiang, and Changshan) and includes the
Xam Nua Hercynian–Early Indosinian Island Arc (VI), the
Xiang Khoang-Changshan Hercynian fold zone (V), the Luang
Prabang-Loei Hercynian-Indosinian fold zone (III), and the
Vientiane-Kon Tum Block (IV). The Simao-Lampang Block
includes the Jinghong-Houayxay Hercynian–Indosinian Island
Arc (I) and the JPMB (II). Therefore, seven tectonic units are
identified in Laos (Fig. 1c; Li F X et al., 1995).
The Proterozoic metamorphic rocks consist of gneiss, schist,
and amphibolite. The Paleozoic metamorphic rock series are
schist, sandstone, mudstone and limestone. The Mesozoic strata
consist of sandstone, clay, mudstone, and limestone. And Cenozoic strata consist of conglomerate, sandstone, shale, siltstone,
and a few basaltic lava, cinerite and lignite. Magmatism in Laos
mainly erupts or emplaces in the Jinningian and Himalayan orogenic belts. The Jinningian belt distributes in the eastern region
of Laos, and magmatic rocks include mainly gneissic biotite
granite and gneissic muscovite-granite. The Himalayan belt distributes in the northwestern, north-central, and some southern
regions. It contains granodiorite, monzonitic granite, two mica
monzonitic granite and biotite granite and alkali basalt.
The study area lies in the southern part of the LanpingSimao Basin (Fig. 1b). In Laos, the JPMB is a north-northeasttrending strip belt. The Luang-Prabang arc belt and the JinghongHouayxay arc belt are located in the east and west sides with F3
and F1 as their boundary faults respectively (Fig. 1c). The JPMB
is covered by a thick large-scale Mesozoic and Cenozoic red bed
and scattered by the Late Paleozoic geological bodies. The microplate experienced a series of the strong tectonic movements.
2 GEOLOGY OF ORE DEPOSIT
2.1 Strata
The outcropped Mesozoic Jurassic and Cretaceous strata
in the deposit area are shown in Figs. 2 and 3a. The Mesozoic
sedimentary model and rock facies are consistent with the geological features in the Jiangcheng-Jinghong region (Yuan et al.,
2015; Yang et al., 2013). Therefore, stratigraphic sequences and
strata in the research area can be reassessed or renamed by
Jiangcheng and Mengla sheets (1 : 200 000 regional geological
data; Feng et al., 2017; Guo et al., 2017; Du et al., 2016; Zhang
et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2015; Lü et al., 2015). According to the
lithostratigraphy data of Yunnan Province, the strata in the
mining and surrounding areas can be divided from the bottom
upward as follows: Jurassic Huakaizuo Formation, Bazhulu
Formation, Cretaceous Jingxing Formation, Nanxin Formation
and Hutousi Formation.
98
Jianguo Huang, Tao Ren and Haijun Zou
Figure 2. Stratigraphy of Upper Permian to Paleogene.
2.1.1
Jurassic
The Middle and Upper Jurassic rocks distribute in the central and northern of the deposit (Fig. 3a). Huakaizuo Formation
(J2h) is 2 014 m thick, which can be divided into two sections
according to the rocks assemblage. The first section (J2h1) outcrops in the northern part of the mining area, with thickness of
803 m. The lower part consists of maroon thin to middle- stratified siltstone and calc-argillaceous siltstone, interbedded with
thin-stratified mudstone. The upper part consists of purplish red
and maroon thin to middle-stratified microfine- grained lithic
sandstone, siltstone and mudstone. The second section (J2h2)
also exposes in northern part of the mining area. The lower part
consists of grayish yellow and maroon middle- stratified
fine-grained feldspar lithic sandstone and thinstratified
limestone. The upper part consists of brownish red and grayish
yellow thin-stratified fine-grained calcareous quartz sandstone
and fine-grained feldspar quartz sandstone.
The Bazhulu Formation (J3b) lies in the central part of the
mining area and is 578 m thick (Fig. 3a). Purplish red and maroon thin to thick-stratified mudstones and silty calcareous
mudstones are dominated rocks. The lower part consists of
maroon middle to thick-stratified gravel-bearing sandstone with
10 to 20 m thick. The gravel includes siliceous and carbonate
rocks with sizes of 0.5 to 3 cm.
2.1.2 Cretaceous
The Jingxing Formation (K1j) exposes in the central and
southern parts of the mining area (Fig. 3a). The lower part contains grayish middle to thick-stratified meso and fine-grained
feldspar quartz sandstone and calcareous lithic quartz sandstone.
The bottom part consists of maroon thick-stratified silty sandstone and gravel-bearing quartz sandstone. It is parallel unconformity contact with the underlying Upper Jurassic Bazhulu
Formation.
The Nanxin Formation (K1n) exposes in the southwestern
part of the mining area (Fig. 3a) and is 609 m thick. It consists
of maroon and amaranth middle-stratified siltstone, calcareous
siltstone, mudstone, and silty calcium mudstones.
The Hutousi Formation (K1h) exposes in the southern part
of the mining area (Fig. 3a). It consists of ashen and grayish
yellow middle to thick-stratified meso to coarse-grained lithic
quartz sandstone and meso to fine-grained greywacke.
2.2
Structure
The main structure in the deposit is the Gongjishan syncline (Figs.3a and 3b). Faults are widely developed in the
northwest wing of the syncline. The northwest-trending faults
are all across the mining area, including eight faults (F1, F2, F5,
F6, F7, F9, F10, and F12). Ore-controlling faults are represented
by F2 and F7 (Fig. 3b). The northeast-trending faults have experienced from an early extension to late compression. Lenticle
and carbonization are common in the schistosity zone, reflecting a brittle tectonic deformation.
Genesis of Xinzhai Sandstone-Type Copper Deposit in Northern Laos: Geological and Geochemical Evidences
2.3 Orebody Features
2.3.1 Lamellar copper orebodies
Orebodies host in the transition zone between the grayish
white sandstone belt and the purplish sandstone belt (Chen et
al., 2000; Li F X et al., 1995). The contact surface between the
grayish white sandstone and the purplish sandstone appears as
in the shape of a wave line (Figs. 4 and 5a), which indicates
that the greyish white sandstone was formed by hydrothermal
alteration. When the transition zone is stable, industrial orebodies occur in the greyish white sandstone (Figs. 4 and 5a; Wu et
al., 2008; Zeng et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2008). Large-scale orebodies exist in the second section of the Huakaizuo Formation
in the 3# oreblock. Orebodies occur as layered or stratoid (Figs.
4 and 5a). Locally multi-layered industrial orebodies have been
explored. The controlled length, slope depth, and attitude of the
orebodies are 1 900 m, 50 m and 264°∟34°, respectively. The
orebody thickness ranges from 1.39 to 6.58 m (average of 3.63
m). The main copper minerals in the deposit are chalcopyrite
99
and tetrahedrite and the second largest amount of copper minerals include malachite and azurite (Fig. 6). Copper grade
ranges from 0.53% to 2.40% (average of 1.19%). Mineralization mainly occurs in the light grayish yellow middle to
thick-stratified feldspar quartz sandstone, fine-grained feldspar
sandstone, and quartz sandstone (Qi et al., 2012).
2.3.2 Vein-type orebody
Vein-type orebodies distribute along the faults (Figs. 4 and
5b; Liu and Liu, 2013). The altitude of orebodies is steep and
consistent with the fault occurrence. Malachite and azurite,
supergene products from primary Cu-sulfides, appear as vein,
veinlets, or spots usually around the tectonic breccia or as cements binding the debris particles or filling mineral fissures
(Fig. 6e; Wang et al., 2011). Geological observation indicates
that the vein-type and lamellar ore should form in the same
stage (Fig. 4). Ore-bearing fluid migrated along inner layer
fault or fissure and then form lamellar orebodies and also can
Figure 3. Simplified geological map (a) and cross-section (b) of the Xinzhai deposit
100
Jianguo Huang, Tao Ren and Haijun Zou
Figure 4. Geological sketch map of twelfth exploration profile in the Xinzhai deposit.
Figure 5. Geological sketch map of No. 3 oreblock illustrating the lamellar type orebody (a) and No. 13 gallery illustrating the vein-type orebody (b) in the
Xinzhai copper deposit.
Genesis of Xinzhai Sandstone-Type Copper Deposit in Northern Laos: Geological and Geochemical Evidences
101
Figure 6. (a) (b) (c) microscopic characteristics of the feldspar quartz sandstone from Huakaizuo Formation; (d) lamellar orebody spreads along the stratum; (e)
vein type orebody fills in the fault; (f) disseminated and spotted chalcopyrite distribute in gray-white sandstone; (g) disseminated fine-grained chalcopyrite
aggregate distribute along bedding of sandstone, forming the banded structure; (h) fine-grained pyrite inlay in the cement of sandstone; (i) spotted azurite occur
in cements around quartz or feldspar particles; (j) irregular spotted azurite and malachite are distribution in the cements of sandstone; (k) irregular chalcopyrite
vein distribute in the fissure; (l) fine-grained chalcopyrite inclusions are enwrapped in the tetrahedrite. Azu. Azurite; Mal. malachite; Cp. chalcopyrite; Py.
pyrite; Te. tetrahedrite.
fill into fractures and form vein-type orebodies.
2.4
Ore Structure and Mineral Paragenetic Sequences
In Xinzhai deposit, copper minerals mainly include chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, malachite and azurite (Fig. 6), and gangue minerals are mostly quartz and calcite. Based on the previous studies and field observation, two metallogenetic stages
in Xinzhai deposit are identified in this paper. Those are
quartz-sulfide stage (stage 1) and supergene stage (stage 2)
from early to late stage (Fig. 7). The chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite hosted in the grey siliceous sandstone or faults formed at
quartz-sulfide stage. Disseminated chalcopyrite appeared as
irregular particles with sizes of 0.03 to 0.052 mm filled in the
cement of sandstone (Fig. 6d) and chalcopyrite inclusions were
wrapped by tetrahedrite (Fig. 6l). Fine-grained chalcopyrite
occurs as veinlet scattered in the sandstone bedding, forming
banded structure (Fig. 6g). In the vein-type ore, chalcopyrite
occurred as irregular vein or spotted filled in cataclasite or cement (Figs. 6e, 6f and 6k). At supergene oxidation stage, sulfides reacted with water and air in surface or faults development
area. Physical destruction caused by biology should speed up the
reaction process. The new copper minerals (malachite and azurite) were formed at supergene oxidation stage (Figs. 6i and 6j).
Disseminated malachite is found in sandstone surfaces (Fig. 6i).
Azurite and malachite appears as irregular particulates or stalactite usually around the tectonic breccia or as cements binding
the debris particles or filling mineral fissures (Fig. 6j). Few
globular pyrite aggregations are found in the cement of
102
Jianguo Huang, Tao Ren and Haijun Zou
3.3
Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes
The fresh ore samples were crushed with grain size of
40–60 meshes, to select quartz. At low temperature, water was
adsorbed and secondary fluid inclusions were dried. And then
the H2O in the primary fluid inclusions from the quartz samples
were extracted by heating and blasting. H was prepared by reaction of extracted H2O and Zn and the value of δD was measured.
The oxygen isotope of quartz is determined by BrF5 analysis.
The analysis and testing of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes were
performed on the MAT253 mass spectrometer of the Beijing
Institute of Geology of the Nuclear Industry. The data were
V-SMOW as the standard, the accuracy of oxygen isotope analysis was 0.2‰ and the accuracy of hydrogen isotopes was 2‰.
Figure 7. Paragenetic sequence diagram of minerals in the Xinzhai copper
deposit.
sandstone (Fig. 6h). in combination with the characteristics of
hand specimens, the paragenetic sequence of metal minerals in
Xinzhai deposit can be concluded in Fig. 7.
3 ANALYTICAL METHODS
3.1 Major and Trace Elements
The major element and trace element analyses are conducted at the State Key Laboratory of Ore Deposit Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science. The standard X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and the AXIOS XRF are applied, and the analysis
accuracy is better than 5%. The inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometer is used, and the analysis accuracy is also
better than the designated 5%. The experimental procedures are
conducted from Qi et al. (2000).
3.2
Sulfur Isotope
The sulfur isotopic analysis is conducted using the
MAT-251EM mass spectrometer in the State Key Laboratory of
Ore Deposit Geochemistry. The test data is calibrated in accordance with the National Sulfur Isotope Standard GBW-4414
(δ34S= -0.07‰) and GBW-4415 (δ34S=22.15‰). The sulfur
isotope values are reported using δ notation in permil (‰) relative to the CDT. The measurement precisions are within ±0.2‰.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Geological and Geochemical Characteristic of Sandstone
In this study, 34 sandstone samples are collected from the
mine for petrographic observation. For each thin section, more
than 200 detrital components are observed under microscope.
Statistical results are plotted in sandstone classification diagram,
as shown in Fig. 8a. The Huakaizuo Formation mainly consists
of feldspar lithic and lithic feldspar sandstones. The mineral
grain maturity and the structural maturity are relatively high,
reflecting the sedimentary environment of far-source accumulation.
Feldspar lithic sandstone: It is mainly mauve and celadon in color, and appears as a middle and thick layer. Based on
microscopic observation, the fragment content is from 75% to
95% while the interstitial material content is from 1% to 23%.
The fragments include quartz and feldspar. In addition, the
quartz content is from 35% to 65% while the feldspar content is
from 14% to 49% (Fig. 6a). The rock debris content ranges
from 16% to 41%, and various types of debris, such as igneous
and metamorphic rocks are observed.
Lithic feldspar sandstone: This type is mainly mauve and
celadon in color, and appears as a middle and thick stratified.
Based on microscopic observation, the fragment content is 71%
to 96% while the interstitial material content is between 2% to
29%. The quartz and the feldspar contents are 32% to 70% and
Figure 8. (a) Sandstone classification diagram and (b) tectonic determination diagram (after by Bhatia, 1983) of the sandstone in the Xinzhai deposit. a. Quartz
sandstone; b. feldspar-quartz sandstone; c. lithic quartz sandstone; d. arkose; e. feldspar debris sandstone; f. feldspathic lithic sandstone; g. lithic sandstone.
Genesis of Xinzhai Sandstone-Type Copper Deposit in Northern Laos: Geological and Geochemical Evidences
15% to 34%, respectively (Figs. 6b and 6c).
The major and trace element compositions of sandstones
are listed in Table 2. The SiO2 content variation in mineralized
fine sandstone is from 79.5% to 92.2%. The CaO content is of
large variation from 0.01% to 10.2%. The content of Al2O3
varies from 3.69% to 4.83%. In addition, Fe2O3 and TiO2 content variations are 0.71% to 3.24% and 0.08% to 0.25%, respectively.
In the Al2O3/SiO2 vs. TFe+MgO tectonic determination
diagram (Fig. 8b), all samples are plotted in the passive continental margin field. This result is consistent with the continental rift setting (Shi et al., 2014). In the chondritenormalized REE patterns (Fig. 9), sandstone is enriched in
light rare earth elements, and depleted in heavy rare earth
elements. This pattern is similar to Jinman Cu deposits in
Lanping County of China (Cheng et al., 2015). The Eu negative anomaly in the sandstone should represent the REE feature of orginal rock.
4.2
Possible Source of Sulfur
Results of sulfur isotopes of the Xinzhai deposit are listed
in Table 3. δ34SCDT values range from -11.6‰ to -1.8‰. The
sulfur isotope histogram is presented in Fig. 10. Whic shows
that sulfides from lamellar ore have δ34SCDT values of -9.8‰ to
-1.8‰, and sulfides from vein ore have δ34SCDT values of
-11.6‰ to -4.3‰. Sulfur isotopic compositions of chalcopyrite
vary from -10.8‰ to -3.2‰ and tetrahedrite vary from -11.6‰
to -1.8 ‰. The δ34SCDT values of super large Jinding Pb-Zn
deposits, medium-sized Baiyangping Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu deposit,
medium-sized Jinman Cu deposit and small-sized Bailongchang Cu deposit are from -19.8‰ to 16.0‰, -7.3‰ to 18.1‰,
-10.6‰ to 11.0‰, and -14.30‰ to -4.90‰, respectively (Fig. 11;
Zheng et al., 2012; Xue et al., 2010; Wei, 2003; Wu et al., 2003;
Yan, 1997; Li F X et al., 1995). The δ34SCDT values of Xinzhai
deposit are plotted in sulfur isotopic range of summarized various deposits in the Lanping-Simao Basin (Fig. 11; Cheng et al.,
2015), shows that the sulfur could derive the same source.
These sulfur isotopic values show similar variation range between the lamellar and vein ore (Fig. 11). The widely variable
depleted δ34SCDT values imply that bacterial sulfate reduction
(BSR) produced reduced sulfur for the Cu mineralization.
Figure 9. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of sandstone. The normalizing values of chondrite are from Sun and McDonough (1989).
103
The widely distributed evaporate sulfates in the LanpingSimao Basin, whose δ34S values are from 10‰ to 26‰ (Xue et
al., 2007). Thermal decomposition of the organic matters will
generate considerable strong reducing materials which functions as catalyzer and can make sulfate reducted to S2-.
4.3
Source of Metals
Oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions for ten sulfidebearing quartzs from the Xinzhai deposit are listed in Table 4
and Fig. 12. The measured δ18O values of quartzes are from
9.4‰ to 12.1‰. The δ18O values of the ore-forming fluid are
calculated by the quartz-water fractionation equations and the
mineralization temperature referenced by the homogenization
Table 2 Major (wt.%) and trace element (ppm) compositions of the
Xinzhai deposit
Sample No.
xz-21
xz-2
xz-2
xz-24
xz-2
xz-2
xz-27
SiO2
79.5
87.2
81.6
92.2
84.6
84.4
85.0
TiO2
0.14
0.08
0.24
0.08
0.25
0.25
0.23
Al2O3
3.69
4.34
4.43
4.83
4.42
4.23
4.35
Fe2O3
3.24
0.71
0.71
1.35
1.30
0.71
0.74
FeO
0.12
0.12
0.16
0.45
0.46
0.12
0.15
MnO
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.96
MgO
0.91
0.18
0.40
0.68
0.71
0.32
0.21
CaO
10.2
1.88
3.65
0.01
1.82
2.77
1.90
Na2O
1.11
1.05
1.21
0.12
1.16
1.11
1.13
K2O
0.75
1.83
1.83
0.36
2.78
1.92
1.78
P2O5
0.17
0.12
0.15
0.03
0.10
0.14
0.13
LOI
0.42
1.78
4.69
0.13
1.79
3.38
2.91
Total
100.2
99.3
99.1
100.2
99.4
99.4
99.49
TFe+MgO
4.27
1.01
1.27
2.48
2.47
1.15
1.10
0.051
Al2O3/SiO2
0.046
0.05
0.05
0.052
0.05
0.05
La
26.7
12.1
10.3
22.4
14.2
17.0
25.8
Ce
51.7
24.6
20.9
45.4
31.5
35.7
51.0
Pr
5.07
2.46
2.10
4.68
3.12
3.79
6.21
Nd
17.9
8.70
7.30
16.0
11.1
13.8
24.4
Sm
3.80
1.66
1.44
3.19
2.37
2.71
4.83
Eu
0.81
0.41
0.31
0.74
0.64
0.68
1.13
Gd
3.56
1.66
1.17
2.63
2.52
2.64
3.94
Tb
0.54
0.24
0.17
0.40
0.41
0.41
0.71
Dy
3.24
1.47
0.97
2.34
2.47
2.31
3.97
Ho
0.63
0.30
0.19
0.49
0.51
0.45
0.73
Er
1.72
0.81
0.49
1.42
1.43
1.25
2.14
Tm
0.25
0.12
0.08
0.23
0.21
0.19
0.34
Yb
1.64
0.75
0.56
1.46
1.31
1.21
2.18
Lu
0.26
0.12
0.09
0.24
0.20
0.18
0.35
ΣREE
117.8
55.4
46.0
101.6
71.9
82.3
127.7
LREE
105.9
49.9
42.3
92.41
62.9
73.6
113.3
HREE
11.84
5.47
3.72
9.21
9.06
8.64
14.36
LREE/HRE
8.95
9.13
11.3
10.03
6.95
8.53
7.89
δEu
0.67
0.76
0.73
0.78
0.80
0.78
0.79
δCe
1.09
1.11
1.10
1.09
1.16
1.09
0.99
104
Jianguo Huang, Tao Ren and Haijun Zou
Figure 10. Frequency histogram of δ34S values for sulfide minerals from the
Xinzhai deposit.
temperatures (average value of 200 oC) of fluid inclusions from
Jinding Pb-Zn deposit. The calculated δ18OH2O values are from
-2.3‰ to 0.4‰. The δD values of fluid inclusion water in
quartz are from -99‰ to -78‰. In Fig. 12, all samples are
plotted in the Lanping-Simao, Youjiang and Alberta Basin fluid
field. Therefore, hydrogen and oxygen isotopic compositions in
Xinzhai deposit indicate that the ore-forming fluid is basin fluid,
which occupied and flowed through the pores of sediments in
the basin (Zhang et al., 2015). It includes fluids from the interior of the basin (formation water or hydrocarbons) and fluids
from the exterior of the basin (meteoric water or metamorphic
fluid in the basement of the basin). Thus, basin fluid is usually
mixed fluid. Identification of a large amount of organic matter
in Jinding, Jinman and Baiyangping deposit further indicates
that the ore-forming fluid in Lanping-Simao Basin may be
mainly of the basin fluid.
Figure 11. Summary of the δ34S values for sulfide for sandstone-hosted Cu-Zn-Pb deposits in Lanping-Simao Basin.
Table 3 Sulfur isotope compositions in the Xinzhai copper deposit
Sample
Orebody
Mineral
δ34S (‰)
Xz01
Lamellar orebody
Chalcopyrite
-3.2
Xz02
Vein orebody
Chalcopyrite
-5.5
Xz03
Lamellar orebody
Chalcopyrite
-7.1
Xz04
Vein orebody
Chalcopyrite
-4.3
Xz05
Lamellar orebody
Chalcopyrite
-3.7
Xz06
Vein orebody
Chalcopyrite
-10.8
Xz07
Vein orebody
Tetrahedrite
-11.6
Xz08
Lamellar orebody
Tetrahedrite
-9.8
Xz09
Lamellar orebody
Tetrahedrite
-1.8
Xz10
Vein orebody
Tetrahedrite
-6.8
Xz11
Lamellar orebody
Tetrahedrite
-7.9
Figure 12. Hydrogen and oxygen isotope diagrams of ore-forming fluid in
Xz12
Vein orebody
Tetrahedrite
-10.6
Xinzhai deposit. The basin fluid values of Youjiang and Alberta Basin are
from Wang et al., 2002; and basin fluid values of Lanping-Simao Basin are
from Zhang et al., 2015.
Genesis of Xinzhai Sandstone-Type Copper Deposit in Northern Laos: Geological and Geochemical Evidences
Table 4 Oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions of ore-bearing
quartz samples in the Xinzhai copper deposit
Sample
Mineral
Temperature
δ18OV-SMOW
δDV-SMOW
δ18OH2O
(ºC)
(‰)
(‰)
(‰)
D1
Quartz
200
11.4
-95
-0.3
D2
Quartz
200
10.8
-90
-0.9
D3
Quartz
200
12.1
-87
0.4
D4
Quartz
200
9.4
-91
-2.3
D5
Quartz
200
9.9
-78
-1.8
D6
Quartz
200
10.2
-87
-1.5
D7
Quartz
200
11.2
-99
-0.5
D8
Quartz
200
10.3
-87
-1.4
D9
Quartz
200
11.2
-82
-0.5
D10
Quartz
200
9.9
-91
-1.8
For the source of metals, many scholar works have been
reported. Some of them believed that the metals in the LanpingSimao Basin were derived from magma (He et al., 2005; Wang,
2004; Wang and He, 2003; Xue et al., 2003). Other researches
considered that metallogenic metals mainly came from underlying strata (Tang et al., 2013; Xu and Zhou, 2004; Hu et al.,
2000; Meng, 1997; Wen et al., 1995). However, Cu abundance
in the Jurassic to the Paleogenic strata in Lanping-Simao Basin
varies between 10.4 ppm to 33.58 ppm, far lower than the earth
crust content (63 ppm). Therefore, strata are not a metals source
for deposits in the region (Xue et al., 2002). Igneous rocks have
not been found near the Xinzhai deposit, and we exclude the
magma source. Combination of geological and geochemical
evidences, we initially think that the metals in the Xinzhai deposit originated from the basement of the basin. Several deep
faults movement have developed along basin are the channels
and drive force for ore-forming fluid migration (Wang X H et
al., 2011; Wang et al., 2009; Li et al., 1997; Yin et al., 1990).
4.4
Mineralization
Direct dating of ore-related minerals from Xinzhai deposit
has been proven difficult, largely due to the fine-grained textures of the ores and the lack of suitable alteration minerals.
Some deposits occurring in the Lanping-Simao Basin have
been dated with various methods, and may provide a reference
for the Xinzhai deposit. Metallogenic ages of 29 to 30 Ma for
Baiyangping Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu deposit, 54 to 58 Ma for Jinman Cu
deposit and 23 to 68 Ma for Jinding deposit have been obtained
(Tang et al., 2013; Wang X H et al., 2011; Xue et al., 2007; Liu
et al., 2003). In addition, Nanyong deposit in Laos, about 45
km southeast of the Xinzhai deposit is hosted in sandstones of
the Lower Paleogene Mengyejing Formation (E1m). The mineralization must have taken place after sedimentation of
Mengyejing Formation; the metallogenic age should be
younger than 57 Ma. The age of mineralization at Xinzhai has
not been dated directly with precision, but it is also likely to be
slightly younger than Mengyejing Formation (57 Ma). This
age also falls in the range of mineralization events elsewhere
in the Lanping-Simao Basin. All of metallogenic ages are significantly related to Himalayan Movement. In summary,
105
Xinzhai copper deposit might have formed in Early to Middle
Himalayan Period.
Since the Cenozoic, the strong collision between the India
Block and the Eurasian Block has led to the Lanping-Simao
Basin shortening of hundreds of kilometers from east to west
side (He et al., 2009; Hou et al., 2008b; Wen et al., 1995). Accompany the collision a series of nearly east-west-trending
faults and fissures was developed within the Jurassic and Cretaceous strata. Then large-scale strike slip fault system formed
in the eastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which superimposed on the thrust-nappe structure and created new migration channels for regional ore-forming fluid (Zhang et al., 2010;
Hou et al., 2008b).
Three genetic models were proposed about sandstone
copper deposit: (1) Fluid mixing model (Beales and Jackson,
1966), (2) sulfate reduction model (Barton, 1967) and (3) anadiagenesis and reworking model (Qiu et al., 2017; Wang et al.,
2017; Hu et al., 2013). Orebody-hosting sandstone is gray in
color from Xinzhai deposit, indicating that an intense alteration
caused by reducing fluid present in the mineralization process.
The relatively small sulfide crystals and surrounding minerals
close cemented with sulfide also indicate the characteristics of
the rapid deposition. These geological features support sulfate
reduction model. The hypothesis is also reinforced by the organic matter-riched stratum and sulfur isotopic evidences. The
Cu-rich basin fluid from deep reservoir migrated upward along
the contemporaneous fault and into the high-permeability sandstone (Huang et al., 2015). Organic matter acted as a reducing
barrier mediating the metal accumulation from upwards migrating metal-bearing brines. And bacterial sulfate reduction
realized at the same time. S2- is one of the products in this
chemical reaction, which is essential anion for sulfide. This
metallic supersaturated fluid was triggered and the precipitation
of sulfides started. The Lamellar orebodies formed when the
ore-forming fluid migrated along with inner layer faults or
fissures. The vein-type orebodies formed when the ore-forming
fluid migrated along tensile faults.
5
CONCLUSIONS
(1) The copper minerals of the Xinzhai sandstone-type
copper deposit in the northern region of Laos include tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite, azurite and malachite. The mineral grain
maturity and the structural maturity of sandstone from the
Huakaizuo Formation are concluded as the lacustrine facies
that is identified as a passive continental margin setting by its
geological and geochemical features.
(2) The δ34S values of the sulfides vary from -11.6‰ to
-1.8‰, indicating that sulfur is derived from bacterial sulfate
reduction (BSR).
(3) The δ18O and δD values of ore-bearing quartz samples
indicate that basin fluid is ore-forming fluid.
(4) This genesis mechanism of the Xinzhai deposit is proposed, which can better explain the formation of this large
sandstone Cu deposit.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to the editors and the anonymous
reviewers for their useful comments. The manuscript benefited
106
Jianguo Huang, Tao Ren and Haijun Zou
from thoughtful comments by Prof. Xiaoyong Yang of University of Science and Technology of China and Prof.
Runsheng Han of Kunming University of Science and Technology. This study was jointly supported by the project of the
National Science Foundation of China (No. 41663006) and the
innovation team of KMUST ore-forming dynamics and prediction of concealed deposits (2008). The final publication is
available at Springer via https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583018-0861-x.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6724.2007.tb01020.x
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