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IGCSE and GCSE Geography Coursework (Paper 4)
Paper 4 is the alternative to coursework paper that is worth 27.5% of your final IGCSE grade. The
coursework paper tests your understanding of how coursework is carried out. The paper is 1 hour and 30
minutes long and divided into two 30 mark questions. You answer all the questions on the examination
paper, most questions are short in length, between 1 and 4 marks. The paper requires a combination of
knowledge and skills. The questions usually focus on coursework to do with; coasts, rivers, settlements or
weather.
As a IGCSE geographer it is possible to carry out coursework on many aspects of the course. Possible
topics and areas of study may include:
Rivers
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Changes in river velocity from source to mouth
Changes in load (shape and size) from source to mouth
Changes in channel depth, width, cross-section and wetted perimeter from source to mouth
Changes in discharge from source to mouth
Changes across a meanders cross section
Changes in river gradient from source to mouth
Changes in valley size and gradient from source to mouth
Changes in land use a long a river
Changes in pollution along a rivers' course (you need proper equipment for this)
Coasts
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Changes in vegetation (cover and variety) moving inland
Changes in beach profile and sand dune profile
Speed of longshore drift
Changes in land use
Changes in defences (compare to land use)
Changes in beach or dune material (size or shape)
Settlements
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Changes in land use
Changes in traffic (maybe CBD to rural-urban fringe)
Changes in pedestrians
Number and type of tourists
Changes in the quality of the environment or pollution levels (may look at the impact of industry)
Changes in globalisation
Changes in cost of products
Comparison to Burgess or Hoyt Model
Changes in wealth or population density (will have to use some secondary data)
Sphere of influences of settlements or services
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Weather
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Changes in temperature throughout the day or between seasons
Changes in rainfall
Changes in humidity
Changes in hours of sunshine or cloud cover
Changes in wind speed and wind direction
Procedure involved when conducting fieldwork investigations
𝐻𝑌𝑃𝑂𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑆𝐼 FORMULATION
PLAN THE FIELDWORK
COLLECT THE DATA
PRESENT THE DATA
ANALYSE AND INTERPRET THE DATA
MAKE CONCLUSIONS
EVALUATE YOUR INVESTIGATION
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Formulating aims and hypotheses
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a statement / theory intended to be tested. It can be proved or disproved by testing.
Factors to consider when deciding on a hypothesis to study.
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING:
- It should be able to be done in a safe and accessible area.
Choose a topic that will provide opportunities to measure a variety of data, so that
different data collection and presentation techniques can be used.
- It should be able to be completed on time by the available number of people in the group.
- It should be likely to succeed.
- It should be done using the equipment available.
NB : A hypothesis should always be SMART. If your hypotheses are not SMART then it can be
impossible to prove or disprove them.
S = Specific
M = Measurable
A = Achievable
R = Realistic
T = Time-related
SMART hypotheses may include:
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The width of a river will increase as you move from the source to the mouth
The amount of traffic will increase as you move from the rural-urban fringe to the CBD
The hottest part of the day will be between 1200 and 1400.
PLANNING THE FIELDWORK
Suggest how the students could prepare for the fieldwork tasks before making their
measurements so that their results would be as accurate as possible.
What sampling method should be used.
What health and safety considerations are there.
Should permission to visit be requested.n
What equipment will be needed?
Decide on the number of students for each task and number of groups.
Health and safety considerations..
Do a pilot study.
Agree methodology / what measurements to take.
Practice fieldwork techniques / learn how to use equipment / learn how to measure everything
Test equipment and make make sure equipment works.
Seek permission from the landowners.
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HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Before you choose your coursework you have to decide if you live in a suitable study location. Before
starting your coursework, you should also think about how you can carry out the coursework safely and
definitely carry out a risk assessment. You can make your coursework safer by doing the following:
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Protection from the weather (waterproof jacket, umbrella, hat, suncream)
Always carry out coursework in groups
Always tell an adult or teacher where you area carrying out coursework
Always carry a mobile phone with you / contact phone numbers for home and school.
Never do coursework near a river or the sea without an adult or teacher and without them checking that it
is safe
Carry out coursework in day light and wear reflective clothes
Check that your study area is safe.
Don't display valuables making you more vulnerable to crime e.g. if you have a camera or a phone keep it
out of sight
Pilot Survey:
It is done before an investigation, to test the methods of data collection to be used.
It involves spending a small amount of time testing your methods of data collection.
Importance
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It is very important that you test your data collection forms to ensure that you ask all the
right questions and your collection forms contain all the right categories.
If a method of sampling is used, to ensure everyone knows how to select the sample
points accurately.
If you are using equipment, to ensure all the equipment work and can everyone in the
group use it correctly.
So that errors can be discovered and put right before the real study.
It is too expensive and too time consuming to going and collect data a second time, if
you missed it the first time.
Sampling
Sampling is used because it saves time and effort. To study the entire population would be impossible.
Therefore it will probably be necessary to only investigate a sample.
A sample is simply a section or part of the entire study area or study population, where population means
the whole of whatever is being sampled.
It is a group selected from a larger group, e.g. if you wanted to study the shopping habits of all 1000
households in a suburban area by using doorstep questionnaire, it would be a huge task to visit every
household. You select a group that will be representative of the total population.
The two main types of sampling are; systematic and random.
Systematic Sampling:
This is when you collect data in a regular pattern.
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For example you may ask a questionnaire to every 10th person that passes you, or you might only
record the land use every 50 metres or every 5th building.
When recording changes in river depth, beach profile or changes in vegetation you may only take a
sample every 5 metres.
When using an ordinance survey map it might mean analyzing grid squares at regular intervals.
Random Sampling:
This is when every area or person in your study area has an equal chance of being selected or asked.
Random sampling can be done by pulling names out of a hat, by using a random number table or a
random number generator on a calculator.
TYPES OF SAMPLING
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Systematic
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Sampling
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Advantages
Disadvantages
Because you are following a 
pattern you will get better
coverage of an area or sample
group.
There is no bias in who gets
selected.
It is very simple to understand
and carry out.
Quicker and easier to do than
random sampling.
There is some bias (subjectivity). You decide how often
to take a sample.
Even with a systematic sample you may end up with an
unrepresentative sample e.g. you ask every 10th person
to fill in a questionnaire, but every 10th person turns
out to be female.
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Random 
Sampling
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Every person or every
 Results may be completely random and not
location/place has a completely representative.
equal chance of being selected
 Can use more time and effort when points are spread
It is quick and simple
irregularly.
Stratified sampling:
It is a good method to use because it ensures that the sampling is as representative of the
population or area as possible.
Because both systematic and random sampling can give you an unrepresentative sample, if you have
some secondary data that allows you to rank your sample group you can then carry out stratified
sampling.
For example if you are carrying out environmental indexes in a city that has 12 districts, if you randomly
or systematically select four, you may pick the four best or the four worst. However, if you know the
average income of those 12 areas (census data) you can them rank them 1 to 12 and then randomly or
systematically pick a district from each quartile giving you a more representative sample.
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Deciding on the size of the sample
1 To be a fair test, the sample must be chosen without bias, this means that every individual in the
population must have an equal chance of being included in the investigation. The investigator
must not choose which people should be asked to answer questions.
2 The larger the sample, the more reliable the results are likely to be.
A small sample could give a misleading picture of the total population.
A sample of 30 is usually sufficient for reliable results to be obtained.
DATA COLLECTION
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Types of data (primary and secondary, subjective and objective)
Designing a recording sheet
Counting methods
Sampling
Bipolar surveys
Measuring
questionnaires
Surveys
observations
Objective data (quantitative)
- it is measured or counted.
- Quantitative data is very easy to present and analyse. Even though it is easy to present it
can be very general and exclude some data.
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Subjective (qualitative)
- is obtained using judgement or opinion of a person.
- This is when your personal opinion has an influence on the outcome of the data
collection.
- This is is more written data or even photographs or pictures.
Why is objective data better than subjective data?
Because objective data is in numerical form, its correct provided it has been collected properly, while
subjective data depends on what people think, and people can be wrong.
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Primary data
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Any data that is personally collected by you
. Primary data may include traffic counts, pedestrian counts, environmental indexes,
questionnaires or land use surveys.
Secondary data
Any data that has been collected by someone else.
- Secondary data collection maybe found in books, on the internet, in academic journals,
etc. Probably the most useful secondary data is census data.
Census: The census is a survey carried out by nearly all countries every 10 years. The
census is a very detailed survey that is compulsory for everyone to fill in. It includes a lot
of data including family size, income, house size and car ownership.
Primary data
Advantages
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Secondary data
It is up to date (current)
 You can study temporal changes e.g. how population has
changed over a number of years
You know how the data has been
collected i.e. what technique
 It can be quicker, especially if the data is on the internet
It only includes data that is relevant to You can study a larger area
your coursework
 It may include data that you can not obtain personally
It only covers your study area
e.g. salaries
It is collected in the format that you want
 The data may include some personal bias
 It is out of date, especially if it has been printed in a
Disadvantages
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Data collection can be time consuming
It can be expensive to travel to placesto
collect data
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It is hard to study temporal changes
Some data might be unavailable or too
dangerous to collect
Only possible to cover a small area 
book.
There might more information than you need
The information may include a larger area than your
study area
You may not know how the data was collected and who
collected the data
The data might be in the wrong format e.g. in a graph and
not raw figures
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Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be oral or written to gain information from an individual or a group of individuals.
When carrying out a questionnaire or interview you must do the following:
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Decide on your questions (what do you need to find out and what type of question are you going to ask)
Whether to do the questions orally or give them in written form (you may have to think about translations)
How you are going to pilot (test) your questions
How you are going to record the answers (record them, write them down, trying to remember is
unreliable)
How you are going to sample (random, systematic, stratified)
Remember that you are representing yourself and the school - be polite
Remember people don't have to answer questions and they may be sensitive about some e.g. age
groups and income groups.
When actually designing your questions you have two real choice; open or closed:
Open ended questions: These are questions that have infinite numbers of answers. The respondent has
no restriction on how they might answer e.g. What have you enjoyed about Wise Owl?
You get the respondents personal opinion. They are not limited in their response.
Closed questions: There is a limited number of responses. These questions are often multiple choice in
style e.g. What have you enjoyed about Wise Owl? A: The people B: The weather C: The beaches D:
The Colonial Villages E: Other
Characteristics of a good questionnaire:
 Has a limited number of questions that take no more than a few minutes to answer.
 Avoids questions that are too personal.
 Begins with questions that are quickest to answer and leaves more difficult questions at
the end.
 Reminds the questioner to thank respondents for their cooperation.
 Follows a logical sequence so that respondents can see where the questionnaire is going.
 Carefully worded so that respondends are clear about the meaning of each question.
The disadvantages of questionnaires are:
 Many people will not want to cooperate for a variety of reasons: Some people will simply
be too busy, others may be uneasy about talking to strangers, while some people may be
concerned about the possibility of identity theft.
 People do not always provide correct accurate answers in surveys because some may
give answers that they think the questioner wants to hear or shows them in the best light.
A good questionnaire
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A bad questionnaire
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Observation
Examples of using observations as an enquiry skill to collect data include the recording of land-use in an
urban area or observations of river or coastal features. Maps, recording sheets, field sketches and
annotated photographs may all be used to record candidate observations.
DESIGNING A RECORDING SHEET
It should have the following:
A title
Headings for date
Time
Location
Name of recorder
DESCRIBING THE METHODS USED TO COLLECT DATA
In a real piece of coursework, you would explain how all your data was collected. In your description you
would probably contain the following information:
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Date, time and location of data collection
Group size
Description and copy of data collection forms used e.g. questionnaires or counts
Explanation of how the forms were used e.g. sample size, count period, count technique, etc.
Description of equipment and an explanation of its use.
You may also be asked about how your data collection could be
improved. Improvements may be made in some of the following ways:
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Do counts more regularly e.g. every one or two hours
Do counts, surveys or indexes in more locations
Do counts, surveys and indexes on different days of the week (including weekends)
Get two groups doing the same survey, index or count so that an average may be taken
Data Presentation
Data presentation techniques:
This should include, various types of graphs, maps and diagrams for example line graphs, bar graphs,
divided bar graphs, histograms, flow diagrams, wind rose graphs, isoline maps, scatter graphs, pie
graphs, triangular graphs and radial graphs.
If you are asked to complete a graph or table, all the data will be there for you so read the data carefully
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and complete the graph/table/diagram carefully.
You may also be asked the advantages (strengths) and disadvantages (weaknesses) of a particular data
presentation technique. Strengths and weaknesses may include:
Strengths (advantages)
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Shows spatial distribution e.g. dot map
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Shows variations between regions and countries e.g.
choropleth map
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Visually interesting (interesting colours, symbols) 
Very bold and clear
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Easy to understand
Clearly shows trends and anomallies
Weaknesses (disadvantages)
Can disguise intra-region or intra-country variations e.g.
choropleth map
Hard to see trends and anomalies
Very complicated to read
Symbols take up to much room
Data Analysis and interpretation
Analysis
Candidates should be able to describe the patterns in data presented in graphs and tables of results.
Reference to relevant geographical knowledge and understanding is often required in the interpretation of
the data. Practice of this skill will improve success in Paper 4 questions.
You may be asked to do some basic data analysis of graphs, tables, maps, photographs or sketches.
When doing data analysis remember the following:
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Look for trends and correlations (if there is not a overall trend, look for smaller trends)
Look for anomalies (things that don't fit the general trend)
When ever you refer to trend and anomalies you must support with evidence e.g. facts and figures from
graph or table.
Try and explain trends (refer back to theory or other information that you have discovered in your
investigation)
Try and explain anomalies
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Conclusion and Evaluation
Conclusion: This is basically a summary of your investigation. If you are asked to write a conclusion
remember the following:
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Refer back to original hypothesis
Use some data to support your findings
Refer to theory (if mentioned in introduction) - do your findings agree or disagree with theory
State what you have learnt from your investigation
Evaluation: In an evaluation you state what went well in your research, but also how it can be improved
or extended in the future. If you are asked to write an evaluation, think about the following:
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What went well (keep this brief)
Any problems with data collection e.g. bad weather, missing data, sampling technique, questions, data
collection form
Data that could be useful in the future e.g. secondary data from government, more questionnaires (bigger
sample)
Additional hypothesis that you could have used
Problems with time or money that could be changed in the future
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fieldwork Equipment
Geography fieldwork equipment can be used to measure virtually anything, but is most commonly used to take measurements along
a river or at a beach. Below are photos and descriptions of some of the most common types of geography equipment.
EQUIPMENT PHOTO
NAME
DESCRIPTION
Quadrat
A quadrat is normally used for measuring vegetation cover. A
quadrat is normally 50cm2 and divided into 100 small squares. By
placing the quadrat over an area of vegetation you can calculate the
area covered in vegetation or calculate the percentages of different
vegetation types. Quadrats are also sometimes used for randomly
selecting river load or beach material. You can put the quadrat over
the area you want to sample and then using a random number table
or calculator, select a square to collect the sample from.
Tape Measure
These are used for measuring medium distances (commonly they go
up to 30 or 50 metres). They are very good for measuring the width
of rivers, where one student can stand on either bank.
Metre Rule
A metre rule is used for measuring short distances. Commonly they
are used for measuring the depth of rivers. Plastic metre rules are
great for this because they float if you drop them.
Trundle Wheel
These are used for measuring much longer distances. You walk with
a trundle wheel in front of you, each click represents one metre.
You can sometimes alter trundle wheel so that they click every 10
centimeters.
Callipers
Callipers are used to measure the width, depth or length of small
objects like load. You place the object to be measured inside the
calliper and then close the calliper and read off the measurement
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(normally centimetres or millimetres) because the object is small.
Callipers are great for recording changes in a river's load or changes
in beach material.
Clinometer
Clinometers are used for measuring slope angle (gradient). They are
normally used in conjunction with ranging poles. You place one
ranging pole at the top of a slope and one at the bottom. You then
look through the clinometer measuring the angle from one ranging
pole to another ranging pole. To get an accurate angle, you normally
take an up reading and a down reading.
Ranging Pole
Ranging poles, look like a javelin and are normally used for
measuring slope angle with a clinometer. However, they can also be
used for measuring things like the depth of a river.
Metal Chain
Metal chains are very good at measuring the wetted perimiter of
rivers. The wetted perimiter is the total length of the bed and the
two banks. Metal chains are good at measuring this because they
sink and adopt the shape of the wetted perimiter. Once your chain
has adopted the shape you can then pull the chain out of the river
and measure its length.
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Flowmeter
Flowmeters are used for measuring the velocity of rivers. They have
a small propeller which you place just under the surface of the
water. Depending on the speed of the propeller a small digital read
out then gives the speed of the river. If you don't have a flowmeter
you can still measure river velocity by using a floating object e.g.
table tennis ball, a stop watch and tape measure. You can measure
out a distance e.g. 10 metres and then time how long it takes the
table tennis ball to travel 10 metres. You can then use the formula
speed = distance/time to calculate velocity. This latter method is not
as accurate because the table tennis ball will be slowed because of
friction with the air.
Stopwatch
Stopwatches are used in lots of different data collection techniques
e.g. traffic counts and measuring river velocity. Stopwatches simply
measure a period of time.
Compass
Compasses are very simply used for working out direction. They
might be used for measuring the direction of a wind vane or the
direction of a river.
Gradeometer
Gradeometers are great for measuring the angle of small slopes.
You place the gradeometer on the slope, as the legs adjust the slope
you can simply read the slope angle, using the protractor in the top
corner.
Roundness
Index
Roundness index is basically used to measure the shape of an
object. There are a number of different roundness index, but most
go from a scale of very angular to very rounded. Roundness index
can be used to look at changes in a river's load or changes in beach
material.
Pebbleometer
A very basic device for measuring the size and shape of material
found on a beach or in a river.
Infiltrometer
Infiltrometers are used to measure infiltration rates of different
surfaces. You basically place the infiltrometer on a surface (making
sure the seal is secure) and then fill it with water and time how long
the water takes to infiltrate.
Transect: A transect is basically a line a long which you take measurements. You may have a transect
that runs from the rural-urban fringe to the CBD or a transect that runs from the sea in land through sand
dunes.
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Land use
Land use survey are a very common form of data collection. When carrying out a land use survey you
first need to think of appropriate categories e.g. restaurants, clothes shops, banks, houses, etc. You then
then need to decide whether you are just looking at total numbers or spatial distribution. If you are just
looking at total numbers then you can make a simple tally chart, if you look at spatial distribution you need
a base map and an appropriate key. When doing a land use survey you also need to decide if you are
surveying every building or just taking a sample.
Land use Tally
Land Use
Tally Total
Clothes shops (men and women) e.g. GAP or ZARA IIII 4 (four)
Banks and building societies e.g. HSBC
II
2 (two)
Restaurants (cafes and restaurants) e.g. Starbucks
III
3 (three)
Shoe shops
I
1 (one)
Other
III
3 (three)
Land Use Map
Land Use
Key
Clothes shops
CS
Banks and Building societies BB
Restaurants and cafes
RC
Shoe shops
SS
Other
O
Blank Map To Carry Out Survey
Photographs are an increasingly common form of data presentation. Using photos is now a lot easier in
the digital era when you can crop, manipulate and annotate photographs. However, a common mistake is
still to include photos that aren't relevant to answer your hypothesis. Many people include photographs
that aren't even referred to in their text and are not properly labelled.
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Advantages of Photographs
Disadvantages of Photographs
They are more accurate than field sketches 
They can be good for showing data collection
techniques e.g. measuring a river's load
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They can support data collection findings e.g.
they can show an example of a poor
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environment
They can show temporal changes, especially if
you can find historical photos.
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You can annotate and label them.
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People often include photos that are not relevant e.g. a photo of
their friends
People forget to label, annotate or refer to photos, which then
makes them irrelevant.
People often only photograph the nice things e.g. pretty view and
forget the more ugly areas that are just as important e.g. area of
pollution
They can often contains too much information e.g. people and
vehicles
Because they are two dimensional, depth can be deceptive
Counts
Pedestrian and traffic counts are two significant examples of this enquiry skill.
Appropriate methods for recording the counts should be discussed including the layout of recording
sheets, instructions and the necessary information required to identify the sheet following the count (i.e.
time, date, location and name of recorder).
The two most common types of count are traffic count and pedestrian count.
When designing traffic and pedestrian counts keep the forms simple. Have an area for the tally and an
area to add up the total.
It also is very important to have a place to mark down the date, time and location of the count. This is
important for when you return to the classroom and start data presentation and making comparisons.
Whenever doing a count you need to find a safe location and carry it out for 10 minutes.
If you are comparing different locations you should and do the counts at the same time, this
makes comparisons fair. For example if you did one traffic count at 08.00am when everyone was
travelling to work and one at 11.00am when everyone is at work then the comparison is unfair.
Each count should be long enough to give a representative sample for reliable data to be
collected but not so long that students lose concentration or become bored.
Advantages of tally charts
Tallies are usually used when doing counts because they are quick and simple.
A tally chart is quick to count as groups of five are made by making the 5th mark across the first 4.
Planning a traffic count inoder to obtain reliable results
Plan:
When to do count / do at same time
Where to do count / location of counting points
How long to do each count for
How many different counting points to have
Individuals or pairs/groups
How many times to do count per day
Whether to do count on same day/more than one day / weekday/ weekend
Carry out
Describing how a traffic count is carried out
Traffic flows vary in and out of town centre on different main roads.
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Procedure
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4
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Decide on the positions where the counts are to be taken, making sure they are spread
evenly throughout the town centre. All counts must be done at the same time to ensure a
fair comparison.
At each site, at least one student must be on either side of the road – one counting the
the traffic moving into the town and the other counting the traffic moving out of the town
centre.
Use a stopwatch to time the counts (start and stopping) at 10 minutes would be
appropriate.
The counts should be done a minimum of 3 times spaced throughout the day, rush hour
in the morning , lunch break and before the rush home to include a range of flows.
Record the results on a recording sheet and present the data collected example use an
isoline map to display the information.
traffic recording sheet
DATE:
TIME:
LOCATION:
Inbound or outbound vehicles:
Name of recorder :
Mode of
transport
Cars
Bikes
Buses and
coaches
Lorries
(trucks)
Taxis
Other
TOTAL
Tally
Total (add up your tally after
you have done the data
collection
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WHY IS A FLOW LINE USED
Show direction of movement
Shows number of people / how many there are
Easy to interpret / clear picture / can easily see pattern
Suggest improvements to the data collection methods used in the students’
investigation.
Surveys done more frequently during the day
More survey points to give greater coverage
Surveys done on different work days to see if there is a consistent pattern
Comparison with survey done on a non-work day such as weekend
Double up on students/groups doing survey, to minimise tallying errors
State two other features of traffic in towns that could be investigated at the four
traffic survey sites.
Speed of traffic flow on key roads
Occupancy of vehicles
Noise of traffic
Atmospheric pollution
Types of vehicles using different roads e.g. bicycles.
Place of origin
NOT “accidents/traffic jams or congestion/pedestrian traffic/public transport”
Bi polar surveys
Investigating the environmental quality of an area and the quality of life.
A range of scores is used. Indexes normally use bi-polar scoring. This simply means the score goes from
negative to positive with 0 being the average. Negative figures show the extent of undesirable aspects.
Positive figures show the extent of good aspects.
Indexes are quite subjective (one person might think one crisp packet is a lot of litter while enough might
think it is hardly ant litter), therefore, to keep the indexes consistent for comparisons you should do them
in groups and one group should do all the same index e.g. group 1 only does environmental indexes. Like
with counts, it is very important that you write down the date, time and location of the index and that
where possible indexes are done at the same time.
Environmental index: This is a type of survey that looks at the quality of the environment. Your survey
may focus on any aspect of the environment e.g. air or noise pollution, greenery, litter, graffiti.
Globalisation index: This is a type of survey that looks at how globalised a settlement or a section of a
settlement is. The survey make look at any aspect of globalisation including language, signage,
businesses and people.
With both environmental and globalisation indexes you use bi-polar scoring. Once you have completed
the index you add up the marks to give an area an overall score.
22
DATE:
TIME:
LOCATION:
-2 (minus
two)
-1 (minus
one)
0
+1 (plus
(zero) one)
Lots of litter
*
*
Lots of noise e.g. cars, factories
and people
Broken windows and graffiti
No greenery, only concrete
+2 (plus
two)
No litter
No noise (silence)
*
*
Newly painted and new
windows
Lots of trees, parks and
green areas
TOTAL SCORE = 2
Planning the survey
1. Choose an appropriate survey site and location. They might be along a transect from the town
centre to the outskirts of the town or they might be chosen according to known differences in
quality of the town’s residential areas.
2. Select which characteristic of the environment to measure as indicators of environmental quality.
3. Decide on the range of scores to use.
4. Prepare a recording sheet for use in the field.
5. Decide on the time to conduct the survey.
Conducting the survey
1. At each site students in the group should use the environmental quality reference sheet to
determine and record a score for each characteristic.
2. Record the scores for each characteristic.
3. After recording the scores, they should be totaled to give an overall quality score that can be
compared with those for other areas.
4. Rank the survey sites according to their scores. The place with the highest score is perceived to
have the highest quality environment.
DESCRIBE OTHER METHODS OTHER THAN A QUESTIONNAIRE THAT COULD BE USED TO
INVESTIGATE HOUSING AND SERVICE PROVISION
Talk to people who live in squatter settlement / interview them / ask question
Take photos (of different houses / services to show varying conditions)
Collect secondary data from internet / local government records / census
Make a blog to get peoples’ opinions about housing / services
Make a podcast / video to show housing / services
Draw field sketches (of houses / services) and label them to show
conditions
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Do a housing quality survey / bi-polar survey
Draw a land use map of services / do a land use survey
Count / tally different types of services / record different services
Count / tally number of big houses / brick-built houses
Observe / look at / make notes on / write a description of / walk round something e.g.
housing conditions
Describe a method the students could carry out to investigate the sphere of
influence of the CBD.
Examples
Questionnaire/survey/interview/ask questions
Sampling methodology to select people to complete questionnaire/ choosing areas to
carry out survey
Questions such as:
In which area do you live? / Which area have you come from?
How far have you travelled?
What method of transport have you used today?
How frequently do you come here?
Why do you come here?
24
Business buildings are taller than residential buildings.
Describe how the students could test this hypothesis. In
your answer refer to how the students
would do the following:
• collect data;
• record data;
• display data;
• make a conclusion.
25
go to an area of residential and business buildings
Three different methods may be described:
Count number of storeys OR measure distance from
building and measure angle to top of
building to calculate height OR look at plans / records /
documents that show height – 1 mark
Calculate average number of storey / average height
Record number of storeys / height of buildings on
transect diagram / map / plan / chart / table
Plot results on a bar / pie / divided bar graph
Compare results / averages to see if they support
hypothesis
WEATHER STUDIES
Hypothesis 1: Temperature increases as atmospheric
pressure increases.
Hypothesis 2: Rainfall decreases as atmospheric pressure
increases.
Why is taking weather readings at the same time each day
important?
To get comparable / fair / consistent / reliable reading
So results not affected by change during the day
26
Give three advantages of using a digital measuring instrument
The recording instrument shown in Photograph B (Insert) is a sunshine recorder.
Describe how students would use a sunshine recorder to measure the amount of sunlight in
24 hours.
27
Describe how the students would make their measurements
using the rain gauge.
Take collecting jar / container out of casing
Record level of water in jar or container / measure amount of
water in jar / pour water
into measuring tube
Pour water from overflow container into measuring cylinder
Measure every day / daily / every 24 hours
Measure at same time
Empty jar after measuring
Measurements
When recording measurements, due consideration should be given to planning the layout of the
recording sheet, the location of instruments and the sampling methods adopted to provide reliable data.
Knowledge of the equipment used in measurement is required such as the quadrat, the clinometer and
the pebbleometer or callipers.
Candidates should be familiar with river measurements of;
channel width
depth
speed of flow
the size and shape of bedload
beach studies of beach profile,
the size and shape of pebbles and the movement of beach material
weather study instruments
28
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO CONSIDER WHEN DOING MEASUREMENTS IN RIVERS.
Some students wanted to investigate the flow of a river on a meander. Before they began
their fieldwork their teacher spoke to them about safety when planning their fieldwork.
(a)Suggest pieces of advice their teacher gave them to keep them safe.
Don’t do fieldwork/check conditions if river is in flood/deep/fast-flowing
Wear strong shoes/wellingtons to protect feet
Don’t do fieldwork alone – at least two preferably three people/group
Wear waterproofs to keep warm/protective clothing/light clothes which will dry
Keep a look out for dangerous animals
Don’t do fieldwork if river is badly polluted/don’t drink water/Veil’s disease
Tell someone where you are going/take a mobile phone for emergency
Complete in daylight/before it gets dark
May be slippery rocks/bank
MEASURING THE DEPTH OF THE RIVER
Rest rule/ruler on river bed - NOT ‘in river’
Ensure rule is upright/vertical
Take reading of water surface on rule/measure part of stick which is wet
29
MEASURING THE RIVER’S WIDTH
MEASURING THE RIVER’S LOAD
Measure long axis of stone by using calipers and measuring gap/with ruler
Visually estimate roundness by comparing with Roundness Index/Chart
30
Explain how the students would carry out fieldwork to investigate if the size of pebbles
varied downstream. Include reference to how the students could make their method
reliable.
Measure long axis / length of pebble
Repeat size measurements to check accuracy / another student checks measuring
Sample / measure several / 2–20 pebbles at each site and calculate average of measurements
Use same sites 1–5 / sites downstream / select new sites / sites equal distance apart
Use systematic sampling / pick pebbles across width of river
31
MEASURING VELOCITY
Hypothesis 1: Velocity increases downstream.
How velocity is measured
Fig. 1 is a student sketch which shows their method of measuring velocity.
Describe the method shown.
Answers to focus on the diagram.
Identify an area which is almost straight
Put poles or sticks on each bank of the river
String/ropes stretched between the poles/sticks across the river
Measure the distance along the river/measure 10m
Throw a float/floating object in the river
Measure the time the float takes to travel distance
Repeat the measurements across the river 3 times and calculate the mean time
taken by the floats.
Calculate the velocity using the formula shown below :
32
Using a flowmeter to measure velocity
33
Using a flowmeter to measure velocity
A flowmeter is a devise with a propeller which turns in the water and gives a reading for the speed
in m/sec. it is inserted into the water to the depth stated to obtain average velocity.
Put flow meter on the bed of river/into river
Must be held vertically
Stand downstream or to the side of the flowmeter
Propeller must be facing upstream
Propeller spins/moves
Record digital reading/display shows velocity
Take several readings and calculate average
NOT take measurements at different points in river
Advantages and disadvantages of using a digital flowmeter to measure velocity.
Advantage– accurate / precise reading / quick / instant / no calculation needed
Disadvantage– inaccurate inlow flow conditions / battery may go flat / may break /
easily damaged / needs calibrating
34
Hypothesis is generally true OR velocity does increase downstream
(1 mark reserved Tick H). Second mark can be for justifying with data (D)
Point 3 result is an anomaly
The students decided to investigate two hypotheses about the speed of flow (velocity) of the
water in the river:
Hypothesis 1: Velocity on the surface varies across a river meander.
Hypothesis 2: Velocity is greater on the surface and decreases as the depth of the
channel increases.
35
Describe how velocity is measured on the surface using an orange as a
float, a tape measure and a stopwatch.
Measure section along river
Time floats over measured section
Repeat timing exercise at points 1, 2 and 3 across river
Calculate surface velocity: distance / time
When the students got back to school they described to their teacher how they had
carried out their investigation to measure surface velocity. Their teacher then suggested
some weaknesses in their method.
Give three weaknesses that might have been suggested.
Measurements could be affected by external influences such as
– floats get stuck on vegetation
– strong wind may interfere with movement of float
Route taken by floats is unpredictable
Floats all move into main current of river, so not really testing velocity across a meander
Too few sampling points
Only taking one measurement at each sampling point/need to do more
Random positioning of sample points/not equal distances apart
NOT human error weaknesses such as inaccurate timing/distance measurement
36
Meander surveys and measuring velocity
Use the information on Fig. 7 to decide whether you agree with Hypothesis 2:
Velocity is greater on the surface and decreases as the depth of the channel
increases. Support your conclusion with figures from Fig. 7.
Agree/partly agree with hypothesis – reserve mark
Supporting data – two current measurements: e.g. 40-37-19 cm per second
But where current is strongest there is exception/hypothesis doesn’t apply everywhere
across meander
Here the greatest velocity is at about 1/3 of depth/just under water surface
Supporting data – two current measurements: e.g. 60-68-70 cm per second
Then velocity does decrease below 1/3 of depth
Allow two marks for comparative figures (not reserve) [4]
37
WETTED PERIMETER
Calculation of the area of the cross section at site 1
Area of the cross section = width of river (metres) × average depth of river (metres)
=
=
sq metres
Hypothesis : Velocity increases as the hydraulic radius of the river channel
increases.
Hydraulic radius is a measurement which indicates how much friction there is
between the river channel and the flow of the river.
Hydraulic radius is calculated by the following
formula:
38
39
IMPROVING RESULTS
Suggest four ways that the students could have improved their data collection
methods to make their results for both hypotheses more reliable.
Focus on improvements that would make THESE results more reliable. Examples include:
Do more velocity tests
Use a flow meter which measures beneath the surface
Flow meter readings are not affected by wind blowing the floats or surface obstructions in water.
Do experiment on different days or in different seasons to compare results
Sample more stones at each point across channel and average out
Dig down for selection of bedload stones at each
Measure length, width, depth of stones to calculate bedload size
More students use Roundness Index and compare results as it is a subjective measurement
Measure pebbles to nearest mm > cm
Increase number of sites
The river is polluted (Tick I) then 3 max for how could investigate
Decide how many sites to investigate and where
Devise a data collection sheet to record results of visual survey
40
Test acidity/ph of water
Test clarity of water
Survey water life
Measure water temperature
Other possible investigations into human impact on river:
Bank strengthening reduces bank erosion
Weir or dam construction decreases flow
Channel straightening or dredging increases velocity
INFILTRATION RATES
To investigate Hypothesis 2: The rate of infiltration is faster where there is more vegetation
cover and less bare ground, the students used a quadrat to estimate the amounts of vegetation
cover and bare ground in different areas of the park.
Describe how the students used the quadrat
Put / place quadrat (on ground) / throw quadrat / drop quadrat
Count the number of squares with vegetation or grass or bare ground / estimate number
of squares / estimate percentage
Do more than one measurement and calculate average
Do task in different areas of the park / different places
How to measure infiltration rates
(Water) is poured into / added to / put in the cylinder
(Stopwatch) records / measures time / every minute / 5 minutes
(Measuring cylinder) is pushed into the ground / water to height of 10 cm / water up to
10 cm
41
(Water) is poured into / added to / put in the cylinder
(Stopwatch) records / measures time / every minute / 5 minutes
(Measuring cylinder) is pushed into the ground / water to height of 10 cm / water up to
10 cm
Describe how footpath erosion may affect infiltration.
(iv) Suggest ways to prevent footpath erosion from happening in the park.
Ideas such as:
Permanent path / tarmac path / concrete path / artificial path / rocks in path / bricks / tiles
/ steps (to go uphill)
Restore eroded footpaths / fill in hole / replace soil
Alternative / signposted paths / more paths / new paths / build paths
Put fencing along edge of path
Improve drainage
Re-seeding around footpath / more grass around path
Prohibit use / allow treated paths time to recover / restrict access times /
‘keep off’ signs / don’t let people walk on path
42
Small / low bridges / boardwalks / walkways / platforms
Education about / raise awareness of footpath erosion / park rangers
43
POLLUTION
BIOTIC INDEX
44
COASTS
WAVES
LONGSHORE DRIFT
Wind drive waves / wave move in direction of wind
Pebbles / waves / swash come to the beach at an angle/ oblique
Backwash / waves takes material back down the beach / at right angles / perpendicular Process is
repeated / moves in zig-zag along beach
45
Describe a simple method the students could use to work out the wind direction
at the beach
Wind sock / streamer / material held up / throw grass into the air / wet finger
/observe features blown by wind
Use compass to see direction wind is blowing
Describe another method the students could have used to measure longshore
drift along the beach.
Paint 50 pebbles
Group/put them in the swash / backwash zone / west side of beach/at water’s
edge
Mark starting point
Leave them for period of time
Find the pebbles & measure distance from starting point
OR
Lay out tape measure close to water / mark start and finish points
Put float/coloured balls in water at start point
Time how long it takes object to reach finish point
Repeat a number of times and take average
OR
Measure from top of groyne to beach surface
On both sides of groyne
Measure at equal distances along groyne
Calculate average distance from top to beach on both sides of groyne
Repeat for other groynes to confirm movement along beach
46
MEASURING SLOPE ANGLE
Lay tape measure on beach to create a transect / perpendicular to beach or up the beach
Poles put at break of slope / at equal / set / certain distances apart
47
Measure distance between poles
Poles must be vertical
Read angle from lower pole (nearer to sea) to upper pole (further from sea)
Student holds clinometer at top / at same height on ranging pole
Read / measure / record angle Move poles up beach / along profile to next site
Later, the students discussed their beach fieldwork and how they could have improved
the accuracy and reliability of their results.
48
What suggestions could they have made?
Do more profile measurements either side of the groyne/every 5 m
Do more profile measurements at different sites along beach/at other groynes on this
beach/at sites where there are no groynes on this beach
NOT on other beaches
Test if the results would be the same at different times of the year/days/conditions
Check accuracy of measurements for angle of profile/distance between ranging poles/from
top of groyne to beach (What)
Check accuracy of measurements by doing more often and calculating average/more people
involved/same people do all measurements (How)
1 ‘fallback’ mark for check accuracy of measuring/check if measuring done correctly – if no
other detail
investigating vegetation change across sand dunes
49
To measure the amount of vegetation cover they used a quadrat, describe how the students would do
this investigation
Put quadrat on ground
Estimate percentage of quadrat / count number of squares which include vegetation cover
Do task at each sampling point
To extend their fieldwork study, the students decided to see if there was any evidence of
management to protect the sand dunes from human activity.
Describe how this could be investigated.
Look for / identify / find out about / observe evidence (or e.g. of evidence such as notice
board, direction sign, boardwalk, ropeway fenced off area, replanting of marram grass,
barrier to prevent vehicle access, consolidation barrier to prevent dune movement)
Record / make notes of evidence or examples
Map evidence or examples
Draw field sketch of evidence or examples
Take photographs / video of evidence or examples
Count evidence or examples
Look at pamphlets / leaflets / information maps / internet to find evidence or examples
Survey / ask people in charge / park rangers about management