HISTORY
CLASS NOTES
MODULE 1
Kyra Adams
INTRODUCTION
Before the 15th century, Europeans lacked the economic and political capacity
to establish and sustain long-distance trading relationships outside Europe.
Instead, they relied on goods brought by Arab traders, who enjoyed a monopoly
over these exchanges. Trade routes, such as the trans-Saharan routes, were
costly and restrictive, further limiting European access to resources.
During this period, rumors began circulating about the discovery of gold and
spices in West Africa. This fueled European interest in finding alternative trade
routes to the East and exploring West Africa.
Despite the eurocentric narrative often perpetuated by European
historians—that Africa was uncivilized and needed European intervention—
this is far from the truth. Africa was home to advanced civilizations,
flourishing trade routes, strong economies, and great empires long before
European involvement.
Pre-Colonial Africa: Advanced Civilizations and Societies
Before European involvement, Africa was home to advanced civilizations,
flourishing trade routes, and strong economies. In West Africa, empires like
Ghana, Mali, and Songhai thrived, renowned for their wealth, governance, and
extensive trade networks. Meanwhile, East Africa's Swahili Coast flourished
with city-states like Kilwa actively participating in Indian Ocean trade. The
continent boasted architectural marvels such as the Great Mosque of Djenné in
Mali and Great Zimbabwe. Societies were diverse, ranging from centralized
empires to stateless communities. Indigenous religions, art, and oral traditions
coexisted with the spread of Islam, reflecting the cultural richness of the
region.
The Trans-Saharan Trade
The trans-Saharan trade, active from the 8th to the 16th century, was a major
economic and cultural link between West Africa, North Africa, and the
Mediterranean. It facilitated the exchange of gold, salt, ivory, and slaves for
textiles, horses, and luxury goods. West African empires such as Ghana, Mali,
and Songhai accumulated immense wealth by controlling and taxing these trade
routes, with gold production from regions like Wangara playing a pivotal role in
their prosperity.
The trade routes not only brought wealth but also fostered the exchange of
ideas and culture. Urban centers such as Timbuktu, Gao, and Djenne became
thriving hubs of commerce and learning. Islamic scholars, architects, and
traders spread their influence, leading to the adoption of Islam by local rulers
who integrated it with indigenous traditions. Timbuktu emerged as a renowned
center of Islamic scholarship, housing vast libraries and attracting scholars
from across the Islamic world. The wealth generated by the trade also
contributed to social stratification, elevating merchant classes while increasing
the demand for slaves, which sometimes led to internal and external conflicts.
Risks and Challenges of the Trans-Saharan Trade
The trans-Saharan trade faced numerous challenges due to the harsh desert
environment. Extreme heat, scarce water sources, and sandstorms made the
long journeys perilous, often resulting in deaths from dehydration or starvation.
Banditry was a constant threat, with caravans frequently attacked by rival
groups seeking to seize valuable goods. Additionally, political instability along
the trade routes added to the dangers faced by traders.
The Decline of the Trans-Saharan Trade
The trans-Saharan trade began to decline in the 15th century due to several
factors. European maritime exploration established direct sea routes to West
Africa, bypassing the costly and dangerous overland routes. This shift
redirected trade to the Atlantic coast, diminishing the importance of the
Sahara trade routes. The fall of powerful empires like Songhai further
disrupted the stability and security of the trade networks. Additionally, the
rise of the Atlantic slave trade diverted labor and resources, while
environmental factors such as desertification made trans-Saharan routes
increasingly unviable.
Portuguese exploration
Motivated by the desire for new markets and an ongoing opposition to the
Muslims, Portugues sailors had begun to explore the West African coast in the
first half of the fifteenth century. The expeditions were sponsored by Prince
Henry of Portugal, who founded a centre for seamanship around 1420 and
earned himself the title of Navigator. At the centre, information about tides
and currents was collected, more accurate charts and maps were drawn,
techniques for determining longitude were improved, and new ship designs (such
as the caravel) were developed. With these innovations, the Portuguese reached
the westernmost points of the continent at Cape Verde in 1448, setting up a
lucrative network of trading post along the way.
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The most significant voyages, however, came forty years later.
Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of
Africa in 1488.
A decade later, Vasco da Gama sailed sound Africa and reached the
Malabar Coast of India, establishing an all water route to Asia.
Over the next twenty years, Portugal made Goa its major trading centre
in India, established outposts in Malaysia, and set up direct contact with
China.
This shows the extent of Portuguese exploration , moreover due to this
exploration, the monopoly the Arabs had on the spice trade in Asia was
broken.
Portugal and West Africa
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The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore the West African
coast, with exploration efforts spearheaded by Prince Henry the
Navigator.
As early as 1420, Henry the Navigator sent expeditions to colonize
African islands along the West African coast, starting with Madeira in
1420 and the Azores in 1431.
An attempt to secure the Canary Islands in 1425 was unsuccessful, as
they had already been annexed by Spain.
The Portuguese established trading posts along the West African coast
and began mapping the region, which laid the foundation for future trade
routes.
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope on March 12,
marking a significant milestone in Portuguese exploration.
Why the Portuguese Were First to Explore Africa
Location of Portugal
Portugal was situated at the southwestern tip of Europe, directly above West
Africa, which made it geographically positioned to explore the African coast.
Isolation from European Conflicts
Unlike Spain, which was engaged in ongoing conflicts with the Moors, Portugal
had expelled the Moors as early as 1250, allowing for a focus on exploration.
Isolation from European Diseases
Portugal was less affected by diseases like the Black Plague, which had ravaged
other parts of Europe, enabling a more stable environment for long-distance
exploration.
Support from Henry the Navigator
Henry the Navigator played a crucial role by funding expeditions, establishing
schools to train seamen, shipbuilders, and cartographers (mapmakers), thus
fostering a culture of exploration.
Natural Seamen
The Portuguese had a long tradition of skilled sailors who were willing and ready
to explore the open seas.
Early Motivations for Exploration
While the desire for gold and other valuable resources became more
pronounced later, Prince Henry’s early expeditions were motivated by
several factors:
Religious and Strategic Motives
After the Reconquista (the expulsion of the Moors from Spain and Portugal),
there was a strong Christian drive to expand Portuguese influence and spread
Christianity. One of Prince Henry’s goals was to find Christian allies in Africa,
particularly to counter the spread of Islam.
Portugal also sought new trade routes to the East, focusing on commodities like
spices, ivory, and other valuable goods, rather than gold at the beginning.
Prince Henry’s Vision
Prince Henry was not just focused on trading goods, but also on exploring
uncharted territories and creating a network of trade posts along the African
coast.
By funding navigational training, shipbuilding, and mapmaking, Prince Henry
ensured that Portugal developed the necessary infrastructure for extended
maritime exploration.
Setting Up Colonies and Trading Posts
The early Portuguese efforts were centered on colonizing islands such as
Madeira (1420) and the Azores (1431), which would later serve as bases for
trade and agriculture (e.g., sugar production).
Establishing these islands was part of Portugal’s broader plan to increase its
maritime presence and control over valuable territories.
Transition to Gold
As Portuguese ships traveled further down the West African coast, they
encountered gold-producing regions around the Ghana Empire and Wangara. The
discovery of gold, along with other resources, shifted the focus of Portuguese
exploration toward gold trade and wealth-building.
This transition marked a significant moment, as the Portuguese began to develop
a direct trade route for gold and other goods, which became crucial for their
growing empire.
Factors THAT Encouraged EUROPEAN EXPLORATION OF WEST
AFRICA UP TO 1492.
Economic
To find a sea route to the East
Explorers sought a sea route around Africa to reach the East. Traveling by land
was lengthy, restrictive, and dangerous. In 1488, Bartholomew Dias, a
Portuguese explorer, discovered the route around the Cape of Good Hope.
To find precious stones and gold in Africa
In the early 1400s, Prince Henry the Navigator traveled to Africa to fight the
Moors. He reported sightings of numerous caravans laden with gold, silver, and
precious stones. This information attracted many men who wanted to gain
wealth quickly, pushing them to explore the region.
Spain and Portugal's quest for gold
During the 1400s, both Spain and Portugal sought gold to bolster their
currencies, a concept known as bullionism.
Religious
To spread Christianity after 1492
Following the fall of Granada in 1492, Spain was preoccupied with her struggles
against the Moors. With their final defeat, Spain, alongside Portugal, aimed to
spread Christianity into Africa. Both nations had Christian monarchs who sought
religious supremacy.
Concerns about the spread of Islam
There was also fear that Islam would spread in Africa, as the Moors were
Islamic. However, when the Portuguese arrived in West Africa, there was
minimal Islamic influence.
To find Prester John
The legend of Prester John was widespread in Europe from the 12th to the 17th
Century. Christian states such as Britain, France, Portugal, and Spain were
excited about this "mythical" Christian King who shared their view of religious
supremacy.
Political
The emergence and consolidation of nation-states
By the 1500s, several nations had gained significant power and emerged as
strong political influences. Spain had just become a unified entity with the
combination of Aragon and Castile. By 1250, Portugal had become an
independent state with its own language. These countries were strongly driven
by desires for overseas trade and exploration. By venturing into Africa, they
aimed to maintain their power by extending their influence and borders.
social
Skilled Men
Countries such as Portugal and Spain had many skilled sailors, fostered by their
love of the sea. Their expertise in exploration pushed their actions along the
African coast. Their skills were further advanced by the numerous schools
established by Prince Henry the Navigator.
European Desire to Explore Africa
The Europeans were eager to explore Africa. African coastal islands such as the
Azores, Cape Verde Islands, and Madeira became excellent areas for trading
posts. They could have navigated down the African coast, picking up the winds
and currents circulating the seas.
Slaves
They sought slaves, driven by the developing Trans-Saharan Slave Trade.
Although not very popular at the time, many Moors and African men were
captured and forced to work on sugar plantations in the Azores and Canary
Islands, and in domestic units. This led Las Casas to persuade men in the
Americas to use African labor in the 1500s.
The penetration of west-Africa: reasons why the
Portuguese remained on the coast
Disease
The Europeans faced numerous diseases common to the interior parts of West
Africa, such as yellow fever and malaria, primarily spread by mosquitoes. The
heat was also a significant issue, making it difficult for them to survive and
thrive in the interior regions.
Hostile Inland States
Inland African states were often hostile towards the Europeans. Many Africans
had heard about the capturing of their fellow people on the coast and took
measures to protect their cities. Some inland states had firearms obtained
through trade with Arabs, making them powerful and formidable.
Cost
It was very costly for the Portuguese to maintain European troops in the
African environment. They preferred to stay close to their coastal colonies like
the Azores and Madeira to manage their resources effectively and avoid the
high expenses of inland ventures.
Profit
There was substantial profit to be made on the coast due to the creation of
forts and the capturing of African slaves. Several African villages along the
coast could be raided, providing a steady supply of captives. The Portuguese did
not plan to colonize West African states, so they stayed on the coast, where
they could achieve their goals without venturing inland.
Missionary Activities
Missionary activities in the inland states were often short-lived. According to
Klein (2010), when Jesuit missionaries visited states such as Kongo, Benin, Oye,
and Ndongo, their teachings were frequently resisted. The local populations
preferred their traditional religious beliefs and expelled the missionaries,
leading to the missionaries' inability to establish long-term influence.
Penetration by early 1500’s
The need to expand the Christian faith, acquire firearms for protection against
Africans, the fierce competition among European powers on the coast, and the
growing demand for slaves to support trades in Europe and the Americas pushed
the Europeans to penetrate further into West Africa by the early 1500s
Impact of Portuguese expeditions on west Africa
One significant consequence of the Portuguese expeditions was contact with
West Africa. The sub-Saharan kingdoms—Ghana, Mali, Benin, Songhai, and
Kongo—were well-organized societies with a long history but were almost
unknown to Europeans. Until the Muslim invasions of the eleventh century, the
Ghana Empire had extensive commercial ties with North Africa, Egypt, and the
Middle East. Mali, an Islamic state with its capital Timbuktu as a major
economic and cultural center, controlled the gold trade. The arrival of the
Portuguese brought a dramatic shift in the flow of African gold. Instead of
traveling overland by caravan to North Africa and then into the coffers of the
commercially powerful Italian city-states, the precious metal was shipped by sea
directly to Lisbon and Western Europe.
The Portuguese were interested in slaves as well as gold. Arab merchants had
been buying slaves in West Africa since the eighth century and continued to act
as middlemen when the Europeans arrived. Portugal used African slaves as early
as 1497 in the sugarcane fields on the islands it took over off the African coast.
Millions of Africans were shipped from West African ports to work on
plantations in North and South America over the next three hundred years.
Slavery in the New World, justified on economic and racial grounds, was quite
different from that in Africa. Although slavery was an accepted social
institution throughout the continent, slaves were typically prisoners of war,
debtors, or criminals, and their condition was neither permanent nor hereditary.
European Trade with Coastal Africans
European trade attracted many Africans from the interior, diverting the flow
of trade across the Sahara to the Atlantic coast of West Africa. This shift
contributed to the decline of the Sudanese states and their trade with the
Arabs.
Cultural Impact
The Portuguese left their names on places all along the West African coast—
Cape Verde, Cape Palmas, Sierra Leone, and El Mina. They also left their slave
castles, which often changed hands in battles between European states for
control of the slave trade.
Introduction of New Crops
The Portuguese introduced many New World crops into West Africa, expanding
trading opportunities with poorer African states. For example, maize was
introduced and became a staple food for many Africans.
Employment Opportunities
The trading of slaves on the coast of West Africa provided employment
opportunities for African slave traders and farmers.
Spread of Christianity
Many African leaders converted to Christianity to continue trading with
Europeans. In 1495, the King of Congo converted to Christianity and changed his
name to Joao I. This also actively prevented the spread of Islam in West Africa
up to the 1500s.
Expansion of Slavery
Slavery was a natural aspect of African society. Many African leaders who sold
Africans into slavery believed that slaves would be treated well because it was
customary to treat slaves well in African society. The trading of slaves
expanded African slavery and paved the way for the Trans-Atlantic Slave
Trade.
Conflicts Between African States
Increased trade with Europeans for firearms and slaves led to conflicts
between African states. Many African slavers became powerful and were able
to take control of weaker African states.
Overview of the mortality
A major problem was the high mortality levels on plantations. Sugar plantations
were notorious for morbidity and mortality. Historians like Richard Sheridan
(1974) and Barry Higman (1984), for example, have published informative
works on the mortality environment on sugar estates. The plantations
themselves were health hazards. The large numbers of imported workers from
different environments, the poor state of medical knowledge, the intense
regime, the poor nutrition, the excessive punishments, and the unhygienic
environment must have all contributed to the high rates of mortality. Diseases
were an everyday part of life: - fevers, the flux, measles, small pox, yaws,
sexual diseases, worms, locked jaw or tetanus- were all common. Adding to the
death toll were accidents, suicides and abortions. Deaths, however, tended to
be concentrated in two areas: newly imported Africans and infants born in
the Caribbean. The rate of mortality of the former is estimated at one in
three, while the latter is estimated even higher at one in two. These two
concentrations of death directly impacted on planters' attempts to increase
their labour force in later years.
Reasons for High mortality of the African slaves
Historical records indicate that the mortality rate among enslaved Africans was
extremely high in the 18th century. Historian Hilary Beckles noted that nearly
30% of enslaved people died within the first three years of working on
plantations. Several factors contributed to this high mortality rate:
Lack of Medical Care
Enslaved people had little to no access to proper medical treatment. In many
cases, they had to rely on bush medicine for healing. Even when medical care
was available on plantations, poor medical knowledge and inadequate equipment
made it ineffective.
Widespread Disease
Enslaved Africans suffered from numerous illnesses, including fevers, dysentery
(flux), measles, smallpox, yaws, parasitic infections (worms), and tetanus (locked
jaw). These diseases, combined with overwork, malnutrition, and poor living
conditions, led to a rapid decline in health and high death rates.
Unhygienic Living Conditions
Enslaved people were forced to live in overcrowded barracks, which were poorly
ventilated and unsanitary. These conditions fostered disease outbreaks and
made heat strokes common, especially in hot climates.
Harsh and Dangerous Work Environments
While field labor was grueling, working in factories and processing plants (such
as sugar mills) was even deadlier. The combination of extreme heat, hazardous
machinery, and poor ventilation led to higher death rates in factories than in
the fields.
Overwork and Malnutrition
Enslaved people were forced to work long hours with little rest while being
poorly fed, creating a lethal combination of exhaustion and starvation. These
harsh conditions weakened their bodies, making them more susceptible to illness
and premature death.
Experiences of the enslave people
The characteristics of sex, age, colour, birthplace and health were used by
planters in the management of their human resources. Colour played an
important role in the allocation of duties. A coloured enslaved person (that is, of
mixed race), especially if male, was more likely to be employed in skilled
occupations. The females were most likely to work as domestics in the
manager's or overseer's house. Colour may have been the most visible criterion
used, but on close investigation and analysis, health and age stand out as the
basic principles used to organize the enslaved population and allocate jobs. Age
combined with good health meant that an enslaved person was almost certainly
in a particular type of occupation. Thus, healthy enslaved people at 15 were
almost sure to be in the second gang; at 30 they were to be in the first gang.
Once over fifty, the enslaved people were likely to be employed as watchmen or
in some other position where less strenuous labour was required.
age
When an enslaved person reached "old age", in the context of the plantation, he
or she was usually regarded as superannuated. However, this only meant that
the persons were removed from the more strenuous activities on the estate
with which, in any case, they could no longer cope. It is clear that the main
concern in management was the economic value of the labour force. Thus, as
long as enslaved people were alive and were not absolutely useless, managers
insisted that they continue to contribute to the plantation's upkeep in some
manner, if only to help pay for their own maintenance.
These jobs now included planting and cleaning fences and hospital attendance.
They could even be sold at nominal prices to poor whites and free coloureds.
The same logic was employed with respect to diseased and infirm enslaved
people. Again, the planters' aim was to extract as much productive labour from
them as possible. They performed various relatively lighter tasks that were
necessary to the plantation.
Another important distinction made in plantation management was that between
creole and African enslaved people. African enslaved people as the term implies
were those who were born in Africa and then transported to the Caribbean.
Creole enslaved people were born in the Caribbean. The latter were of a higher
value than African enslaved people because they were considered to be less of a
risk in terms of acclimatization, more tractable and already versed in the labour
requirements and acceptance of the servitude. All enslaved persons who were
recently imported into the colonies from Africa underwent a process called
seasoning which could last several months. The purpose of seasoning was to get
new enslaved people accustomed to their new environment and the work regime
expected of them. This was a very crucial period in plantation management. The
mortality rate during this period was very high. Hilary Beckles (1984) estimated
that, generally, one expected 33% of new enslaved people to die within the first
three years on the islands. Those who survived, covertly and overtly, adopted a
variety of strategies for survival in the Caribbean.
Plantations were managed using a rigid hierarchy of control. Ultimately, the
labourers were under the control of their legal owners. However, if they were
absent, attorneys or managers functioned in their places. They, in turn, relied
on overseers for a more direct supervision of the day to day running of the
estate. Near the bottom of the scale, but still in possession of some authority,
were the drivers who were often promoted enslaved people. They were
responsible for the minute supervision of the enslaved people while at work in
their gangs. At the bottom of the structure were, of course, the enslaved
masses that were officially the property of their masters.
Planters directed the enslaved populated into groups that facilitated the
planning and organization of work and the supervision of the labour force. The
groups actually served to match the perceived strength or abilities of a
particular person with the kind of tasks he or she was assigned. One of the
most important groups on any estate comprised the field enslaved people. The
exact proportion of field enslaved people in the total enslaved labour force
tended to vary among plantations. Estimates vary from 35% to 59%. Forty-five
per cent can be used as an average. However, although the number of field
enslaved people varied, their organization did not. Field enslaved people were
invariably divided into three categories, the first gang or great gang, the
second gang and the third gang.
The first gang usually consisted of the most valuable enslaved people on the
estate and by extension those in prime physical condition. This was usually the
largest gang. These men and women did the heaviest work on the plantation;
they cleared the land, dug the cane holes, planted and cut the canes, and fed
them to the mills.
• The second gang generally consisted of adolescents, and young men and women
who were promoted from the third gang. It was in this gang that the enslaved
people first really experienced field work. They did work which was somewhat
lighter yet similar to that done by the first gang. Their tasks included the
picking of grass to be used as fodder; caring for the cattle, mules, horses and
other small stock on the estates; planting provisions and sometimes sugarcane;
and tending to the upkeep of the plantations.
• The third gang comprised the children. From as early as the age of six or
seven, the discipline of gang work was enforced on the children's psyche. They
collected grass and other food for the stock, did light weeding and carried
water to the fields.
The second group comprised the elite of the enslaved population. Members of
this group were among the most valuable of the estate enslaved people. The
elite of the plantation included craftsmen and skilled workers, drivers of the
great gangs, and the heads of most of the occupational groups on the plantation,
for example, head watchmen, and head carters.
These men and women were the most important members of the enslaved
community, as far as status which stemmed from job allocation which allowed
some social differentiation.
Even more importantly, they played a pivotal role in the efficient management of
estates.
They, in fact, have been described as essential for the effective control and
the efficient management of enslaved people. These enslaved people, who for all
intents and purposes can be said to have led the enslaved population, were given
preferential treatment. This was the mechanism used by planters to reinforce
their status among the other members of the enslaved population and to reward
them for the important part they played in ensuring productivity and efficiency.
These enslaved people, therefore, were the recipients of numerous indulgences
from planters or managers which singled them out from the body of the
enslaved population. These indulgences usually took the form of greater and
better food and clothing allowances. They also received special items, such as
rum, shoes sor even
money.