Learning and
Conditioning
Unit-5
1. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is an involuntary learning
process where a neutral stimulus comes to evoke a
response after being paired with a stimulus that
naturally evokes a response.
Pavlov’s Experiment (1927):
Pavlov noticed dogs salivate when they see food (a
natural response). He rang a bell (neutral stimulus)
each time food was presented. After repeated pairings,
the dogs began to salivate at the bell alone.
Key Concepts :
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food (naturally triggers salivation)
 Unconditioned Response (UCR): Salivation to food
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell (becomes associated with food)
 Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation to the bell
This experiment introduced the idea that behaviors can be learned through
association. It laid the foundation for behaviorist psychology, focusing on
observable behaviors rather than internal mental states.
A child hears the music of an ice cream truck (neutral/conditioned stimulus) and
gets excited (conditioned response) because it is associated with receiving ice
cream (unconditioned stimulus).
2. Skinner ’s Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences
of behavior. Unlike classical conditioning, it deals with
voluntary behaviors.
Skinner ’s Experiment (1938):
B.F. Skinner, a leading behaviorist, developed the theory of
operant conditioning, which states that behavior is influenced
by its consequences—reinforcements or punishments. To test
this, he designed a controlled environment called the Skinner
Box (also known as the operant conditioning chamber).
Experiment details
Subject: Usually a rat or a pigeon
Box Features: A lever (or button), a food dispenser, a light, and sometimes a grid
floor for mild electric shocks
1. Positive Reinforcement:
Procedure: A hungry rat was placed in the Skinner Box. The box contained a
lever. When the rat accidentally pressed it, a food pellet was released. Over
time, the rat learned to press the lever deliberately to get food.
Conclusion: The rat's behavior (lever pressing) increased due to a reward (food).
2. Negative Reinforcement:
The floor of the box delivered a mild electric shock. When the rat pressed the
lever, the shock stopped. The rat quickly learned to press the lever to avoid the
unpleasant stimulus.
Conclusion: Behavior is strengthened by removing an aversive condition.
3. Punishment:
In some versions, pressing the lever resulted in a shock. Rats stopped
pressing the lever to avoid the punishment.
Conclusion: Behavior can be weakened or decreased by introducing a negative
consequence.
Key Concepts Demonstrated:
• Operant: A voluntary behavior (like pressing a lever)
• Reinforcer: A stimulus that increases behavior
• Positive Reinforcer: Adds something pleasant (e.g., food)
• Negative Reinforcer: Removes something unpleasant (e.g.,
shock)
• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Examples
• Positive Reinforcement: A student gets a gold star for doing
homework So he continues to do homework.
• Negative Reinforcement: Loud alarm stops when seatbelt is
buckled result in the person wearIng seatbelt faster.
• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to
decrease behavior (e.g., giving a shock, scolding, extra
homework)
• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to
decrease behavior (e.g., taking away a toy)
3. Observational Learning (Modeling)
Also called social learning, this occurs when
individuals learn by observing and imitating
others, not through direct reinforcement .
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961):
Children watched an adult act aggressively
toward a Bobo doll. The children who saw this
behavior were more likely to imitate it, even
without being rewarded.
Key Processes:
 Attention: Watching the model
 Retention: Remembering what was observed
 Reproduction: Imitating the behavior
 Motivation: Having a reason to imitate (e.g., seeing the model
rewarded)
This theory challenged strict behaviorism by showing that learning can
occur without direct experience or reinforcement, emphasizing the role
of cognitive processes and social context.
For example a child observes an older sibling brushing teeth regularly
and imitates that behavior, even without being directly told to do so.
4. Latent Learning
Tolman’s Maze Experiment (1948):
• Edward C. Tolman, a cognitive behaviorist,
conducted experiments to demonstrate
latent learning—learning that occurs without
obvious reinforcement and becomes
apparent when there's motivation to
demonstrate it.
Experiment set-up
Subjects: Rats
Apparatus: A maze with a start box and a goal box (where food could be placed)
Groups of Rats:
1. Group A (Regular Reward):
Received a food reward every time they reached the end. Quickly learned the maze.
2. Group B (No Reward):
Never received any food reward. Wandered aimlessly; slow learning.
3. Group C (Delayed Reward):
No reward for the first 10 days. On day 11, started receiving food at the end.
Key Observation:
Group C showed sudden improvement in navigating
the maze as soon as food was introduced.
They had formed a cognitive map of the maze during
the unrewarded days, but only used it when they
were motivated by the reward.
Conclusion:
Learning can happen without reinforcement, but may not be
demonstrated until there’s a reason or incentive to do so.
This supported the idea of internal mental processes,
challenging the strict behaviorist view that only observable
behavior matters.
A student watches a math tutorial without practicing. During a
test, they suddenly solve a problem using the technique they
only observed—demonstrating latent learning.
5. Insight Learning
Köhler’s Experiment with Chimps (1925):
• Wolfgang Köhler, a German Gestalt psychologist, studied
problem-solving in chimpanzees and discovered insight
learning—a sudden realization or solution to a problem
without trial-and-error.
Key Experiment:
Subject: Sultan the Chimpanzee
Goal: Reach a banana placed outside the cage, just out of reach
Setup:
Inside the cage were two hollow bamboo sticks (each too short
individually to reach the banana).
Sultan tried and failed by using a single stick.
The Insight Moment:
After some failed attempts and a pause, Sultan suddenly connected the
two sticks, creating a longer tool. He then used the combined stick to
reach and retrieve the banana. There was no gradual shaping or
reinforcement—the solution came suddenly.
Other Variations:
In another setup, Köhler suspended bananas from the ceiling and left
boxes in the cage. Chimps stacked the boxes and climbed up to grab
the bananas, again without prior training.
• Insight learning supports the idea that learning
can be cognitive and mental, not just
behavioral. It paved the way for the cognitive
revolution in psychology.
• Someone struggling with a riddle may suddenly
find the answer without trial-and-error—it just
“clicks.”
Thank you