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IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS AND SOME POINTS
 Diffusion : It is the random movement of particles from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration
 Element : A substance which cannot be broken into anything simpler by
chemical means OR made up of one type of atom only
 Compounds : A substance in which two or more different elements chemically
combined together.
 Mixtures : Two or more substances not chemically joined together
 Proton number(Atomic number): The number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
 Nucleon number(Mass number): The total number of protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus of an atom.
 Ion: an atom or group of atoms that has gained or lost electrons.
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 Isotope: Atoms of the same element with the same proton number and
electron number but different neutron number.
 Reason for isotopes with same chemical properties - Same number of
electrons in the outer most shell.
 Ionic bond: It is the strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
 Covalent bond: Bond formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two
atoms leading to noble gas electronic configurations.
 Difference in physical properties between ionic and covalent bond
IONIC BOND
High melting and boiling point
Electrostatic force of attraction (
stronger)
Good electrical conductivity in
aqueous or molten state
Poor conductor in solid state
COVALENT BOND
Low melting and boiling point
Weak intermolecular force of
attraction
Poor electrical conductivity
 Metallic bond : The electrostatic attraction between the positive ions in a
giant metallic lattice and a sea of delocalized electrons.
 Molecular formula : The number and type of different atoms in one molecule.
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 Empirical formula : The simplest whole number ratio of different atoms or
ions in a compound.
 Formulas :
 Relative atomic mass (Ar) : The average mass of the isotopes of an element
compared to 1/12 th of the mass of an atom of 12C.
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 Relative Molecular Mass ( Mr): It is the sum of the relative atomic masses of
the elements present in a molecule
Relative Formula Mass is used for ionic compound
Mole : The unit of amount of substance
1 mol = 6.02 X 10 23 particles
 Electrolysis: The breakdown of an ionic compound, when molten or in
aqueous solution, by the passage of electricity.
 Electrolyte: The molten or aqueous substance that undergoes electrolysis
Inert electrodes: eg: graphite ( Non - metal)
platinum (Metal)
Particles that conducts electricity in external circuit (metal wire) - Electrons
Particles that conducts electricity in electrolyte(internal circuit) - Ions
 Electroplating : It is a process in which one metal is coated with another to
make it look better or to prevent corrosion
 The overall equation of H2- O2 fuel cells
2H2 + O2

→
2H2O
Exothermic reaction: The reaction that transfers thermal energy to the
surroundings leading to an increase in the temperature of the surroundings

Endothermic reactions: The reaction takes in thermal energy from the
surroundings leading to a decrease in the temperature of the surroundings

Enthalpy change ( H) : The transfer of thermal energy during a reaction.

Activation energy : Minimum energy that colliding reactant particles must have to
react.

Catalyst : A substance that increases the rate of a reaction and is unchanged at
the end of a reaction, by lowering the activation energy.

Closed system – A system where none of the reactants or products can escape
from the reaction mixture
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Definition / Characteristic features of equilibrium
A reversible reaction in a closed system is at equilibrium when:
(a) the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction
(b) the concentrations of reactants and products remains constant
Oxidation

Gain of oxygen

Loss of electron

Increase in oxidation number
Reduction

Loss of oxygen

Gain of electrons

Decrease in oxidation number

Redox reactions : Reactions involving simultaneous oxidation and reduction.
 Acid: Proton (H+ ion) donor.
Base: Proton (H+ ion) acceptor.
 Alkali : The soluble bases that produces OH – ions in water.
 Strong acid: The acids which completely ionize (dissociate) in water to give H+
ions are called strong acids. They produce a very high concentration of H+ ions
in water
 Weak acid: The acids which partially ionize (dissociate) in water to give H+ ions
are called weak acids.
 Amphoteric oxide: An amphoteric oxide which will react with acids or with
bases. They behaves both as acidic or basic oxides.
 Acidic oxides are Non metal oxides
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 Saturated solution: A solution that cannot dissolve any more solute at the
specified temperature
 Water of crystallisation : The water molecules present in hydrated crystals.
 Hydrated substance : A substance that is chemically combined with water
 Periodic table : Arragement of elements in periods and groups in the order of
increasing atomic number.
 Apperance of halogens at rtp
Iodine vapor - purple colour
Physical properties
Chemical properties

Aqueous Iodine - brown
Alkali metals
Transition metals
Low melting point
High melting point
Low density
High density
Soft solid
Hard solid
Show only one valency
Shows variable valancy
White solid
Form coloured compounds
Cannot act as catalyst
Acts as catalyst
Alloy : A mixture of metals with other elements.
Alloy
Elements
Brass
Copper and zinc
Stainless steel
Iron,chromium,nickel and carbon


Galvanising : Protection of iron and steel objects by coating with a layer of zinc.
Chemical tests for presence of water
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 Anhydrous cobalt chloride - blue to pink
 Anhydrous copper sulfate - white to blue

Test for pure water - to determine melting point and boiling point

Green house gas - A gas that absorbs the heat reflected from the surface of
earth,reducing thermal energy loss to space. Eg : Methane,carbon dioxide

Compounds responsible for acid rain – Nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide

NPK fertilizer – Provides elements nitrogen,phosphorous and potassium

Homologous series : A family of similar compounds with similar chemical
properties due to the presence of the same functional group.

Saturated compound - The molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single
bonds.

Unsaturated compound : The molecules in which atleast one carbon = carbon
double bond exits.

Structural isomers : Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different
structural formulae.

Hydrocarbons : Compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only.

Fossil fuel - coal,natural gas,petroleum

Main constituent of natural gas - Methane ( Sources - Decomposition of
vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals)

Addition reaction : Reaction that gives only one product.
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CONDITIONS FOR REACTIONS
NAME OF REACTION
EQUATION
TEMPERATURE
PRESSUR
E
450
20,000kPa/
200atm
Iron
450
200kPa/2
atm
Vanadium(v)
oxide
Haber process
CATALYST
Source of N2 - air
And H2 - Methane
Contact process
Substitution
reaction
Alkane + Halogen gives
Haloalkane + Hydrogen
chloride
Condition : U-V light
Cracking
Alkane gives
High temperature

Alkenes + Hydrogen

Alkenes + Alkanes

provides activation energy (role)
Aluminium
oxide or
zeolite
Addition
Hydration
Alkenes + steam gives
Alcohol
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300
6000kPa/
60 atm
Phosphoric
acid (H3PO4)
Mohammed Shahzad
Bromination
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Bromine water test
Alkenes + bromine water
gives
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Alkenes turns orange/red brown bromine
water to colourless
Dibromoalkane
Hydrogenation
150 -300
Alkenes + Hydrogen
gives
Nickel as
catalyst
Alkane
Fermentation
Esterification
25 -35
Alcohol + Carboxylic acid
gives Ester + water

Presence of yeast

Absence of oxygen
Warm the mixture
Concentrated
sulfuric acid
 Polymers : Large molecules built up from many smaller molecules called
monomers.

Residue : A substance that remains after evaporation,distillation,filtration or any
similar process
 Filtrate : A liquid or solution that has passed through a filter.
 Distilled water is used in practical chemistry- As tap water contains few
chemical impurities
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Rf always less than zero.
 Structure of Nylon/Polyamide
 Polyester (PET) – Terylene
 Structure of protein
Monomer of protein – Amino acid
 Method to separate amino acid – chromatography
 Substance used in used in flue gas desulfurization – Calcium oxide
 Equiment to remove NO2 in car engines – Catalytic convertor
 Addition of chlorine disinfects water
 Compounds used to neutalise soil acidity
- Calcium hydroxide, Calcium oxide
 Exothermic reactions warms the reaction mixture and surroundings
 Endothermic reactions cools the reaction mixture and surroundings
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Mohammed Shahzad
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Flow of electrons and ions in circuit
Pattern of rate graph
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Mohammed Shahzad
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Mohammed Shahzad
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Different formulas of organic compound
Name
Molecular
Empirical
Structural
formula
formula
formula
Propanol
C3H8O
C3H8O
CH3CH2OH
Ethanoic
C2H4O2
CH2O
CH3COOH
Displayed formula
acid
 The empirical formula of the polymer and respective monomer of addition
polymer is the same
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Mohammed Shahzad
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Mohammed Shahzad
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