TOPIC 1: Human factors and
ergonomics
➔​1.1a - anthropometrics
➔​1.1b - Psychological factors
➔​1.1c - physiological factors
SL
TOPIC 3: Modeling
●​ TOPIC 3.3: Physical
modeling
●​ TOPIC 3.4: Computer aided
design (CAD)
●​ TOPIC 3.5: Rapid
prototyping
SL
TOPIC 4.1: Properties of
Materials
SL
TOPIC 4.2a : Metals and metallic
alloys
SL
TOPIC 4.2b : Timber
SL
TOPIC 4.2c: Glass
SL
TOPIC 4.2d: Plastic
SL
TOPIC 4.2f: Composites
SL
TOPIC 4.3: Scales of production
SL
Topic 4.4: Manufacturing
processes
SL
Topic 4.5: Production systems
SL
Topic 4.6: robotics and
automation
SL
TOPIC 5.1: Invention
SL
TOPIC 5.2: Innovation
SL
TOPIC 5.3: Strategies for
Innovation
SL
TOPIC 5.4: Stakeholders in
invention and innovation
SL
TOPIC 5.5: Product life cycle
SL
TOPIC 5.6: Rogers
characteristics of innovation and
consumers
SL
TOPIC 5.7: Innovation, design
and marketing specifications
SL
Topic 1: HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS
Page 1 & 2:
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Anthropometry is the study of the human body (height, mass, mass, volume)
World health organization views it as the single most universally applicable practice
Data recorded with calipers
Function or dynamic anthropology includes data being obtained while the subject is
moving
It demonstrates the range and ease with which movements can be made
Stadiometer is used to measure vertical distance from floor to top of the head of a
person standing
Sitting height table is a modification of the stadiometer
The frankfort line is a line connecting the ear hole with the bottom of the eye socket
Horizontal headboard is lowered onto the head and measurements recorded
Skinfold calipers are used to determine the amount of subcutaneous body fat by gently
pinching the skin
Subscapular skinfold is another way to do this measurement
Primary data is collected by the designer who performs these measurements
Secondary data is collected from a database
Percentiles refer to 100 equal groups into which a sample population can be divided
according to the distribution of values of a particular variable
70th percentile = scored better than the 70% of the population
Page 2 to 11: SL
●​ In 1971 there was a crash test dummy modeled on the 50th percentile male. Crash test
dummies now have developed for women and children.
●​ Percentile ranks are commonly used as a tool for interpreting anthropometric data
because of their straightforward ease of use.
●​ Adjustability is made in design to accommodate the anthropometric variability between
measures in user groups.
●​ Adjustments can be made using mechanical, electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic means.
●​ Ex. Most cars have seat adjusters for height differences.
●​ Commonly chosen design range of 5th to 955th percentile-inclusion almost for everyone
●​ Consumers outside the range usually have to invest in custom designs
●​ Anthropometric data also takes into account the location of the target market.
●​ The method is the knowing in the natural sciences
●​ The method is the means to drawing a conclusion in human sciences
●​ Design permeates every aspect of the human experience and data pertaining to what
cannot be seen such as touch, taste, smell are often expressions of opinion rather than
checkable fact.
●​ Physiological factors are those that impact operations including effects of environmental
conditions; stress, lighting, temperature, humidity, noise, vibration, etc.
●​ Psychological human factors data are used in the design/improvements of products
●​ Take into account these factors to improve user experience:
1.​ Sight; ease of visibility; the level of illumination should increase as the task becomes
more precise.
2.​ Hearing; pitch, frequency, volume
3.​ Touch; texture, grip, friction. Can provide valuable feedback.
4.​ Taste; ingestion of toxins
5.​ Smell; aroma, perfume, odor
Scale of measurements:
Methods to retrieve human factor data include interviews, questionnaires, observations
Scale of measurements, NOIR, Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio.
Nominal and ordinal scales are categorical data
Interval and ratio scales are continuous data or quantitative data.
●​ Nominal is existing only by name; name or label things. “With nominal level of
measurement, no meaningful order is implied. This means we can re-order our list of
variables without affecting how we look at the relationship among these variables.”
●​ Ordinal: order, value, numbers, qualitative, ranking. “Ordinal numbers denote an item's
position or rank in a sequence”. “But, we lack a measurement of the distance, or
intervals, between ranks.” ex The order of finish is Rosebud #1, Sea Biscuit #2, and
Kappa Gamma #3. (does give the times, just placement)
●​ Interval: numeric scales, ex: waves levels (can go into negatives) “ Like the ordinal
level, the interval level has an inherent order. But, unlike the ordinal level, we do have
the distance between intervals on the scale. The interval level, however, lacks a real,
non-arbitrary zero.”
●​ Ratio data: comparing differences between two numbers. Ex: money in your wallet.
(cannot go in negatives). Has an inherent order. “ Unlike the interval level, we now have
a meaningful zero. The addition of a non-arbitrary zero allows use to calculate the
numerical relationship between values using ratios: fractions, proportions, and
percentages.” (cannot go into negatives)
●​
●​
●​
●​
Stanley smith discovered the theory of scales of measurement in 1946
3 main human factors; anthropometrics, physiological, psychological
Psychological factor data involves brain through the senses
Everything is done with purpose when designing
Example:
Input: going down the stairs
Sensory processes: eyes
Central processes: brain
Motor process: muscle impulses
Output: walking down
Page 12 to 14:
1.1c- physiological factors
●​ Designers study physical characteristics to optimize the users safety, health, comfort and
performance
●​ Understanding complex biomechanics to enable full functionality of body parts
●​ Physiological data refers to information gathered on the functioning of an individual's
major organ systems. As shown below.
●​ An example: using biomechanics in designing sports equipment. It can lead to improving
performance of an athlete or preventing injuries.
●​ Biomechanics is the study of mechanical laws relating to the movement of living
organisms.
●​ In designing there are a lot of assumptions made regarding the biomedical capacities of
the user population.
●​ These assumptions are based on anthropometric measurements.
●​ Aging in muscles or medical conditions can significantly impact the assumed capabilities.
●​ To accommodate these factors modifications is required to the original design
●​ Adaptive technologies that amplify biomedical capabilities.
●​ Studying how people physically interact with products the design can be re-engineered
to enhance comfort and human performance as well as preventing injuries.
●​ Biomedical design involves a process called design for inclusion.
●​ Examples of testing personal protective equipment would be bike helmets that can be
reviewed for injury prevention or mitigation.
●​ Product designers need to take into account biomechanical data when developing
packaging. (for an older aged demographic for example)
International mindedness:
●​ The physiological factor data are either regional/national or great care is taken when
applying data from one source to a potentially inappropriate target market.
●​ National and regional​environments are affected by nutrition, lifestyle, socio-economic
makeup, immigration, ethnic composition.
●​ These factors lead to changes in physiological factor data.
●​ Regular updating of anthropometric data is crucial to successful product designing.
●​ Understand market directions and trends in human factors related to innovation,
ergonomics and product development.
●​ Investing human subjects for data can be done through surveys, interviews and focus
groups.
●​ This is done to gather data on biometric data, behavioral studies, allergy testing,
biological sampling.
●​ In the United States the department of health and human services defines a human
research subject as “a living individual about whom a research investigator obtains data”.
●​ Methods of gathering this data are characterized as following:
1.​ Intervention, including physical sampling and manipulation of the environment or subject.
2.​ Interaction, incorporating all forms of personal communication between subject and
researcher.
3.​ Capture of private information under conditions where information is freely given and the
subject knows about observation, information remains confidential within realms of
investigation.
4.​ Private information is data that may be used to identify an individual.
Page 15:
●​ Sample questions:
1.​ Human factors design is also known as ergonomic design
2.​ Ergonomics involves designing for people and their interaction with products.
3.​ Four types of data measurement scales are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
4.​ Designing for adjustability provides means for adjustments to accommodate
anthropometric variability.
5.​ Design for comfort is aimed primarily at improving productivity or efficiency.
Practice questions slide 87-90
Question 6:
●​ A reason could be the perceived lack of excitement when driving the motorcycle due to
the lack of noise. A second could be feeling unsafe as motorcycle noise is a way of
showing other drivers or pedestrians that they are there.
Question 7:
●​ Static anthropometric: Dimensions of their hands and mouth when not moving.
●​ Physiological: performance of users collected by trials of observations of users
interacting with bottles. To ensure ease when maneuvering the bottle. (opening it,
drinking from it, filling it, holding it).
●​ Psychological: collecting data through user focus groups on taste, smell, temperature,
texture to determine best materials on finished product.
Evaluation of percentile data in design:
Elevator:
Ergonomics and comfort: For a user of average height the placement of the buttons in the
elevator does not make the arm overextend their reach. The buttons are placed to mimic the
same area of the stomach on the human body. Therefore making it accessible to the user.
However for a user in a wheelchair it causes strain on the arm. The buttons are a bit out of
reach for the user and it is hard for them to press the buttons. When it comes to checking the
screen with the numbers of the elevator it causes strain to the neck as the user has to look up to
see. If we compare this eyesight of someone in a wheelchair it causes even more strain in the
neck as they have a shorter perspective. The screen with the number placement in the elevator
does not take into account the user experience. The design is not adjustable for different users
and it mimics unnatural arm movements for the handicapped and strained neck movements for
the average user.
Accessibility: Wheelchairs cannot see red screens with floor numbers that can cause neck
problems. Shorter people and people with disabilities may not reach buttons on the exterior.
Buttons on the exterior do not have braille therefore blind cannot understand which button to
press. Colorblind people may not be able to see red on black, therefore not understanding the
floor displayed on screen. People who must enter with a wheelchair do not have a handle to
hang on to when in the elevator. Clearance of entrance of elevator might not be large enough to
fit wheelchair through.
Task efficiency: The elevator is placed in the midst of the stairs which allows users to have
easy access to the elevator and the classes.The buttons used on on the inside of the elevator
are uncomfortable to access for users, additionally the screen which displays the floor of where
the elevator is, is at an uncomfortable height as the user has to bend their head way back to
look at the elevator floor. The design effectively transports users to different floors.
Physical interaction: The bottoms were too low, to get your chain you needed to bend down
which is uncomfortable. Someone who is in a wheelchair wouldn't be able or have a hard time
to pay with a card because it was too expensive.
Fire extinguisher:
Ergonomics and comfort:The location of the fire extinguisher on the wall is adjustable for
different heights and proportions. For the average user height it would be placed at the same
height as their waist. Especially due to the fact that the fire extinguisher is located in a high
school in France, the tallest person would be around 190 cm and that is already very rare. A
shorter person would also be able to grab the product with no difficulty. Its accessible to many
different heights.
Accessibility: At medium height therefore the majority of people can reach the product.
Complex use of problems like hook and attachment therefore wheelchair users cannot quickly
get hold of product. There is no braille writing or sound system during emergencies for sensory
disabled individuals who do not know where the extinguisher is. All fire extinguisher steps and
info are in french therefore language barrier for certain individuals. Text is also very small and
unreadable for elderly with bad eyesight.
Task efficiency: The fire extinguishers are placed all around the school and the one we
observed was placed between two classes which uses the space very effectively allowing easy
access in quick situations. The fire extinguisher is at an awkward height meaning that pulling
the extinguisher up can be very tiring and heavy while if it was more at eyesight level it would be
easier to see and access. Although the height of the design can make the user use more
strength than they need it does achieve its intended purpose which is to extinguish fire.
Physical interaction: The placement of the fire extinguisher was too low for someone tall to
get it quick. Also Tall people can have a hard time while taking the extinguisher out. However in
a high school we expect that the tallest persıon to be between 190-192 cm so the extinguisher
will reach to their waist. So there aren't any difficulties while taking the extinguisher out.
Vending machines:
Ergonomics and comfort: The vending machine has a coin dispenser for spare change after
paying for a drink. The location of the coin dispenser causes restraint or discomfort for most of
its users. It is located at the very bottom of the vending machine, very close to the floor. The
issue is that people always have to bend down to grab their change or bring their arm down.
The vending machine also does not take into consideration people in wheelchairs. The card
scanner is at the very top of the vending machine and it is barely or not at all accessible for
people in wheelchairs.
Accessibility: Difficulty in reach for wheelchair users, card paying mechanism is very high up for
wheelchair. Buttons are very far up for wheelchair users and distance is far due to wheels at
base of the vending machine. Relatively tall people have to get into a very uncomfortable
position to be able to get coin change out of the dispenser. Can be dangerous due to hot
beverages in hand. (Does not take into consideration tall people having growth spurts in high
school.) All the beverage options and ingredient list are in 1 language (only french) therefore
students who speak other languages cannot understand. -> Not user friendly for different
languages ethnic backgrounds.
Task efficiency: Students and teachers can effectively use the vending machine with no
discomfort as it is not in the way where people with hot beverages will run into others when
taking the beverage. Users need to stretch awkwardly to obtain the beverage which can cause
spillage (oftentimes happens). Additionally the vending machine coin dispenser is very low
(lower than beverage dispenser) meaning that users have to crouch to obtain their coins. It can
also be a danger to their safety as users can risk spilling their beverage.The design effectively
achieves its intended purpose as users can buy hot and cold beverages.
Physical interaction: The bottoms were too low, to get your chain you needed to bend down
which is uncomfortable. Someone who is in a wheelchair wouldn't be able to or have a hard time
paying with a card because it was too expensive. N0, someone tall will have a hard time with
getting the Chain and pressing the bottoms. Someone really short wouldn't be able to reach the
card payment . The bottoms were too low so it made it uncomfortable even for the average tall
person.
Paper 2 feedback: (TOPIC 1 exam)
●​
●​
●​
●​
Circle key words
Identify the topic
Identify command term
How many points is the question worth
Effective answer strategy:
1.​ Organize; sort responses into paragraphs with single ideas.
2.​ Specify; use specific terms of generic ones.
3.​ Exemplify; provide examples to demonstrate understanding.
4.​ Justify; use clear evidence to support opinions.
Tackling questions:
Multiple choice; take time to read thoroughly and eliminate incorrect answers
Extended response; plan answer, no intro, focus on key idea
Regular revision: summarize class content on a weekly basis.
Read widely: not just class reading, extended reading.
Understanding mark scheme: done in class
Utilizing past papers exams to practice question answering, type of questions, timing yourself
Expert tips for success:
1.​ Connect to sustainability
2.​ User perspective
3.​ Diverse examples
TOPIC 3.3: Physical modeling
●​ Essential idea: A physical model is a three dimensional, tangible representation of a
design or system.
●​ Once a design is realized through sketch, they move to virtual or physical models.
Scale models:
●​ Architectural conceptual models are a quick and cheap way for architects to visualize the
final product. (space, relationship between building, etc).
●​ Landscape models of large developments use scale 1:100.
●​
●​
●​
●​
Individual buildings require a scale of 1:20 (more detail).
In the auto industry clay modeling is used to create physical models of cars.
CAD modeling is also used often.
Full sized models used to examine wind tunnel testing, fitting of hardware, door handles,
glass etc.
●​ Physical models can be digested using 3-D scanners, allowing engineers to virtually
manufacture panels, add power plants and drivetrains to develop working prototypes.
Aesthetic models:
●​ Can be physical or digital.
●​ Used to assess appearance or visual appeal of a product.
●​ Perspectives on how individuals see product is based on emotional response, cultural
influences, previous experiences, etc.
●​ Characteristic principles of aesthetic design include; line, form, color, pattern and
proportion.
●​ Elements of style, fashion trends, personal taste and originality contribute to aesthetics.
Mockups:
●​ Mock up is three dimensional, full size or scale product models.
●​ Made from materials that are not used in the final product.
●​ Designed to save time and money.
●​ Produced to catch design flaws at the earliest stage.
●​ Do not replicate functionality but used for aesthetic and ergonomic assessments.
●​ Can be done multiple times before proceeding to next stage.
Prototypes:
●​ Include the functionality aspects of design.
●​ It Looks and feels like the real product.
●​ Created as a one off to provide a final full evaluation before mass production.
●​ Changes can still be made to the product.
●​ Allows marketing departments to start advertising campaigns.
●​ Demonstrate the product to distributors before manufacturing starts.
●​ Mock ups and prototypes apply equally to digital design as much as product design.
Instrumented models:
●​ Produced to extract performance data for the purposes of verification and validation.
●​ Validation is the process of determining the degree to which a model is an accurate
representation of the real world form and perspective of the intended uses of the model.
●​ Verification is the process of determining that a model implementation accurately
represents the developer’s conceptual description of the model and the solution to the
model.
Instrumented models used for:
●​ Feedback from prosthetic devices to provide data on loading and ground reaction forces.
●​ Architectural models to study criteria design decisions and alternatives.
●​ Instrumented wheelsets for the continuous assessment of multi-planar forces.
●​ Product development and reverse engineering.
TOPIC 3.4: Computer aided design
Essential idea: Computer aided design is the generation, creation, development and analysis
of a design or system using computer software.
Types of CAD softwares: Each system applies its own form of internal logic to be understood
by designers.
●​ 2D CAD:
➢​ Operates in the x and y axes.
➢​ Drawing constructed line by line or through creation of basic shapes.
➢​ Used in place of traditional drawing.
➢​ Relies on 2 dimensional only
➢​ Used for the construction of pictorial drawing in the isometric or oblique style.
●​ Wire frame modeling:
➢​ Constructed surface by surface to produce three dimensional representation of product.
➢​ Software features give the ability to rotate the object in space to examine products from
different perspectives.
➢​ Orthographic drawings are generated automatically at the click of a mouse.
➢​ Features (holes or keyways) added as lines because the software didn't recognize
shapes and relationships to each other.
●​ 3D modeling:
➢​ Produces “solid” representations of product.
➢​ Due to Object having “mass”, calculations can be performed on the object within
software, such as volume and center of gravity.
➢​ Changes are automatically translated throughout the model.
➢​ Software is suitable for fast testing of new design iteration and problem solving.
Advantages of using CAD:
●​ Stored in a variety of formats
●​ Corrected or altered very quickly
●​ Created as 2D or 3D representations
●​ rescaled,zoomed , cropped etc for detail
●​ Presented as paper printouts, virtual models or rapid prototypes
disadvantages of using CAD:
●​ Levels of staff training required to be competent
●​ Initial cost and upgrading of software
●​ Compatibility between software and hardware
●​ Skills constantly require upgrading as software updates
●​ Steep learning curves associate with early stages of uptake
Surface modeling:
●​ Shapes the surface or skin of a CAD object.
●​ Enables very complex geometries and produces a more detailed view than wireframe
modeling.
●​ Aim is to produce as realistic an effect as possible, but no information is recorded about
the object’s interior detail.
Solid modeling:
●​ Contains the most geometric information of all CAD model types.
●​ Contains all the wireframe and surface information to fully define faces and edges of
models and associative information known as topology.
Modeling strategies:
Bottom up: A designer creates part geometry independent of the assembly or any modelling
other components. Although there are often some design criteria established before modelling
the part, this information is not shared between models. Once all parts are completed, they are
brought together for the first time in the assembly.
●​ Start with detailed specs; design parts separately and assemble.
●​ No relational updates; parts are independent.
●​ Use: Standard part designs, large systems (e.g., vehicles).
Top down: Obtained through 3D, parametric and associative CAD systems. The main feature of
this new method is that the design originates as a concept and gradually evolves into a
complete product consisting of components and sub-assemblies.
●​ Start with a concept; design evolves with parameters and interrelated parts.
●​ Changes update automatically across parts.
Advanced CAD Features:
Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
●​ Evaluate loads, stresses, heat, and durability.
●​ Use cases: Testing material properties before production.
●​ Eg. Fatigue analysis, and heat transfer evaluation.
Virtual Prototyping
●​ Simulates designs for feedback and error identification.
●​ Benefits: Reduces costs, improves quality, saves time.
Digital Humans & Motion Capture
●​ Digital humans analyze safety, comfort, and efficiency.
●​ Motion capture maps real human movement to models.
Haptic Technology
●​ Provides touch feedback (e.g., vibration, force).
●​ Use: Remote surgery, gaming, user interface testing.
Virtual Reality (VR)
●​ Creates immersive environments for design evaluation.
●​ Use: Ergonomics, safety testing, collaboration.
Animation
●​ Simulates processes to test layouts, safety, and efficiency.
TOPIC 3.5: Rapid prototyping
Essential idea: Rapid prototyping is the production of a physical model of a design using three
dimensional CAD data. Ex: 3D printer
Models are built layer by layer, using either plastics, powders, polymers, or metals.
●​ Techniques used for rapid prototyping:
Stereolithography (SLA) : modeling technique that creates 3D models layer by layer by
hardening molecules of a liquid polymer using a laser beam.
Fused deposition modeling (FDM): A 3D printing technique that places melted layers of
material on a bed to build up a 3D model.
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM): A system that virtually slices a 3D CAD model into
thin layers, then cuts out each layer from a roll of material using a laser or plotter cutter. The
layers can then be glued in the correct order to create a 3D model.
Selective laser sintering (SLS): A additive manufacturing technique that uses a laser to fuse
small particles of a material into a mass that has a desired 3D shape
TOPIC 4.1: Properties of
Materials
SL
Essential idea: Materials are selected for manufacturing products based on their properties.
Concepts and principles:
●​ Physical properties: Mass, size, volume, density, electrical resistivity, thermal
conductivity, thermal expansion and hardness
●​ Mechanical properties: tensile and compressive strength, stiffness, toughness, ductility,
elasticity, plasticity, Young’s modulus, stress and strain
●​ Aesthetic characteristics: taste, smell, appearance, texture, hearing
●​ Properties of smart materials: piezoelectricity, shape memory, photochromicity,
magneto-rheostatic, electro-rheostatic and thermoelectricity.
Young’s modulus: the stiffness of a material. How easily it is to be bended or stretched.
Yield strength: is the amount of stress (measured in MPa) a material can handle before it starts
to permanently deform. Up to this point (called the yield point), the material will return to.
Stress-strain curve: shows how much a material stretches when force is applied. It helps
engineers see when the material starts to bend permanently but before it breaks.
Physical properties that can be determined without damage or destruction:
●​ Mass: amount of matter a body contains and is constant (kg)
●​ Weight: force that represents the mass of an object acted upon by gravity Force
(weight) = m x a^g (weight is a variable quantity)
●​ Electrical resistivity: that measures how strongly it resists the flow of electric current.
●​ Thermal conductivity: Measure of efficiency of which thermal energy will travel through
a material. (Higher thermal conductivity the greater the rate at which heat will flow).
Measured using thermocouples.
●​ Thermal expansion: When material is heated thermal energy is gained results in atomic
vibrations. Leads to increase in atomic separation which then leads to increase in
dimensions of material overall.
●​ Hardness: refers to the resistance of a material to scratching or abrasion. Resistance to
indentation, penetration or cutting.
Hardness tests:
●​ Scratch tests (Mohs, Bierbaum, Pencil) Scratching of test surface with stylus/indenter.
●​ Static indentation hardness (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers) Static hardness is the penetration
of an indentor into a test surface using low loading rates.
●​ Dynamic hardness:
Mechanical properties: how materials responds to application of force
●​ Tensile and compressive strength: is a measure of a material’s resistance to plastic
deformation from a tensile or stretching type load.
●​ Ultimate tensile strengths (UTS): Maximum applied tensile load that a material can
sustain divided by the materials original cross-sectional area.
●​ Stiffness: Resistance of an elastic body to deflection by an applied force. (Modulus of
elasticity, shear modulus, bulk modulus.)
●​ Young’s Modulus: (Elastic modulus): Measure of ELASTICITY. The stiffness of a
material, how easily bendable.
●​ Toughness: The ability of a material to resist the propagation of cracks. Stress-strain
curve is an indicator of toughness. Testing: Measure resistance to impact, ex: Izod
impact test, Charpy impact test.
●​ Tough metals: undergo ductile fracture where plastic deformation happens during crack
propagation.
●​ Low toughness metals: will fracture in a brittle manner → No evidence of plastic
deformation.
●​ Toughness of material varies depending on temperature.
●​ Ductility: The ability for a material to undergo plastic deformation by extrusion or
application of tensile forces.
●​ Elasticity: Material’s ability to stretch under load and revert back to its original
dimensions.
●​ Plasticity: when a material is stretched beyond its elastic limit and doesn’t return to its
original shape. It happens because atoms slide past each other in the material’s
structure (called "slip").
●​ Stress and strain: Stress is the amount of FORCE apples per unit area. Strain is a
measure of change in length occurring when under stress (uses original length of test
piece.)
●​ Aesthetic characteristics:Features that appeal to human senses of beauty and
pleasure
Evaluated based off FIVE SENSES: taste, smell, hearing, sight and touch
●​ Properties of smart materials: reactive materials, change their properties when
exposed to electrical charges, moisture or temperature.
●​ Piezoelectricity: A material which releases a small electrical charge when responding to
an applied stressor. When electrical current passes through it, it can change shape →
Sometimes used as a sensor.
●​ Shape memory: The capability of a material to regain or recall its previous shape due to
change in temperature or electric current.
●​ Ex: braces
●​ Photochromacy: the ability of a material to change color when exposed to light.
●​ Ex: glasses exposed to light.
●​ Magneto-rheostatic: when a magnetic force is applied the thickness of the fluids
change.
●​ Thermoelectricity: materials that use two conductors but when one side is heated the
difference between the two sides create electricity.
●​ Electro-rheostatic: liquid that turns into solid once an electric force is applied used to
create small conductors. Ex:
TOPIC 4.2a : Metals and metallic alloys
Essential idea: materials are classified into six basic groups based on their different properties.
Extracting metal from ore:
●​ Metals found in earth's crust, but not evenly spread
●​ Found in ore, not pure
●​ Ore = rock consisting of carbonate, oxide, or sulphide (rock with enough metal for
economic extraction)
●​ Ore deposits not localized
●​ Mined in one place, processed elsewhere (metals are extracted)
●​ Ore is composed of several minerals of iron oxide: Hematite, Magnetite, Goethite,
Limonite.
●​ To obtain oxide = Heat the metal to separate the carbonate and sulphate ores from the
oxide.
●​ Process called SMELTING.
Grain size:
●​ When metals form, they create 3D crystal structure
●​ Metals are made of many tiny crystals called grains
●​ Grain size = how big or small these crystals are
●​ Small grains = stronger, harder metals
●​ Larger grains = softer, more flexible metals (formed through fast cooling)
●​ Grain size affects mechanical and physical properties (formed through slow cooling)
Modifying mechanical properties by:
●​ Alloying
●​ Work hardening
●​ Tempering
Alloying:
●​ Metallic elements (metal or nonmetal) other than those of the base metal are
incorporated into the crystal lattice of the base metal (that weren't already there)
●​ Results in the presence of more than one crystal structure at a time.
●​ Increases hardness and strength
●​ Decreases malleability (harder to shape or flatten without breaking)
●​ Decreases ductility (harder to stretch into a wire without it snapping)
●​ Ex: Pure iron (quite soft) allowing it with carbon = carbon steel produced (much greater
strength), and thus is more useful for construction and engineering applications.
●​ Metallic elements (solute) should be similar in atomic size to the base (solvent) metal.
Work hardening:
●​ Process of increasing hardness and strength of a metal by deforming it while cold (cold
working).
●​ Cold rolling (applying force without heating).
●​ Back pressure forms at grain boundaries, resisting further deformation.
●​ So, more force (stress) is needed to keep shaping the metal.
●​ Yield point = where permanent deformation begins. (but more stress after)
●​ Increases hardness and strength
●​ Decreased ductility
●​ Decreases malleability
Tempering:
●​ Application of heat after work hardening
●​ Item is raised to elevated temperature
●​ Then item plunged into cooler one rapidly (quench)
●​ Hardness and strength are significantly increased.
●​ Decrease in duplicity so low temperature tempering heat treatment is often done after
following the quench hardening. (prevents brittle metal)
Superalloys:
●​ Engineered metal alloys designed for extreme environments.
●​ Key Properties:
○​ High mechanical strength
○​ Resistance to corrosion
○​ Surface stability at high temperatures
○​ High resistance to creep (slow deformation under stress)
○​ Excellent oxidation resistance
●​ Ex: used in jet engines, gas turbines, and nuclear reactors where extreme heat, stress,
and corrosion occur
Creep resistance:
●​ Slow, permanent deformation of a material under a constant load over time.
●​ Occurs when The material is under long-term force, especially at high temperatures.
●​ Applied stress – more stress (below yield strength)= faster creep
●​ Operating temperature – higher temp (long term force)= faster creep
●​ Can cause materials to elongate, weaken, or fail over time.
●​ Superalloys are specially designed to resist creep
Oxidation resistance:
●​ A chemical reaction where a metal reacts with oxygen (ex: rust = iron + oxygen)
●​ Triggers: oxygen, high temperatures, acids or alkalis
●​ Some metals (ex: chromium) form a thin, protective oxide layer that blocks further
oxygen exposure
●​ This layer prevents further corrosion, as long as it stays intact.
●​ Superalloys contain elements like chromium, aluminum, and nickel.
○​ These create stable oxide layers, giving SA excellent oxidation resistance.
Recovering and disposal of metals and metallic alloys:
●​ Metals and alloys are easily recyclable.
●​ Recycling is more energy-efficient than extracting raw materials.
●​ Produces less waste and reduces resource extraction.
●​ Reuses already extracted materials, lowering environmental impact.
●​ Metals can be recycled indefinitely without losing quality.
●​ Unlike plastics, which degrade in quality with each recycling cycle.​
TOPIC 4.2b : Timber
Essential ideas: materials are classified into six basic groups based on their different properties.
Characteristics of natural timber: hardwood and softwood
●​ Each type of wood has different structures which influences their respective physical and
mechanical properties.
Softwood:
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Coniferous trees that have cones and needle-like leaves
Low density compared to hardwood
Open grains makes wood more likely to absorb water
More flexible
Less strong in tension and compression
lighter colored
Very strong aroma (ex: cedar)
Can be marked easily because it is softer
Grows fast
Renewable source
Low cost furniture (framing houses, indoor furniture, very workable)
Hardwood:
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Broad leaves and bear fruits, seeds and nuts
High density and hardness
More resistance to water
Not very flexible
Strong in tension and compression
Consistent color and grain
Wide range of color (black to pale yellow)
Slow growing
Non renewable source
High quality furniture (handles, outdoor furniture, surfaces
Resistance to wear (floors, table tops, etc)
Timber grains:
●​ Timber has a grain that affects its appearance and mechanical properties.
●​ Cut type changes the surface quality of the wood
Engineered timbers:
●​ Made by gluing together wood waste like fibres, veneers, lengths, and chips
●​ Mixed with adhesive binder, then pressed with heat and pressure.
●​ Ex: Plywood, Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam), Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL),
Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL)
●​ Create a new material. Ensures that particular performance characteristics can be
designed into the final product.
Ex:
Treating and finishing timbers:
●​ Seasoning, treatments, and finishes can improve aesthetics and performance of
characteristics of timber.
Seasoning:
●​
●​
●​
●​
Reduces moisture content in freshly harvested timber to make it usable.
High moisture makes timber unsuitable for most uses.
Can take 1 to 5+ years. (Depends on wood type, climate, and use)
Air seasoning:
○​ Timber is stacked in a sheltered, well-ventilated area for air to dry it
○​ Gaps between layers allow air flow.
○​ Battens and block piers used for spacing and support.
Treatment of timber: Improves timber’s durability and resistance to damage
1)​ Protection from insects and fungus: Put chemicals on wood to become poisonous.
2)​ Protection from the weather: put waterproofing chemicals to prevent water absorbing or
rotting.
3)​ Improve chemical resistance: treated to resist corrosive substances like acid.
Finishing of timber: enhances appearance and gives protection from environmental factors
1)​ Stains for color of wood (can sometimes protect from UV)
2)​ Oils and waxes to surface = shiny + protection from abrasion
Recovery and disposal of timber: sustainable and recycled timber is increasingly important to
consumers.
●​ Recycling timber: engineered wood is hard to recycled due to toxic glues and plastic
content (partially in the board)
●​ Uses of waste timber: often chipped and reused (landscaping, play areas, engineered
wood)
●​ Reclaimed / recycled timer: valued for age and uniqueness, (furniture and decorative)
aesthetics
Sustainable forest management:
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Replace cut trees with new ones
Protect ecosystems and animal habitats
Allow for recreational use
Reduce environmental impact of timber extraction
Preserve natural surroundings as much as possible
Key principles for UN FAO:
●​ Maintains biodiversity and regeneration
●​ Supports long-term ecological, economic and social functions
●​ Causes no harm to other ecosystems
TOPIC 4.2c: Glass
Essential ideas: materials are classified into six basic groups based on their different properties.
Glass:
●​ A solid made by rapidly cooling mixture of silica, soda and lime (non-renewable
materials)
●​ Melted together at very high temperatures (above 1700 degrees celsius)
●​ Sustainable material (recycled easily + used in applications that reduce energy usage)
●​ Due to thermal insulation qualities it is used in solar panels
●​ Inert material: do not react with medicines, food, chemicals (preserve food flavor)
●​ High energy use in production
Color:
The color of glass can be modified by the adding of metallic oxides. The color produced
depends on the amount of oxide added, heat and manufacturing process.
Transparency:
Glass can be opaque or transparent. Transparency combined with its physical properties mean
it can be used in designs that require light to pass through or visibility contents are important.
Strength:
Glass can have high compressive strength but low tensile strength. (increasingly used in
buildings, because of the ability to support weight).
Brittlness:
●​ Glass is brittle → it breaks easily under impact.
●​ Brittleness = low impact strength and little deformation before breaking.
Reducing brittleness: Tempering and laminating reduce brittleness and minimizing dangerous
fragments (improves safety)
Nonporous, non-toxic and unreactive:
●​ Smooth, non-porous surface → doesn’t absorb liquids or chemicals.
●​ Chemically inert (unreactive material) → safe for acidic contents.
●​ Non-toxic → ideal for food and drink storage.
●​ Doesn’t absorb flavors, smells, or chemicals.
Types of glass:
Recovery and disposal of glass:
●​ Glass recycled easily
●​ Cullet = crush recycled glass used in new glass products
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Added to molten mix
Lowers melting temperature
Reduces raw material use (silica, soda, lime)
Saves energy and cuts CO₂ emissions
Supports a circular economy
Adding 25% cullet = 5% energy savings
TOPIC 4.2d: Plastic
TOPIC 4.2e: Textiles
Raw material: material that hasn't been altered or changed; unprocessed
Fibers: Raw form, used in the manufacture of other materials, called composites. Can be
processed into long forms called yarns.
Yarn: long continuous fiber
Threads: thin yarns used in sewing, either by machine or hand.
Fabric: created by cloth produced by weaving, knitting or felting
Conversion of fibers to yarn:
●​ Fibres begin as a tangled mass of loose strands
●​ Natural fibres (except silk) vary in length depending on growth
●​ Requires cleaning or refining before processing.
●​ Mixing may be needed to homogenize the batch.
●​ Steps:
○​ Machinery draws out and aligns fibres.
○​ A small twist is added for basic strength.
○​ Further twisting increases strength by wrapping fibres together.
○​ This process also lengthens the yarn.
Result: The yarn formed is called a ‘single’ – a single strand of yarn.​
Conversion of yarn into fabrics:
●​
●​
●​
●​
Fabric is made by interlacing yarns
Methods include: Weaving, Knitting, Braiding
Produces a continuous sheet.
Fabric has significant length and breadth.​
Natural fibers: properties:
●​ High absorbency
●​ Low tensile strength
●​ Low elasticity
●​ Effect of high temperature: will burn but does not melt.
Synthetic fibers: properties:
●​ Low absorbency
●​ High tensile strength
●​ High elasticity
●​ Effect of temperature: will burn and melt
Weaving: The act of forming a sheet like material by interlacing long threads passing in one
direction with others at a right angle to them.
Knitting: A method for converting a yarn into fabric by creating consecutive rows of interlocking
loops of yarn.
Lacemaking: A method for creating a decorative fabric that is woven into symmetrical patterns
and figures.
Felting: A method for converting yarn into fabric by matting the fibres together.
TOPIC 4.2f: Composites
What are composites:
●​ Made by combining two materials: Reinforcement (fibres, sheets, or particles) and Matrix
(glue-like substance that binds everything)
Why use composites:
●​ Can be custom-designed for specific properties.
●​ Often replace traditional materials.
●​ Carbon fibre is a strong, lightweight material used as reinforcement in composites. (ex:
used in vehicles and aircraft for weight reduction and high strength)
Materials used in composites:
●​ Fibres (e.g. carbon, glass)
●​ Textiles, plastics, wood, metals
●​ Matrix examples: Thermosets, thermoplastics, epoxy, concrete, metal​
Manufacturing process:
●​ Weaving, molding , lamination
Form: fibers:
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Fibers can be made into threads, yarns, ropes, or strings.
These can be woven into sheets or fabrics.
Fibers are often combined with a resin to improve performance. (in a composite)
Example: Carbon fiber + resin = very strong and lightweight material.
Used in composites for vehicles, bikes, and aircraft.
Form: sheet
●​ Sheets can be laminated or layered to form composite materials.
●​ Made by layering glass panes with an interlayer (ex: plastic).
●​ Improves safety and strength – holds together when broken.​
Form: particle
●​ Particles are added to a composite to give it unique properties.
●​ Usually add little strength, but improve hardness and durability.
Ex:
●​ Concrete: composite made from different particles.
●​ Tungsten carbide particles: mixed into softer materials to make cutting tools.​
Form: Matrix
●​ Matrix is the "glue" that binds fibres or particles in a composite.
●​ Usually starts as a liquid and hardens through a chemical reaction.
●​ Ex: Glass fiber → uses epoxy resin as the matrix.
Process: weaving
●​ Weaving is used to make carbon fiber and glass fiber sheets.
●​ These woven sheets can be used in moulding processes depending on the application.
Process: moulding
●​ Composites can be formed into moulds to create specific shapes.
●​ For woven materials, the sheet is placed into a mould, then resin is added.
●​ Ex: used in fiberglass products.
Process: pultrusion
●​ Where fibres are pulled (not pushed) through a shaping tool (former).
●​ It’s the opposite of extrusion, where material is pushed through a shape.
●​ In pultrusion, fibres are pulled through a resin bath, then through a heated die to form a
solid, constant shape.
●​ Used to create strong, lightweight parts with a uniform cross-section (same shape all
along their length).
Process: lamination
●​ Lamination involves layering sheets of material with a matrix (glue) in between
●​ The sheets are often laid at right angles to increase strength.
●​ The layers are then bonded together using pressure and heat or adhesives.
Ex: Plywood is a common laminated material.​
TOPIC 4.3: Scales of production
●​ 5 types of scales
Economies of scale:
●​ Economies of scale refer to cost savings achieved when producing larger quantities of a
product.
●​ Higher production volume = lower cost per unit (because fixed costs are
spread over more items)
●​ Designers and companies choose manufacturing scale based on: size of market and
expected demand
●​ Larger-scale production requires:
○​ Greater initial investment (in equipment, tools, and setup)
○​ More skilled labor
○​ More complex systems
●​ But results in greater long-term efficiency and savings
One-off production:
●​ Production of a single item or a very limited quantity, often tailored to a client’s specific
needs.
●​ Involves highly skilled labor and specialized tools.
●​ Typically expensive and time-consuming.
●​
●​
●​
●​
Common in crafts, jewelry, and custom metalwork.
Often made and designed by the same person.
Useful in developing communities using local materials and skills.
Not scalable—does not benefit from economies of scale.
Batch production:
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Production of a set number of items in groups or batches.
Process is broken into steps, each dependent on the previous.
Requires coordination between machines, workers, and processes.
Manufacturing where flexibility and volume are needed.
Products with seasonal demand or variety in styles.​
Mass production:
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Production at a very large scale for products in high demand
Requires little to no redesign.
Often done in regions with low labor costs to reduce expenses.
Everyday consumer goods
Items with consistent, high-volume demand
Continuous flow:
●​
●​
●​
●​
Similar to mass production but highly automated and runs 24/7.
Uses robotics and automation for nonstop production.
Focuses on maximum efficiency and minimal labor.
Large-scale industries like chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and food processing
Mass customization:
●​ Combines mass production efficiency with the ability to customize products for individual
users.
●​ Uses Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) to allow choices in color, texture, features,
etc.
●​ Consumers can interact with design and influence the final product.
Production type
Advantages
Disadvantages
One off production
Highly customizable
Great for prototyping
Very high cost
Time consuming
No economies of scale
Batch production
Lower unit cost than one-off
Some customization
Flexible volume
Storage needed
Risk of over production
Mass production
Very low unit cost
Low labor costs
No customization
High environmental and
transport cost
Continuous flow
Lower per-unit cost
Fully automated
Lower material cost
Inflexible system
Very high initial investment
Mass customization
Highly customizable
Consumer involvement
Fast response and demand
Short product life cycle
Needs complex integrated
systems
Topic 4.4: Manufacturing processes
Manufacturing process
Additive: Material is added
Subtractive: The removal
Shaping: Material is
Joining: Combines
layer by layer to build the
final shape.
of material in order to
create a product.
formed or reshaped into
a specific shape using
force, heat, or molds.
two or more materials
together to form a
single product
Laser printing
Milling machine
Molding
Adhesive (gluing)
PRP (paper based
prototyping)
Abrading
Thermoforming
Welding
Fused deposition
manufacturing
Drilling
Laminating
brazing
Stereolithography
(SLA)
Lathing
Casting
fastening
Topic 4.5: Production systems
Type of Production
System
Advantages
Disadvantages
Environmental
Impact
Workforce
Impact
​
Topic 4.6: robotics and automation
●​ Robotic manufacturing systems are becoming more advanced and are transforming
production processes.
Benefits:
●​ increased efficiency
●​ Greater consistency
●​ Ability to keep up with the latest technology
Responsibilities of designers:
●​ Explore advanced robotic solutions​
●​ Consider ethical and moral issues (e.g. job loss)
●​ Acknowledge the historical impact of automation on employment​
Types of robots:
Single task robots:
●​ Built to perform one specific job (e.g. screwing bolts, welding, painting)
●​ Simple and reliable, but less versatile
Multi task robots:
●​ Can handle a wide range of tasks
●​ Versatile, but also more complex and expensive​
Robot teams:
●​ Groups of robots working together on a production line
●​ Used to perform sequences of tasks in large-scale manufacturing​
Machine to Machine (M2M):
●​ Refers to robots communicating and coordinating with each other
●​ Used in monitoring, restocking, or remote control of worksites
●​ Allows for efficient, autonomous operation
Work envelope:
●​ The 3D space in which a robot can work
●​ Determined by the robot’s reach and clearance
●​ Important for safety and planning
●​ Ex:
Load capacity:
●​ The maximum weight a robot can carry or manipulate.
Varies by application:
●​ A robot for car doors needs higher load capacity
●​ One for electronics needs much less
Robot generations:
First generation:
●​ Simple mechanical arms capable of precise, high-speed movements.
●​ Require constant human supervision to operate safely and effectively.
Second generation:
●​ Equipped with sensors to detect their surroundings.
●​ Can communicate and coordinate with each other.
●​ Do not need constant human supervision.
Third generation:
●​ Autonomous: operate without human supervision.
●​ Have their own central control unit.
●​ Use Artificial Intelligence (AI) to understand and interact with the environment.​
Advantages:
●​
●​
●​
●​
●​
Reduces human error
Faster production speeds
Improves safety by removing people from dangerous tasks
Enhances product quality and consistency
Less waste due to greater precision and fewer mistakes
Disadvantages:
●​ High initial costs for purchasing and installing machines
●​ Potential job losses, especially low-skilled jobs
TOPIC 5.1: Invention
SL
Essential idea: The production of a novel product that solves a problem is a major factor in
commercial design.
Invention is the process of discovering a principle. A technical advancement in a particular field,
often resulting in a novel product.
Drivers for invention:
●​ Personal motivation to express creativity / for personal interest
●​ Scientific or technical curiosity, “is this possible” ex: discovery of laser for molecular
structure became used for barcode scanner, etc.
●​ Constructive discontent
●​ Desire to make money ex: disposable razor blades
●​ Desire to help others ex: IDEO.org to explore solutions to improve social issues.
The lone inventor: a designer creating a novel product alone.
Advantages: can take design in their own hands, own ideas, no change in product.
Disadvantages: works better with teams for more research, more complex designs of today.
Intellectual property (IP):
“Refers to creation of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; symbols,
names and images used in commerce”. It keeps original work, preventing theft.
To protect IP:
●​ Patents: prevents people from copying inventions without permission.
●​ Copyright: A mechanism to protect rights of artists and authors. (Applied anywhere).
●​ Trademarks: Company’s legal right to claim a unique market. Legal consequences if not
followed.
●​ Service Marks: A service for advertising and adverts.
Registered Trademarks: Symbol subscripted in place of trade or service mark symbols.
Effectiveness of protection of IP: In US and Europe patents are granted for a period of 20 years
from the first filing day.
First mover:
Companies that are first to market, give them advantage. They then continue to evolve to not be
surpassed by competitors. Ex: apple when they changed the mobile phone landscape for the
first time. Other brands like Samsung and etc followed.
Patent Protection Process: requires innovators to show associated designs, technologies and
processes used.
Shelved technologies: some patented inventions are simply not commercially viable. The costs
associated with bringing them to market do not match the means of TA.
TOPIC 5.2: Innovation
SL
Essential idea: there are many different types of innovation.
Invention: act of creating something new
Innovation: introducing invention to market and adaptation/ improvement
Reasons why few inventions become innovations:(failed)
●​ Expectations of demand
●​ Magnitude of user needs
●​ Expectations of profitability
●​ Degree of positivity of market perception
●​ Amount of intellectual property protection afforded by patents.
●​ Ahead of time, too innovative
●​ Lack of technology to match idea
Types of innovations:
Sustaining innovationIt pushes things forward in small leaps, working within current systems or
markets without a disruptive revolution in how things are done.
Disruptive innovation: drastically changes the way a type of product works. This challenges
existing companies to embrace it and change.
Process innovation:improvement in the process of the manufacturer that creates or delivers
services and products. Better productivity, less money wasted.
Ex: moving assembly line of Ford, making them build quicker (quantity increase) and cost less
money to make.
Innovation strategies for design:
Architectural innovation: changes in how parts of design are arranged and interact. Technology
stays the same. But the configuration has changed.
Configural innovation: change in both technology and architecture.
Modular innovation: modifies a single component while keeping architecture intact. The basic
configuration stays the same, but one or more key components are changed.
Innovation strategies for markets:
Diffusion: It is the rate at which a new product is accepted in the market. It describes how the
product moves from being used by a small group of consumers to widely used. The product can
either dominate through improvements or it is replaced by a better product.
1 The innovation - The innovation itself affects how quickly it diffuses, Maybe based on how
disruptive it is.
2 Adopters - The people or groups who are potential users. Some groups adopt quicker.
3 Communication channels - How the adopters communicate the innovation with each other.
4 Time - Time is required for an innovation to diffuse.
5 Social System - Factors such as the media, government, or law might slow or speed diffusion
up.
Suppression: the active slowing or penetration of a new product entering the market. Done by
incumbent companies to protect their interests. Disagreements of patents on the new product
may slow down/prevent its entry into the marketplace.
TOPIC 5.3: Strategies for
Innovation
SL
Essential idea: designers have a range of strategies for innovation.
Act of insight: inventors discovering new breakthroughs simultaneously yet quite independently.
Adaptation: the transferring of successful design solutions or parts thereof to provide new
solutions for design problems in entirely different fields.
Technology transfer: process of transferring scientific knowledge/principles from one field to
another area of application. However it often involves some modification of technology, but
principles stay the same.
Analogy: likeness or similarity. The transfer of an idea from one situation to another.
Chance: a number of modern innovations may be traced back to an initial accidental discovery
through chance.
Technology push: Innovations that are driven by technological advancements rather than
consumer demand. Looking for a problem to solve.
Ex: danger reduction in cars, safety bags.
Market push: the action of consumers creating a need or market for a product or service that is
then targeted by manufacturers when developing new products.
Ex: consumer demand for bigger screens for apple products.
TOPIC 5.4: Stakeholders in
invention and innovation
SL
Essential idea: there are three key roles in invention and innovation, when can be shared by
one or more people.
The inventor, product champion and the entrepreneur:
Inventors and inventions: someone who discovers or devises a new material, a new process, a
new use for an existing material or any improvement of any of these. Also new technologies,
materials processes or software. Sometimes just new combinations of existing knowledge.
Product champions: Influential individual advocating for an invention within an organization.
●​ Understands customer needs and the product’s value.
●​ Works well with diverse people and learns quickly.
●​ Persuades stakeholders (e.g., financiers, politicians, external teams) to support the
product.
For example, Thomas Edison secured government and investor support for large-scale power
and lighting systems.
Entrepreneurs: a person willing to financially back a new enterprise calculating the risk of losing
money against potential profits.
Multi-disciplinary teams: teams of researchers, technologists and engineers are required to
bring sufficient knowledge and skills to achieve their product goal.
Advantages: wide range of backgrounds, cross-fertilization of ideas, questioning validity of
proposal (for a product), different perspectives, more feedback.
Disadvantages: potential of misunderstanding and miscommunication, new members affect
team dynamics.
TOPIC 5.5: Product life cycle
SL
Essential idea: there are several key stages in the product life cycle.
●​ The product life cycle is a tool for mapping out the four stages of a product’s commercial
life: Launch, Growth, Maturity, and Decline.
●​ This is for designers and companies to make strategic decisions about the product.
●​ Driven by societal acceptance, technological advancements, and changing preferences.
1)​ Introduction/Launch
●​ Sales are Low
●​ Competition is none or minimal (enjoy monopoly)
●​ Marketing, extensive effort is needed to create awareness.
2)​ Growth
●​ Early adopters begin to use product (increase)
●​ Sales/Profits begin to grow
●​ Competition starts, early monopoly advantage decreases.
3)​ Maturity
●​
●​
●​
●​
Increase in competition
Product differentiation strategies
crowded/saturated marketplace with many models
Profit margins are lower
4)​ Decline
●​ Sales and profit drops
●​ Public abandons product
●​ Number of models reduced
●​ More advanced technology may replace the product
Predictability of product cycle: possible to predict length of cycle.
Ex: short product cycle = digital devices (iphones)
unpredictable consumer trends in fashion
Obsolescence:
1.​ Planned: intentional design to limit product lifespan (use of low quality materials) creates
waste.
2.​ Technological: outdated, replaced by superior technology (drive innovation) depend on
online services without alternatives.
3.​ Functional: products fail due to unavailable parts or services (older computers can
support new software) leads to high cost for custom replacements
4.​ style/fashion: products fall out of fashion because no longer the trend (aesthetic
changes in cars, wardrobe changes) contributes to fast fashion and environmental
waste.
Product versioning/generations: creation of variation of products, different models and prices.
Better for consumer preference and a larger market for companies.
TOPIC 5.6: Rogers
characteristics of innovation and
consumers
SL (extra important)
Diffusion and innovation: the process of which a new product is accepted by the market.
Technology adoption:
Innovators: first to adopt product
Early adopters: risk takers, leaders, introduce product to community , important to get over “the
chasm”
Early majority: will adopt once in status quo, will adopt once benefits are clear
Late majority: more cautious, responsive to peer pressure, adopt product once its been
established in the market
Laggards: highly resistance to change, hard to reach with marketing, last to adopt new product
The impact of roger’s characteristics on consumer adoption of innovation
Relative advantage: The extent to which a design is more efficient, affordable, easier to use,
etc, than designs that came before it.
Possible advantages can include:
●​ better service, improved interface, reduced user effort,
●​ consolidation of multiple functions into one tool,
●​ decreased need for supplies and equipment,
●​ empowerment of users, increased customizability,
●​ increased longevity, reduced environmental impact,
●​ increased productivity, saving of space or storage,
●​ saving money, saving time.
Compatibility: how compatible design is with social norms and beliefs of the target market.
Complexibility: (simplicity) The degree to which a design is perceived as easy to use.
Observability: Refers to the idea that the benefits of the innovation are visible to the user. If
users are able to readily identify the benefits, the rate of adoption is greater.
Trialability: Refers to the ability to try out a product before investing time or money in it.
Ex: Apple lets consumers test products out in store before purchasing.
Social media influence on diffusion and innovation: Social media can be used to generate
support for an innovation. Social networks such as Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter are used as
methods of raising brand awareness.
TOPIC 5.7: Innovation, design
and marketing specifications
SL
Target market: describes the sectors and segments within a population. describes a large
group of people that are targeted for advertising, marketing, or a particular product or service.
Target audiences: a narrower definition that describes the specific characteristics of the users
within each sector or segment.
Market analysis: identifying markets and user needs, generating new product concepts and
ideas, market testing, assessing product viability, gathering product review and feedback.
User need: identify needs and motivations of consumers before trying to meet those needs
through the development of a product.
Market specification: Marketing specifications are developed from careful analysis and
research of the target market and user need.
Research methods: essential for ensuring a design successfully enters the marketplace.
variety of approaches to research in order to gain insight about the users, needs, target market,
and performance requirements.
Competition: Through analyzing the competition, designers can benchmark their design
against an existing product in order to identify the minimum features needed to be successful.
Design specifications: the requirements of a product and details important aspects of the
design goal.
Internal Assessment
Criterion A - Research
Grade 11
Criterion A Checklist
Topic choice
1.​ Personal interests
a.​ Is there something you do or use that you feel is missing something or could be
improved?
b.​ EXAMPLE: Running, gym, football, dance, baking, health, organisation, scuba diving
2.​ Reach/Grip/Lift
a.​ Think about products that have been redesigned over time
b.​ Considering being physically disabled or children, how could design be used to enable
and empower people in these situations?
c.​ There are direct links to topics 1 and 3
d.​ EXAMPLE: Ketchup bottles reinvented, Parkinson's spoon
3.​ Modular and/ or Multifunctional
a.​ We often surround ourselves with expensive products and are increasing living in smaller
spaces, especially here in Paris
b.​ EXAMPLE: sunglasses with different lenses
4.​ Portability or Flatpack
a.​ Lack of storage and financial and environmental costs of shipping products are huge
b.​ Designing products that can be sold flat-packed and easily assembled is a great way to
solve this problem
c.​ EXAMPLE: mattress rolled up, Ikea
5.​ Looking at the work of others
a.​ Get inspiration by looking at others' design
b.​ EXAMPLE: https://www.yankodesign.com/
6.​ Surveying the needs of others
a.​ If you find yourself around a very specific population of people (kids, elderly, etc)
b.​ Ask others if they have a personal need or problem for you to solve
7.​ UN Sustainable Goals
a.​ Tie whatever you do to the SDGs
b.​ Projects can use this as a starting point and can often turn out to be innovative and
creative.
c.​ EXAMPLE: SDG clean energy - portable solar charger
8.​ Exemplar projects
a.​ It's often useful to looks through previously completed student project to see what others
did
Criterion B - Idea development
Grade 11 + Summer + Grade 12
Criterion C - Manufacture
Fall Grade 12
Criterion D - Testing
Winter Grade 12
Innovation:
Razor hair remover o