Articles
Effect of improved earthen stoves: improving
health for rural communities in Bangladesh
S.M. Nazmul Alam and Sakila Jahan Chowdhury
Department of Social Science, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth
Western Australia 6845, Australia
E-mail (Alam): smnazmul@yahoo.com
Anwara Begum and Mizanur Rahman
Caritas Fisheries Program, 1/C, 1/A, Pallabi, Mirpur, Section-12, Dhaka-1217, Bangladesh
A study was undertaken to evaluate health effects generated by biomass combustion in improved
earthen cookstoves with socio-economic considerations. A questionnaire was developed and a random sampling method was employed for selecting the samples from the population. Five focus group
discussions were also held. The majority (93 %) of the respondents experienced reduced hand roughness while 88 % of them claimed not to have hand burns while cooking with the improved system.
Virtually all (98 %) women said they had better health and lifestyle improvements by using the
improved earthen stove. Many of the health hazards from the traditional stove have been reduced
to a great extent. Women’s contribution to family income increased by 0.24 % of the total following
use of improved stoves (average increase 13.83 taka/month). Respondents reduced cooking time by
25 % and saved 45 taka/month in fuel costs. The average household saved 1.5 kg of fuel and 45
minutes time daily by using the improved earthen stove.
1. Introduction
1.1. Biomass and health effects
Considerable health effects can be associated with indoor
air pollution arising from combustion of biomass and coal
for cooking, water heating and space-heating. According
to Saldiva and Miraglia [2004] the number of people exposed to severe indoor air pollution derived from biomass
burning is higher than the number of people affected by
outdoor pollution. Indoor air pollution causes 5-6 times
as much life shortening as the more familiar urban air
pollution [Goldemberg et al., 2004] and is second only to
unsafe water as a cause of premature mortality [WHO,
2002]. According to WHO, the smoke from burning solid
fuels is estimated to be responsible for 1.6 million deaths
each year in the world’s poorest countries. Indoor air pollution affects poor women and small children far more
than any other section of society, killing almost one million children under five every year [UNDP, 2005]. Cooking and heating with solid fuels like dung, wood,
agricultural residues, charcoal and coal are the most widespread traditional source of indoor air pollution [Mehta
and Shahpar, 2004].
Burning biomass leads to the formation of pollutants
such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, aldehydes,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and primary and secondary particles. Primary particles are usually composed of
a core of carbon, which has several compounds adhering
to its surface, whereas secondary particles are formed
mainly by gas conversion to particles, such as nitrogen
oxides to nitrates. All of these components are harmful to
46
health to some degree or other and may exhibit a high
concentration inside homes during cooking [Saldiva and
Miraglia, 2004]. While biomass is considered a renewable
fuel, the inefficient and unhealthy use of these solid fuels
in the home is putting millions of the world’s poorest
families at risk. Particles from burning wood and charcoal
make lungs vulnerable to acute lower respiratory infections, such as pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and there is evidence linking indoor air
pollution to asthma, tuberculosis, cataracts, low birth
weight and infant mortality [UNDP, 2005].
1.2. Biomass fuel status
Biomass, a vital primary source of fuels, provides goods
and services to almost 2.5 billion people around the world
[Reddy et al., 1997]. Biomass represents approximately
14 % of the world’s final energy consumption [IEA,
1998]. About 75 % of biomass fuels is used in developing
countries [Overend, 2002]. The rural population in Bangladesh consumes a large amount of traditional biomass
fuels for cooking and other purposes. The commonly
known biomass fuels in Bangladesh are fuelwood, including tree wastes, agricultural residues and animal dung
[Eusuf, 1989]. The total amount of biomass fuel consumed
in 2000 was approximately 45 million tonnes (Mt) [Hossain, 2003]. Biomass fuels account for 54 % of the total
energy consumption of the country, the remaining 46 %
of the need being met by commercial fuels, i.e., natural
gas, oil, electricity and coal. Among biomass fuels, agricultural residues contribute 45 %, while fuels derived
from trees contribute only 15 % to the national total. The
Energy for Sustainable Development ! Volume X No. 3 ! September 2006
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domestic and industrial sectors respectively consume 42 %
and 11.4 % of the biomass fuels used [Hossain, 2003].
1.3. Traditional stove
In Bangladesh, a majority of rural communities use traditional stoves for cooking and heating purposes. The traditional stove is made of mud with three raised points on
which the pots are supported. One opening between these
raised points is used as the fuel feeding port while the
other two are for the emission of combustion products.
The stove may be built under- or overground. The traditional stove suffers excessive loss of heat and has the following drawbacks.
• The large distance between the pot and fuel bed (depth
ranging from 30 to 60 cm) causes considerably reduction in heat transfer to the cooking pot.
• Because of the large size of flue gas exits between the
cooking pot and stove much of the hot flue gas exits
the stove without coming into contact with the cooking
pot, thus reducing the convective heat transfer. This
also results in high temperatures in the kitchen environment.
• Since air cannot reach the bottom of the stove, a considerable amount of cooking fuel accumulates at the
bottom as charcoal.
The efficiencies of such stoves vary from 5 to 15 % depending on the depth of the stove and size of the flue gas
exits [Khan et al., 1995]. Apart from having low efficiency, these stoves emit smoke, which affects the health
of the users and makes the kitchen dirty. Because of incomplete combustion of biomass fuel in traditional cooking stoves, appreciable quantities of irritants, toxins and
carcinogens are released in the kitchen environment and
these pose a major threat to the respiratory system of the
users.
1.4. Improving efficiency
The Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR) has developed a series of models of improved stoves and their accessories [Hossain, 1995] to suit
the needs of the user in respect of biomass fuel, the shape
of the cooking pot and cooking habits. These improved
stoves save 50-65 % fuel and cooking time compared
with traditional stoves. The maximum overall efficiency
is estimated at 30 %. Some of the features of the improved stove include:
• a chimney to remove smoke from the kitchen;
• an enclosed fire to retain the heat;
• careful design of the pot holder to maximise the heat
transfer from the fire to the pot;
• baffles to create turbulence and hence improve heat
transfer;
• dampers to control and optimise the air flow;
• a ceramic insert to minimise the rate of heat loss;
• a grate to allow for a variety of fuels to be used and
ash to be removed;
• metal casing to give strength and durability; and
• multi-pot systems to maximise heat use and allow several pots to be heated simultaneously.
1.5. Women as victims of biomass combustion
Cooking and responsibility for family members occupies
a major portion of a woman’s daily life (51 to 54 %). By
tradition, cooking is exclusively done by women. Women,
therefore, fall victim to acute health hazards caused by
indoor air pollution associated with the burning of
biomass and coal in homes [Smith et al., 2004]. Particles
generated by biomass-burning exhibit toxicity and affect
women and children (under their care) present in the
cooking environment. The exposure of women to emissions generated by biomass stoves has been shown to significantly increase the rate of lung [Smith and Liu, 1993]
and laryngeal [Clifford, 1972] cancers. Acute respiratory
infections in children exhibit a consistent association with
exposure to biomass pollution [Collins et al., 1990;
Kossove, 1982].
1.6. Fuel availability in south-west Bangladesh
The south-western coastal zone of Bangladesh is characterized by multiple resource systems, which are generally
considered common property. Therefore, these coastal resources are heavily used and hence are being rapidly degraded. Competition for resources among multiple users
results in social, economic, environmental and political
disturbances.
The increasing international demand for and high prices
of shrimp have led to the conversion of agricultural land
to brackish water aquaculture and started changing the
entire ecosystem in the area. Soil salinity is now the dominant limiting factor affecting crops, livestock, fisheries
and forestry on the coast. Farming systems are generally
characterized as fragmented, traditional and subsistencebased. Access to agricultural technology and improved agronomic practices is limited. Lack of vegetation coverage
and frequent natural calamities reduces flora and fauna in
the area. Minimal rice production and paucity of grazing
land leads to shortage of livestock. Very low productivity
threatens livelihood security in the area. As a result fuel
scarcity has become acute in and around the shrimp culture areas. High population pressure also results in invasion of the nearby mangrove area, the Sundarban[1], in
order to harvest wood, honey, fry (i.e., young fish) collection and other economic resources. The activity of one
community affects the livelihood of others in many ways.
Human intervention has thus adversely affected the environment and thereby the quality of life in and around the
coastal area has become vulnerable.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Profile of the study area
The study area is situated between 22º11′ and 22º17′ N,
and 89º03′ and 89º12′ E, in the brackish water area of
south-western Bangladesh. The Sundarban lies to the
south and east. It is separated by the Kadamtali, Malancha, Dumkoli and Chunkuri rivers [Alam, 2002]. The
Bay of Bengal lies beyond the Sundarban to the south of
the study area, and the river Kalindi bordering India to
the west (Figure 1). Administratively, the study area was
drawn from three unions[2] (Munshiganj, Ramjannagar
and Koikhali) under Shyamnagar upazila[3] of Satkhira
District.
The improved earthen stove has been provided to the
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47
Articles
Figure 1. Map of the study area
beneficiaries under a project component of the Sustainable
Environment Management Programme of the Ministry of
Environment and Forest of the Government of Bangladesh. The project started in October 1998 aiming at establishing environmentally sustainable, economically
viable and socially equitable coastal resources management through a community-based approach. The project
made several interventions to achieve the desired outputs.
Providing improved earthen stoves to the women beneficiaries (selection criteria: income not over 3,000[4]
taka/month; land-holding less than 1 acre (0.4 ha); nonholder of a government job; education less than tertiary
level) was an input among others in the course of project
implementation. The objectives of providing improved
stoves are to conserve fuel-wood and forests, to remove
smoke from the kitchen, to reduce drudgery for women
and improve their health.
The majority of the livelihood (i.e., occupational)
groups in the project area are farm labourers (42 %) and
farmers (40 %), and those depending on the Sundarban
for livelihood form 18 %. The major groups depending
on the Sundarban are shrimp fry collectors (35 %), fishermen (33 %), woodcutters (22 %), boatmen (4 %),
nypa[5] leaf collectors (3 %), shell/crab collectors (2 %)
and honey/medicinal plant collectors [SBCP, 2001].
Lack of vegetation coverage and frequent natural
calamities deplete flora and fauna in the area. Minimal
48
rice production and grazing land leads to shortage of livestock. Very low productivity threatens livelihood security
in the project area. Health-care facilities are inadequate
and the incidence of chronic disease is high. People in
the project area are susceptible to a wide range of vulnerabilities including natural hazards, ecosystem degradation
and lack of opportunities. These vulnerabilities affect the
livelihoods of the poor and the communities and thus aggravate their hardship and poverty.
2.2. Description of the improved earthen stove
The improved earthen stove is an upgraded and modified
version of a traditional stove used by the majority of people in the village. The improved stove is built with good
clay subsoil in the kitchen or outside the kitchen. Lowcost materials and simple technology are applied to make
it safe, easy, inexpensive, and effective.
The stove has two chambers (Figure 2). In the first
chamber fuel is burnt and cooking takes place through the
direct heat from the fire. The combustion products from
the first chamber enter the second chamber (on the right)
through a space of 12.5 cm diameter and provide heat for
cooking in the right chamber. Later the smoke is carried
away from the chambers by a chimney (polyvinyl chloride
pipe) 1.5 m long and 7.5 cm in diameter through the
kitchen roof. Inside the first chamber there is a metallic
grate 20 cm below the pot where fuel is placed. This grate
is also used to filter out the ash onto the bottom. Just
Energy for Sustainable Development ! Volume X No. 3 ! September 2006
Articles
above the frame there is an opening to push the fuel into
the first chamber. The bottom of the second chamber is
filled with earth so that a 5-7.5 cm gap remains between
the pot and the bottom. At the bottom of the grate in the
first chamber there are two openings each 12.5 cm in diameter, one to let air in and the other to let ash out. There
are no raised points at the mouth of the stove unlike in
the traditional model. Thus there is no gap between the
pot and the stove, and no way out for the heated gas or
smoke from the stove into the kitchen.
2.3. Sampling
The study was conducted on a sample of 60 users drawn
randomly from 300 recipients of improved earthen stoves
living in the project area. A questionnaire was formulated
using both closed and open-ended questions. The variables covered in the study were information on socio-economic features of the stove users (category, family
members, education, occupation, income), improvement
in health (as perceived), socio-economic achievements
and problems experienced by ex-users (i.e., those who had
given up the improved stove). The study process was conducted with the participation of the wives of the (male)
household heads who received the improved stove.
Figure 2. Improved earthen stove
Table 1. Level of education of the respondents
Education level
Number
%
Illiterate
19
31.67
Can sign their names
21
35
3. Results and discussion
Can sign their names and read
4
6.67
3.1. Socio-economic features of the respondents
3.1.1. Category of stove users
It is observed that out of 60 users, 15 (25 %) families
used the improved earthen stove very regularly, while 17
(28 %) used the earthen stove less regularly. The remaining 28 (47 %) families used the new stove during a specific period of the year, the rainy season. The stove users
were convinced of and appreciated the advantages and improvements. Most of them appreciated fuel-wood saving,
fast or time-saving cooking, less smoke and cleanness of
the kitchen. The stove was appreciated as smart, comfortable and safe. It is made of local material and therefore
cheap to build. It has potential to save money and reduces
the workload.
3.1.2. Family size of the respondents
The total population of the three unions is 79,404, which
is 26.38 % of that of the Shyamnagar upazila of Satkhira
district. Munshiganj union has a population of 32,252
(10.71 % of the upazila total, 40.62 % of the total for the
three unions). The Ramjannagar union has a population
of 21,862 (7.26 % of the upazila total, 27.53 % of the
total for the three unions). The rest, 25,290 people (8.4 %
of the upazila total, 32.42 % of the total for the three
unions) belong to Kaikhali union. The project area consisted of villages drawn from the three unions. The total
population of the project beneficiaries, selected from the
project area, was 12,403, which is 15.62 % of the total
population of the three unions. The average family size
was found to be 5.55 among the surveyed families, which
was lower than the average family size (5.69) of Shyamnagar upazila.
3.1.3. Level of education of the respondents
The education level of the women under the study was
found to be low. 31.67 % of the respondents were illiter-
Primary
9
15
Secondary
5
8.33
Higher secondary and more
2
3.33
Total
60
100
ate (Table 1). Among the literate population the vast majority (35 %) can only sign their names, while only
6.67 % can read and write. 15 % and 8.33 % of the respondents have completed primary and secondary education respectively. Only a few of the respondents (3.33 %)
have qualifications higher than secondary education.
3.1.4. Occupation of the respondents
There was little chance to work outside the vicinity of
the home before the introduction of shrimp culture into
the area. Women have become involved in the process of
shrimp culture as an alternative source of occupation. Besides household activities, these women catch shrimp fry
and get employment in shrimp farms. Many of the women
do not recognise household work as a primary occupation
as it has no monetary value. From the survey household
work was the primary occupation of 21 % of the women
and others were in various jobs that include fry collection,
working at shrimp farms and as wage labour. 75 % of the
women have a secondary occupation and only 4 % have
a tertiary occupation.
3.1.5. Monthly household income of the respondents
The monthly average income of the male head of household was found to be 2,650 taka. The average monthly
income of a woman was 139.09 taka. Table 2 shows that
6 respondents (10 %) have household monthly income below 1000 taka, 29 respondents (21.67 % + 26.67 %) have
up between 1,000 and 3,000 taka as their monthly income,
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Table 2. Monthly income of the household
Monthly income
(taka)
Number of
households in this
income range
% of households
in this income
range
< 1000
6
10
1000-2000
13
21.67
2000-3000
16
26.67
3000-4000
12
20
4000-5000
8
13.33
> 5000
5
8.33
Total
60
100
and another 20 respondents have monthly incomes between 3,000 and 5,000 taka. Only 5 (8.33 %) respondents
have over 5,000 taka as their monthly income.
3.2. Improving the health environment
The positive aspects of the improved earthen stove are
well known to the users. The objectives of this study were
to make an evaluation of the improvement in the health
and socio-economic condition of the stove users. It is perceived that the use of the improved stove was a really
useful tool because of its great role in improving the lives
and livelihood of the poor villagers.
The most visible and useful achievement of the improved stove is the impact on health. As women are close
to the stove, they are the victims of any adverse impact
of the stove. 98 % of the respondents stated that they enjoyed better health by using the improved stove. Their
hands got burned when they used the traditional stove.
Their eyes are affected by smoke and a burning sensation.
These problems were greatly reduced by 75 % and 88 %
respectively when they used the improved stove.
3.2.1. Reducing problems related to fire and heat
88.37 % of the respondents admitted to not receiving hand
burns during cooking with the improved earthen stove.
The reason is the lack of raised points in the improved
system so the fire could not get out of the combustion
chamber. In the traditional stove heat comes out of the
chamber and in summer especially handling the pots becomes a very troublesome task. The users get prickly heat
during hot weather. 39.53 % and 20.93 % of the respondents claimed to have less nausea and fewer headaches
respectively during cooking with the improved system.
Almost all the respondents reported reduced smoke emission in the kitchen environment.
3.2.2. Reducing blackening of the bottom of the pot
Most of the families in the village comprise many members and have several cooking utensils. When the women
cook with the traditional stove a black layer of soot is
formed at the bottom of the pot and becomes very troublesome to remove by mere rubbing. Eventually the users
have to use ash, resulting in roughness of their hands.
Their hands also suffer from pain. In many instances the
women are free from these hassles in cooking with the
improved earthen stove. The majority (95.35 %) of the
50
respondents claimed to have reduced hand roughness because of less formation of a soot layer at the bottom of
the pots.
3.2.3. Reducing generation of toxic gas/smoke
Toxic gas and smoke are emitted in much greater quantities when the traditional stove is used. The respondents
under this study claimed to get less smoke in the kitchen
as the smoke passed via a chimney through the roof of
the kitchen and the women were thus kept away from its
harmful effects. 74.42 % of the respondents did not get
eye irritation or eye itching because of reduced smoke
emission in the kitchen environment.
3.2.4. Reducing cooking time
With the traditional stove women take more time to cook.
While using the improved stove women reported saving
of one-third of the time taken with the traditional stove.
In the improved system, fuel is burnt on the grate so the
pot receives heat directly due to the short distance between the pot and the fuel, thus reducing cooking time.
So they spend less time suffering from smoke and heat
in the kitchen. The study showed that it took only 2.25
hours to cook using the improved stove for a family of
average 5.55 members compared with 3 hours using the
traditional stove for the same family size. Thus, 45 minutes (25 % of cooking time) was saved. They contributed
their saved time to other household matters.
3.2.5. Reducing fuel usage
The users experienced less fuel-wood use with the stove.
The study showed that a family with 5.55 members could
save 1.50 kg of fuel daily. The family used an average of
4.5 kg fuel with the traditional stove in a day while it
took only 3 kg of fuel for cooking with the improved
stove. Thus there was a 33.3 % saving of fuel, which is,
however, less than the findings of BCSIR [2001] (50 %).
The family thus saved 45 kg of fuel in a month and 540
kg of fuel in a year. In money terms, this amounted to a
saving of 45 taka/month (fuel cost 1 taka/kg). The collected fuel remained for a longer period of time, so that
they had to go out less often for fuel collection.
3.2.6. Reducing emissions of particulate matter
Biomass smoke contains thousands of substances, many
of which involve potential health consequences. Small
particles of diameter less than 10 microns (PM10) and in
particular those of less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) are able
to penetrate deep into the lungs and appear to have the
greatest health damaging potential [USEPA, 1997]. Dasgupta et al. [2006] provided evidence on PM10 and PM2.5
concentrations in households living in extreme poverty in
typical kitchen arrangements (fuel use, cooking arrangements and structural characteristics) in six regions in
Bangladesh. Air monitoring research in Guatemala has indicated that improved stoves can lower indoor PM10 concentrations by 50 % or more [McCracken et al., 1999;
Naeher et al., 2001]. Although no instrument was used to
measure the airborne particle concentrations in this study,
100 % of respondents reported reduced free particles and
less respiratory problems with using the improved stove.
The reduced problems associated with the health of
women are shown in Figure 3.
Energy for Sustainable Development ! Volume X No. 3 ! September 2006
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Figure 3. Reduction of health problems of the improved stove users
Table 3. Economic activities of the improved-stove users
Type of economic activity
Before
(%)
Change
(%)
76.67
76.67
0
65
55
10
46.67
58.33
-11.66
Catching shrimp fry and selling
30
30
0
Growing vegetables and selling
13.67
10
3.67
Catching crab and selling
11.67
11.67
0
Rearing cattle and selling milk
10
10
0
Growing trees and selling fruits
8.33
8.33
0
Paid labour
6.67
6.67
0
Tailoring
6.67
6.67
0
Collection of fuel
Rearing poultry and selling eggs
Selling charcoal
With use of
improved stove (%)
3.3. Socio-economic achievements
Women are not paid for household work but perform
many tasks that have monetary value. For example, they
collect cowdung from the fields and fruits and branches
of mangrove trees during low tide and use them as fuel,
thus reducing the need to buy fuel. In the study area 95 %
of the respondents were involved in fuel collection.
41.67 % of families collected fuel and 53.33 % were collecting and buying fuel from the market. Only 5 % of
families bought all their fuel.
Before the introduction of the improved earthen stove,
the contribution of respondents to their families’ incomes
was 5.01 % (125.33 taka/month out of an average
monthly family income of 2,503 taka/month). After the
introduction of the improved stove their contribution increased to 5.25 % (139.17 taka/month out of an average
family income of 2,650 taka/month). While the reasons
for this increase are varied, the improved stove played an
important role in that it saved time and gave them an
opportunity to perform paid labour outside the home. The
contribution of women in the study area to monthly incomes
varied between 1 % and 40 %, of which the average
monthly contribution was (as stated above) 5.25 % (see
Table 3).
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Women were able to spend their extra time in other
activities such as rearing poultry, cattle, shrimp fry catching, sewing kantha (quilts), tailoring, gardening and other
housework. Children also benefited as they spent less time
in collecting fuel and more time on their education. Thus
they benefit economically from every activity.
The study also found that in the three unions (Munshiganj, Ramjannagar and Koikhali) families consumed
55.81 tonnes fuel daily using the traditional stove, while
the usage declined to 37.21 tonnes when they used the
improved earthen stove. Overall, the study estimates a
saving of 18.60 tonnes of fuel and 18,604.50 taka daily.
3.4. Problems experienced by ex-users of the improved
stove
The performance of an improved stove depends on the
delivery of its intended benefits. The ex-users had used
the stove in the past but were unconvinced of its advantages. 17 families in the study area stopped using the improved stove for the following reasons.
3.4.1. Structural problems with the improved stove
The quality of an improved stove depends on construction
and maintenance. Problems arise when the stove-maker
does not adhere to technical specifications during installation or if users neglect regular maintenance. It was observed that some stoves were not constructed according
to the design. Two ex-users stated that it cooked well in
the first chamber, but not in the second chamber. Another
ex-user stated that because the stove lacked a proper chimney outlet, smoke was unable to escape into the atmosphere and became trapped inside. This was exacerbated
by lack of regular cleaning of the chimney.
3.4.2. Experiencing disadvantages
Traditionally, stoves had only one mouth, which allowed
women to cook two or more dishes one after another and
to take time to pre-process the next dish. This freed them
up to do other domestic work while cooking and did not
require their continuous presence as residual ash was
cleared after the cooking was complete. With the twomouth improved stove the user was required to sit with
all the dishes being cooked and continuously supervise
activities, which some found inconvenient. Moreover, ash
accumulated in the stove very quickly, and could affect
the combustion process. In some instances, it was found
that if one dish was cooked in one mouth, which left the
other mouth empty, fuel was wasted and more smoke was
released. In such cases, women sometimes shifted back
to the traditional one-mouth stove. Rather than using the
improved stove, it was sometimes kept as a status symbol,
showing that the owner had a better cooking device at home.
3.4.3. Problems related to the types of fuel used
In the study area it was observed that households made
extra income (30-50 taka/month) by selling charcoal collected from the traditional stove. In the improved stove,
fuel burnt on the grate, leaving more ash and smaller
quantities of charcoal. This deprived users of an extra
source of income, even if they used more fuel, and thus
acted as a disincentive to using the improved stove.
Some of the ex-users experienced problems in cooking
with paddy straw and tree leaves as they dropped through
52
the gaps in the grate mesh. In some cases, irregular shaped
wood and branches touched the bottom of the pot, affecting cooking efficiency. On the other hand, some others
used more regularly shaped wood, straw and dried dung
cake in the improved stove. In the traditional stove, different types and shapes of fuel could be used simultaneously, which was seen by users as more efficient,
especially during the paddy harvesting season when paddy
straw was freely available.
4. Conclusion
The introduction of the improved earthen stove is a safer,
cost-efficient and proven technology that meets the needs
of its users. By saving fuel, households not only save energy and money but also valuable time, which can be used
for other purposes. This new technology keeps the kitchen
cleaner, provides health benefits and helps to conserve the
forest resources.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the project partners and the funds
provided by the UNDP. The authors also acknowledge the contribution of Rozlin Tuli Falia
and Niaz Imtiaz of the Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar University,
Savar, Bangladesh, for data collection and processing and they express thanks to many
people who assisted and gave their valuable time during the study period.
Notes
1. The world’s largest single productive mangrove forest is situated along the south-western Bay of Bengal. It covers an area of about one million hectares, of which 60 %
(6,017 km2) is situated in Bangladesh and the rest in India. Its beauty lies in its unique
geographical characteristics. These include thousands of streams and rivers, as well
as hundreds of plant and animal species, including the royal Bengal tiger [SBCP, 2001].
The Sundarban (meaning “beautiful forest”) is being threatened by increasing encroachment and consequent loss of biodiversity and has been declared a World Heritage site.
The livelihood of the people of the study area of this paper largely depends on resources
in and around the Sundarban [Alam et al., 2002].
2. Union is a local-level government administration centre. It consists of a number of
villages.
3. Upazila is a sub-district and a government administration centre at the mid-level. It
consists of a number of unions of several villages.
4. 1 taka = 0.016 US$ in August 2004. As of July 24, 2006, the value of 1 taka had
become 0.0143 US$.
5. A species of trunkless palm found all over the magroves of Asia, Oceania and the
eastern coast of Africa.
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coastal areas of Bangladesh”, The Land, 6(3), pp. 173-184.
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Contributions invited
Energy for Sustainable Development is a venture in the field of journals on energy
with a special focus on the problems of developing countries. It attempts a
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With such a multi-disciplinary approach, Energy for Sustainable Development
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