Enhanced Teacher’s Manual
EnhancEd TEachEr’s Manual
Amadeo Pangilinan Cristobal, Jr., Ed.D.
Maura Consolacion De la Cruz-Cristobal, Ed.D
C & E Publishing, Inc.
2017
C&E
Publishing, Inc.
C & E Publishing, Inc. was
established in 1993 and is a
member of ABAP, PBAI, NBDB,
and PEPA.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual
Practical Research 1
For Senior High School
Published by C & E Publishing, Inc.
839 EDSA, South Triangle, Quezon City
Tel. No.: (02) 929-5088
e-mail: info@cebookshop.com
Copyright © 2017 by C & E Publishing, Inc.,
Amadeo Pangilinan Cristobal, Jr., Ed.D., and
Maura Consolacion De la Cruz-Cristobal, Ed.D
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
Cover Design:
Jenno dC. Diaz
Layout:
Maricar L. Sanchez
ISBN 978-971-98-0744-5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT
1
The Nature of Research
Chapter 1
What is Research?............................................................................................................. 2
Chapter 2
Different Types of Research.......................................................................................... 7
Chapter 3
Ethics in Research........................................................................................................... 15
Chapter 4
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations....................................................... 20
Chapter 5
The Introduction............................................................................................................. 25
Chapter 6
The Statement of the Problem................................................................................... 30
Chapter 7
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance
of the Study........................................................................................................................ 36
UNIT
2
Review of Literature
Chapter 8
The Review Process
44
Chapter 9
The Standard Styles of Writing
49
Chapter 10 Research Framework
54
Chapter 11 Related Literature
59
Chapter 12 Related Studies
66
v
UNIT
3
Conducting Qualitative
Research
Chapter 13
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research............................................ 72
Chapter 14
Sampling for Research................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 15
Data Collection................................................................................................................. 86
Chapter 16
Validity and Reliability.................................................................................................. 96
UNIT
4
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE
DATA AND DRAWING
CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 17 Drawing Patterns and Themes...................................................................104
Chapter 18 The Formulation of the Summary of Findings,
Conclusion, and Recommendations 111
vi
UNIT
1
THE NATURE
OF RESEARCH
CHAPTER
1
objectIves
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
࿿࿿࿿q憘皉࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿r࿿䍥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿sⰴ
䪇࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿t嵜࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿u蓔
蓔 ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
v扔⇐࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿w仐儙࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿x࿿䓢
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿y鬲ȡ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿z‫ﯜ‬眻࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
{拂ⱼ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿|ힼ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿}绶䋥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
~糬㍓࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿䫞❑࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿€ᘒ
圇࿿102ƒ匠≯࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿„dž娂࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
㓢⪜࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿†薪࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‡뷜愭
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿ˆ춤℉࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‰婌坿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
Š࿿RȒ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‹‫ﲈ‬氬࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿Œ켜洛࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
쩒䳥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿Žⴚ⤦࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿럮啿
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿䍯࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‘䑦沋࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
’ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿“ፌ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿”줺य़ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
•䙸䇗࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿–戞燥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿—뚨乂
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿˜䏸࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿™巺椡࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
šᥪ窿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿›륨幍࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿œ d
efine research;
࿿࿿࿿q憘皉࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿r࿿䍥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
sⰴ䪇࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿t嵜࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿u蓔
蓔
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿v扔⇐࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿w仐儙࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
x࿿䓢࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿y鬲ȡ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿z‫ﯜ‬眻
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿{拂ⱼ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿|ힼ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
}绶䋥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿~糬㍓࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
䫞❑࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿€ᘒ圇࿿103ƒ匠≯࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
„dž娂࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿ 㓢⪜࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿†
薪࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‡뷜愭࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿ˆ춤℉
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‰婌坿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿Š࿿RȒ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
‹‫ﲈ‬氬࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿Œ켜洛࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
쩒䳥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿Žⴚ⤦࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿럮啿
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿䍯࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‘䑦沋࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
’ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿“ፌ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿”줺࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
•䙸䇗࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿–戞燥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿—
뚨乂࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿˜䏸࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿™
巺椡࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿šᥪ窿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿›륨幍
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿œ explain the importance
of research in the daily life of an
individual; and
What is Research?
࿿࿿࿿q憘皉࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿r࿿䍥
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿sⰴ䪇࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
t嵜࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿u蓔
蓔 ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
v扔⇐࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿w仐儙࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
x࿿䓢࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿y鬲ȡ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
z‫ﯜ‬眻࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿{拂ⱼ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
|ힼ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿}绶䋥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
~糬㍓࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿䫞❑࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
€ᘒ圇࿿104ƒ匠≯࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
„dž娂࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿ 㓢⪜࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
†薪࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‡뷜愭࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
ˆ춤℉࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‰婌坿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
Š࿿RȒ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‹‫ﲈ‬氬࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
Œ켜洛࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿쩒䳥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
Žⴚ⤦࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿럮啿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
࿿䍯࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿‘䑦沋࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
’ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿“ፌ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
”줺य़ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿ •䙸䇗࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
–戞燥࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿—뚨乂࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
˜䏸࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿™巺椡࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
šᥪ窿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿›륨幍࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
œ describe the
characteristics of
research and the goals
for conducting such.
openIng actIvIty
Ask the students to answer
Activity A and Activity B. After
they have �inished answering,
ask the students to exchange their
work with their seatmate for
correction.
sentence is a description of research. Put a cross (7) if
you think that it is not.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
0
define research;
1
explain the importance of research in the daily life of an individual; and
2
describe the characteristics of research and the goals for conducting such.
Instruct the students to synthesize
their answers from the Activity A and B.
Then, ask them to answer the Activity C
by formulating their own
de�inition research based on their
synthesis of their previous answers.
0.0 Research must be hurriedly conducted.
OPENING
ACTIVITY
0.1 There should be enough data before conducting
research.
0 Read
0.2 Research must observe a step-by-step process.
the
follo
wing
sente
nces.
Put a
check
(3)
on
the
space
befor
e the
numb
er if
you
think
that
the
0
0.3 The researcher must have the final say in his or
her findings.
0.4 A person’s opinion is acceptable and considered as an
answer to the questions asked by the researcher.
0.5 Any concern or issue confronted by the students is
researchable.
0.6 The causes why students fail in quizzes are worth
researching.
0.7 The student-researcher must read literature
related to the problem he or she is studying.
0.8 The researcher must avoid listening to another
researcher to have an objective view of his or her
study.
0.9
The steps in the conducting research are patterned.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
B. Encircle the words in the box that are related to the definition of research.
investigation
system
opinions
interview
subjective
phenomena
experiences
teleserye
biases
intuition
discovery
instrument
literature
theories
guessing
factual
dreams
data
productivity
validate
1024ĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀ̀̀ĀȀ⸀ĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀ
ĀᜀĀᜀ Using all the sentences you checked (3) in Activity A and the encircled words
in Activity B, formulate a good and acceptable definition of research.
2 • Practical research 1
What is Research?
3
INVESTIGATION
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Over the years, many experts have given their own definitions of the word “research.” Different
perspectives on the subject have been adopted that resulted in the following definitions:
0 Research follows a step-by-step process of investigation that uses a standardized
approach in answering questions or solving problems (Polit & Beck, 2004).
1 Research plays an important role in tertiary education. Though there are many problems
confronted by higher education, developments are realized through research. After all,
its main purpose is to answer a question or to solve an issue (Palispis, 2004).
2 Research is a continuous undertaking of making known the unknown (Sanchez, 2002). It
entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas, methods, or
improvements. It is an attempt to widen one’s outlook in life. It always proceeds from the
known to the unknown. Thus, the end of research is to arrive at a new truth.
3 Research is an investigation following ordered steps leading to a discovery of new
information or concepts (Sanchez, 1999).
4 Research is a very careful investigation of something that purports the contribution of
additional or new knowledge and wisdom (Bassey, as cited by Coleman & Briggs, 2002).
5
Research is a tested approach of thinking and employing validated instruments and steps in order
to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem that is otherwise impossible to address under
ordinary means (Crawford, as cited by Alcantara & Espina, 1995).
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
The abovementioned definitions of research lead to the following common characteristics of
research:
0 The research should be systematic. There is a system to follow in conducting research
as there is a system for formulating each of its parts. There is a big system (macro) and
under it are small systems (micro). In research writing, what is referred to as the
“system” is composed of the chapters and their elements. The macrosystem is
composed of chapters that are organized in a logical and scientific manner. On the other
hand, the microsystem consists of the detailed contents of each chapter. The contents
are further divided into elements that are organized following a systematic procedure.
1 The research should be objective. Research involves the objective process of analyzing
phenomena of importance to any profession or to different fields or disciplines (Nieswiadomy,
2005). A researcher should objectively look at the basis on which the
0 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
work is founded. He or she must never produce results out of nowhere; the results of the
research should be validated. These results must never be based from biases. It is very
important for the researcher to clarify indicators and boundaries within which the
research is confined because these factors could affect objectivity.
0 The research should be feasible. Any problem of extraordinary nature that directly or
indirectly affects any profession is a feasible problem to study. In settings like in the
community, school, or workplace, unusual phenomena may happen and can turn into
potential problems.
1 The research should be empirical. There should be supporting pieces of evidence and
accompanying details for every variable used in the study. References and citations of facts
and information that the researcher has gathered in his or her paper must be included.
Plagiarism constitutes claiming another person’s idea or intellectual property as one’s
own. Through proper attribution, the researcher states that the knowledge being shared
through the study was taken from the study of other experts.
2 The research should be clear. The choice of variables used in the study should be
explained by the researcher. This can be done by enriching the review of literature or by
discussing the different theories on which the selection of the variables is based.
Therefore, there must be sufficient indicators for each variable. These variables can be
gathered from different published and unpublished materials.
REVIEW
Compare the definition of research that you formulated based on your analysis with the
given definitions of research and its characteristics. Identify which parts are correct based
on the given definitions and characteristics. Then, try to make an improved version of
your own definition of research.
What is Research?
5
InvestIgatIon
DeFInItIon oF research anD characterIstIcs oF
research
0
Discuss the different definitions and
characteristics of research.
1
Have the students compare and analyze their
own definition of
research they have written in the Opening Activity
C to the given definitions and characteristics
provided in the lesson.
revIeW
0
Ask the students to formulate an improved
definition of the word “research.”
1
Select five students to share their output to
the class.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 3
RESEARCH PARADIGM
OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
The research paradigm is an outline that guides the researcher in conceptualizing and
conducting the research. An effective research must address these two important aspects:
research foundations and research methodology.
A research paper is divided into chapters which are then subdivided into various components of the
research study. The following is the conventional outline of an academic research paper:
Chapter 1: The Problem and Its Background
The research foundations refer to the fundamental components of research such as the
research problem, purpose, specific questions to be addressed, and the conceptual framework to be
applied.
0 Introduction, Background of the Study
1 Statement of the Problem
2 Scope and Delimitation
In determining the research topic or problem, the researcher must look at a significant reallife problem. Formulating a research problem requires describing the undesirable situations
related to the problem and the needed knowledge or information in order to solve that problem.
The purpose of the research describes how the study will fill this “knowledge gap.” To address
this purpose, the researcher must formulate necessary questions that will help distinguish the
significant points of the research. The research questions may be either framed in a
quantitative (how much, how often, to what extent) or qualitative (what, why, how) manner. The
possible answers to the research questions are the hypotheses, which will be either confirmed
or rejected by the data collected in the study. Lastly, the conceptual framework is an outline or
paradigm that presents the topics to be studied, the various variables and contexts, and how
these relate to or influence each other.
3 Significance of the Study
Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework
0 Review of Related Literature
1 Review of Related Studies
2 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
3 Hypothesis of the Study
4 Assumptions of the Study
5 Definition of Terms
On the other hand, the research methodology describes how the researcher will answer
the research questions in a credible manner. Research methods are employed to address the
research purpose and gain new information and insights to answer the problem. The
methodology of the research includes the review of literature, research approach and design,
data collection, methods of analysis, and conclusions.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
0 Research Design
1 Respondents of the Study
2 Instrument of the Study
The review of literature analyzes the existing knowledge regarding the research topic. It identifies
3 Validity and Reliability
gaps in information that may be addressed by the research. It is also an important basis of the conceptual
4 Statistical Treatment
framework of the study. With the existing knowledge about the study, the research approach and design
identifies what is the best means to collect and analyze data in the study. The design is used to clarify and
Chapter 4: Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
improve the research problem, purpose, and questions. Having the best way to gather the data, the
researcher will proceed to the data collection. Data collection gives the methods to determine who will be
0 Presentation of Data
the participants in the study, how the variables will be measured, and how data will be documented and
1 Analysis
collected. The collected data will then undergo data analysis, which consists of the strategies and methods
2 Interpretation
that makes sense of the data to answer the research problem and questions. Finally, the conclusion
summarizes the key results of the study and discusses how these are relevant to the research problem. At
3 Discussion
this point, the research addresses the hypotheses and determines if they are accepted or rejected. It also
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
addresses the knowledge gap and presents new insights into the problem.
0 Summary of Findings
1 Conclusion
2 Recommendation
0
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
research paraDIgm anD outlIne
What is Research?
Various institutions often prescribe research outlines that are variations of the outline
presented above. It is therefore important for the researcher to familiarize himself or herself
with the standards and conventions of research that is implemented within a certain field or
discipline.
oF the research paper
ROLES OF THE RESEARCHER
0
According to Nieswiadomy (2005), the researcher serves different roles in a study. These
are as follows:
1
Introduce the research paradigm to
the students.
0 As principal investigator
1 As member of a research team
Provide a brief definition of the
related concepts and their general
purpose in the research paper.
2 As identifier of researchable problems
3 As evaluator of research findings
4 As user of research findings
5 As patient or client advocate during study
6 As subject/respondent/participant
2
Ask volunteer students to read the
different chapters of the research
paper outline to the class.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is as important as any field of study. Its significance cuts across all disciplines—
engineering, architecture, medicine, arts and sciences, education, management, tourism, among
others. It also benefits all strata of society—people with diverse jobs, different income rates,
varying financial status, or distinct social and political capabilities.
As such, following are the importance of research:
0 Research provides a scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any field or
discipline. This is important since an entire system or operation and all the stakeholders
of an institution or organization are at stake. Without scientific basis, someone may be
affected or may suffer. For example, in the field of medicine, a new drug must first be
tested to determine its efficacy in curing sickness before it can actually be prescribed.
1 Research is undertaken for the continuous development and further productivity in any
field. Any system that will be utilized in any organization must first be tried to determine
its value and it must be better than the previous system used. Simply, research is the
result of advancing knowledge from the past.
2 Research helps develop tools for assessing effectiveness of any practice and operation such
as psychological tests, intelligence quotient tests, psychological assessments, among
others. This importance of research is observed in behavioral science, physical science,
and others as well.
4 • Practical research 1
3 Research provides solutions to problems concerning almost all issues encountered in the
different areas of work. Some issues include the tardiness of employees, incentives given
0
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
7
to the staff, sportsmanship among school athletes, and implementation of a “clean and
green” program in school. This also applies to higher level problems.
4 The goals of conducting research are to produce evidencebased practice; to establish credibility in the profession; to
observe accountability for the profession; and to promote
cost-effectiveness through documentation.
0 Research impacts decision-making. It is a common mistake for people to make decisions without
solid information to back them up. It requires time, effort, and sometimes money to gather the
evidence needed for making a sound decision. For example, for a teacher to change his or her
teaching methodology for the first-period and last-period classes, he or she must conduct a study
considering the time element, enthusiasm to teach, academic standing of the students,
instructional aides used, and several other factors.
0
1 Research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the educational aspects of any
discipline. This enables the students to gain broad knowledge and specialized skills for
safe practice. For example, research can help determine whether lecture is a better
method than experiment in teaching Science.
2
Research aims to advance the personal and professional qualifications of a practitioner.
GOALS FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Research is a scientific endeavor which serves many goals in different fields (workplaces,
profit or non-profit organizations, governmental or non-governmental entities), educational
disciplines (medicine, engineering, sciences, arts, humanities, and information technology), and
even in the personal life of the researcher. Some of the goals for research are as follows:
Ȁ⸀ĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀĀȀ⸀ĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀ
ĀᜀĀ0 To produce evidence-based practice. Every discipline or institution
must provide the best practice of operation based from research studies. In the health
profession, for example, a professional nursing practitioner must ensure that he or she
is able to give proper health care to his or her patient. To do this, only the best clinical
practices as proven by nursing research should be provided. The principles on which the
tasks and functions of a nurse are based can be formulated through research. The
different standard operating procedures in hospitals, such as admission, release,
assessment, and diagnosis of patients must be dealt with accordingly. The results of the
research must be published in books and journals for other health practitioners to
access and adopt for use in their respective communities.
Research findings can also be utilized in seminars, workshops, or trainings so that
new knowledge or methods in the delivery of more effective health care can be shared.
This can also be applied by practitioners of other fields of study. Effective and efficient
practices or operations are results of research.
0 To establish credibility in the profession. A profession is defined by the body of
knowledge and discipline it employs. In line with this, research is essential for a
profession in producing new procedures, programs, and practices. This continuous
improvement leads to distinctiveness which can only be achieved when there are special
practices and peculiarity of services in a given area or field. This sense of individuality
contributes to the credibility of a profession.
What is Research?
0 To observe accountability for the profession. Every action conducted by a
professional must have a rationale. There are principles that justify why a nurse has to
wash his or her hands regularly, why a teacher has to prepare a lesson plan, why a
manager needs to plan ahead, why a businessman needs to conduct feasibility studies,
and many more. The nurse, teacher, manager, or businessman must be accountable for
each task he or she performs. All tasks must be carried out with the circumspect care
and awareness that everything has to be done efficiently.
1 To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation. The findings of research
must be shared with and utilized by the individuals, group, and community for which the
study is intended. They are useless if these results are not made known publicly. These
results, however, must first satisfy the researcher’s goals before he or she can share them
with other researchers and professionals who may find these findings beneficial.
Anybody who is in the same condition as the subject/s of the study may also utilize the
findings, thus saving on expenses for doing the same research again.
CH APTER SUMMARY
0 Research should be systematic, objective, feasible, empirical, and clear.
1 The research paradigm guides the researcher in formulating and implementing the
research. It ensures that the research foundations and methodology are well-defined
and organized. The research foundations refer to the fundamental components of
research such as the research problem, purpose, specific questions to be addressed, and
the conceptual framework to be applied. The methodology of the research includes the
review of literature, research approach and design, data collection, methods of analysis,
and conclusions.
2 As a researcher, one can play the role of a principal investigator, a member of a research
team, an identifier of researchable problems, an evaluator of research findings, a user of
research findings, a patient or client advocate during study, and a subject/respondent/
participant.
3 Research is very important. It provides scientific basis for any discipline and its
continuous development. It helps develop tools to improve the effectiveness of solving
various problems, and formulate solutions to problems concerning almost all issues. It
also allows the evaluation of alternative approaches to the educational aspects of any
discipline.
9
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
roles oF the researcher, Importance oF research, anD goals
oF research (pp. 7 - 10)
5888 Let the students discuss the various roles of
the researcher.
5889
Explain to the class the impact of each role in the
entire research study.
5890
Discuss the importance and goals of research.
5891 Ask the students to read and discuss each
number.
5892 Conclude each section by providing a general
picture of how it applies to student researchers.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 5
CHECK-UP
assessment actIvItIes
Write TRUE if the statement is correct, FALSE if it is incorrect.
23 Research entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery
of new ideas, methods, or improvements.
24 The microsystem is the composition of chapters organized in a logical
and scientific manner.
check-up
25 In settings like the community, school, or workplace, unusual
phenomena may happen and can turn into potential problems.
After answering, ask the students to
exchange books for correction.
26
Plagiarism constitutes claiming another person’s idea or
intellectual property as one’s own.
27 Research provides an artistic basis for any practice or methodology in
any field or discipline.
28 According to Crawford, researchers serve different roles in a study
such as principal investigator, member of a research team, financier of
the study, among others.
assIgnment
29 Research aims to advance the personal and professional qualifications
of a practitioner.
Instruct the students to write
their report about the conducted
interview on an intermediate pad.
30 One of the goals of research is to produce results-based practice.
31 Every action conducted by a professional must have a rationale.
32 Research promotes cost-effectiveness through documentation.
Answer Key:
23 Refer to the given definitions
in the discussion.
APPLICATION
Answer the following questions.
1. What is research?
24 Refer to the given importance of
research in the discussion.
Students’ answers may vary. Provide them adequate time to
25 Students’ answers may vary.
answer the questions. Have them share their answers to the class.
26 Students’ answers may vary.
What is Research?
2. What is the importance of having a good research foundation and methodology?
aDDItIonal task
Instruct the students to research on the
different kinds of research as a
preparation for the opening activity in
the next chapter.
3. What is the importance of research in your education as a student?
4. As a student, what do you want to research on? Why?
ASSIGNMENT
Interview your parents about their current profession. Ask them how research has played
a major role in their line of work. Make a report about it and then share it to the class.
6 • Practical research 1
23
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
11
CHAPTER
2
Different Types
of Research
OBJECTIVES
objectIves
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
OPENING ACTIVITY
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
Form groups of three members. Fill out the following
“word shapes” by referring to the clues and guessing the
type of research hinted at.
23 identify the various
types of research
and
23 conducts practical methods as substitutes
for fundamental and theoretical approaches
24 differentiate
qualitative and
quantitative types
of research.
r
23 identify various types of research and
24 differentiate qualitative and
quantitative types of research.
t
2.
openIng actIvIty
explains that simple units of experience have complex meanings
h
g
h
0
Select students to present their
outputs based on the Assignment
and Additional Task in the
previous chapter.
1
Using the information from their
Additional Task output, have them
identify the kind of research related
to their parents’ occupation.
2
Ask the students to answer the
Opening Activity on pages 13-14.
Have them refer to the output of
the additional research task.
3
Ask them to check their own work
as you state the correct answers.
3. compares collected units of data with one another to arrive at a hypothesis
r
t
h
4. emphasizes the complexity of humans
l
q u a
i
t
t a
a
v e
i
a
Different Types of Research
5. involves collection and analysis of data from cultural groups
t
e
h
ih
c
13
6. seeks to explain naturally occurring phenomena in the natural world
23 c c
f
nn
5888
challenges the traditional qualitative analysis approach
s
d
s
8. utilizes deductive reasoning to generate tested predictions
q
e
t
u
9. involves analysis of data from the past
h
s
tto
r
al
10. provides background data for broader studies
c
s
t
u
0 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 7
Investigation
General Forms of Research
0
Discuss the general forms of
research.
1
Have the students identify fields
where each form of research can be
applied.
Research Design
AĀ AȀ AĀ ⸀AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀᨀAĀ AĀ AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ
AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ768
Explain the
functions of a research design.
AĀ AȀ AĀ ⸀AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀᨀAĀ AĀ AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ
AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ769
Provide
examples of research studies for
each research design.
AĀ AȀ AĀ ⸀AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀᨀAĀ AĀ AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ
AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ770 Have students provide
suitable research problems or topics
for each research design.
8 • Practical Research 1
problem. This design is used to obtain information about the present situation to gain an
understanding of a certain phenomena.
INVESTIGATION
3 Experimental design. In this design, the researcher controls the factors and variables
GENERAL FORMS OF RESEARCH
related to a certain phenomena and tries to change or manipulate one or several factors
to determine the possible effects.
Before discussing the research designs, it is important to tackle first
the general forms of research. The general forms of research define the
purpose and approach of the study. These are as follows:
4 Exploratory design. This research focuses on topics or problems which have had little
0 Scientific research is a research method that seeks to explain
or no studies done about them. The purpose of this design is to gain information and
insight that can be used for later researches. This design is often used to determine
which method or approach to use for a certain topic or problem.
naturally occurring phenomena in the natural world by
generating credible theories. It is a systematic process that
involves formulating hypotheses, testing predictions using
relevant data and other scientific methods, and finally coming up
with a theory. As such, this study requires rational and statistical
evidence to draw conclusions.
5 Cohort design. This research identifies a group of people sharing common
characteristics who are then studied for a period of time. The researcher seeks to
identify how these groups are affected by certain factors or changes and relates the
information gathered to the research topic or problem.
1 Research in the humanities seeks to define the purpose of
human existence by tapping into historical facts and future
possibilities. While studies on natural and social sciences
required hard evidence to draw conclusions, this form of
research derive explanations from human experiences that
cannot be simply measured by facts and figures alone.
2 Artistic research provides alternative approaches to established
concepts by conducting practical methods as substitutes for
fundamental and theoretical ones. The main purpose of this form
of research is to expound on the current accepted concepts and
open them to further interpretation. As such, the word “artistic”
does not solely refer to the arts but rather to the kind of approach
a researcher assumes in this type of research. This research
generates new knowledge through artistic practices such as
defining new concepts, creating new processes, and devising new
methods.
Any of the three forms of study are by no means a better approach than the
other. However, what differs among the three is the objective of each study and
the means to achieve it. Nevertheless, whichever of the three are followed by the
researcher, the true goal of any research remains the same—to further the
current established knowledge on different areas of study.
RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design enables the researcher to organize the
components of his or her research in an orderly and coherent manner.
This will ensure that the research or study will effectively address the
research topic or problem. The research design is also a template for the
collection, measurement, and analysis of data. The research problem
determines the research design that will be used in the study.
Different Types of Research
Having a well-developed research design will enable the researcher to achieve
the following:
0
Clearly identify and describe the research problem or topic, and
justify the selection of the appropriate design to be used
1
Review and synthesize previous studies and literature related to the topic
2
Clearly identify hypotheses that are significant to the problem
3
Determine the data necessary to test the hypotheses and explain
how the data will be obtained
4
Describe the methods of analysis that will be used on the data
gathered in order to evaluate the hypotheses of the study
Examples of research designs include the following:
0 Action research. This research design follows a cyclical process.
First, the researcher identifies a problem and determines a plan
of action to address it. Then, the action plan is implemented and
data is gathered to determine the effects of the action
implemented. The information gathered during the
implementation phase is analyzed and evaluated in order to gain
a better understanding of the problem and determine the
effectiveness of the solution implemented. Action research is
pragmatic and solution-driven, and any information gathered is
used to identify and implement a solution to the problem. This
design is appropriate for community-based situations. It requires
the researcher to directly relate with his or her subjects and the
community.
1 Causal design. This research explores how a specific change
impacts a certain situation. This research design employs
hypotheses that seek to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
between variables. Essentially, this research design seeks to
determine whether “variable X caused Y.”
2 Descriptive design. This design answers who, what, when,
where, and how questions related to a particular research
0
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
5888
Cross-sectional design. This research design looks into a large group of
people, composed of individuals with varied characteristics. The researcher seeks to
determine how these individuals are affected by a certain variable or change and
gathers data at a specific period of time.
5889
Longitudinal design. This research follows a group of people over a long
period of time. Throughout the period of study, observations are made on the group to
track changes over time and identify factors that may have caused them. This design
also explores causal relationships over time and determines how long these
relationships last and the extent of their effects on the group being studied.
5890
Sequential design. This research is carried out in stages to gather sufficient
data to test the hypothesis. This design is often combined with a cohort or crosssectional study as it identifies specific groups for each stage. At the end of each stage,
the data is collected and evaluated. If there is insufficient data, the researcher then
proceeds to the next stage with a new group of subjects.
5891
Mixed-method design. This research combines aspects of various research
designs and methods. It primarily combines qualitative and quantitative research
methods to gain a complete picture of the research problem and gather data that will
fully determine the validity of the hypotheses.
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
There are two broad categories of research methodology: qualitative research and quantitative
research. The research method determines the approach the researcher takes in identifying relevant data
for the research, and collecting and analyzing the information gathered in the research. Choosing either a
quantitative or qualitative approach will affect the components of the research. For instance, a researcher
may choose to undertake a scientific research. If he or she takes a qualitative approach, the goal of the
study will be to discuss and analyze the underlying concepts and theories related to the research topic. If
the researcher chooses a quantitative approach, he or she will use statistical data to provide an explanation
of the phenomenon.
Quantitative Research
Polit and Beck (2004) define quantitative research as “the traditional positivist scientific
method which refers to a general set of orderly, disciplined procedures to acquire information.”
In their book, Nursing Research Principles and Methods, they explain that the research method
utilizes deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world. It is
systematic since the researcher progresses logically through a series of steps, according to a
prespecified plan of action.
Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that is within the realm of the senses. The method
used in the analysis of data is usually statistical in nature. Thus, the resulting information
from the study is usually quantitative or measurable. Furthermore, another criterion used in
assessing the data in this kind of study is its capability to generalize the effect of the results to
the individuals outside of the study participants.
However, a quantitative research has its disadvantages as well. Quantitative research is
considered to be limiting when it comes to studying the complex and diverse minds of human
beings. This is because quantitative research can only explain a small fraction of the human
experience (e.g., behavioral impulses and varying personal preferences). In quantitative
research, these human complexities are usually controlled or removed entirely instead of being
analyzed. The inflexible and narrow vision of quantitative research tends to present the human
experience in a restricted manner.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is defined as the “naturalistic method of inquiry of research which deals
with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly.” (Polit and Beck, 2008) Unlike
quantitative research, qualitative research puts an emphasis on human complexity and man’s
ability to decide and create his or her own experience. This type of research utilizes naturalistic
methods of inquiry as the research places great emphasis on the analysis of the experiences of
the individual. This type of research attempts to explain the human experience with its dynamic,
holistic, and individualistic aspects through the perspective of the individual himself. This type
makes use of qualitative materials that are narrative and subjective.
Qualitative research focuses on gaining insights and understanding about an individual’s
perception and interpretation of events. This type of research collects data through methods
such as interviews and participative observation. The task of the researcher is to determine the
patterns and themes in the acquired data rather than focusing on the testing of hypotheses. A
qualitative study researcher is not limited by existing theories but is rather open-minded to new
ideas and points of views. Lastly, the researcher does not have to be concerned with numbers
and complicated statistical analyses.
However, a major limitation of this model is its reductionist nature. Qualitative research
tends to reduce human experience to just the few concepts under investigation, which are
defined in advance by the researcher rather than the experience of the respondents. Another
limitation of qualitative research involves the subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, which
sometimes causes concerns about the nature of the conclusion of the study. Polit and Beck
(2008) poses the question, “Would two naturalistic researchers studying the same phenomenon
in similar settings arrive at similar conclusions?” They added that most naturalistic research
studies usually utilize a small group of people as subjects. This makes the findings from such
naturalistic methods questionable, as opposed to those of the quantitative research studies.
0
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
17
Different Types of Research
The Value of Qualitative Research
Qualitative data provides context and meaning. If an organization wants to assess the
behavior of their clients, they can easily collect and analyze information about top-selling items,
buying trends in various geographic locations, and overall sales figures by month. This will give
a sense of the who, what, when, and where of the study. Qualitative research can complete the
picture by delving into the why and the how. If quantitative research represents the skeleton,
the qualitative research represents the flesh. It can explore narrowly-defined issues in greater
depth, explaining the setting in which behavior can take place. It gives the complete picture of
the issue being studied.
Table 2.1 – Comparison between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Aims to characterize trends and patterns.
Qualitative Research
Involves processes, feelings, and motives
(the why’s and the how’s) and produces
in-depth and holistic data.
Usually starts with neither a theory nor
hypothesis about the relationship between two
or more variables
Usually concerned with generating hypothesis
Uses structured research instruments like
questionnaires or schedules
Uses either unstructured or semi-structured
instruments
Uses large sample sizes that are representatives
of the population
Uses small sample sizes chosen purposely
Has high output replicability
Has high validity
Used to gain greater understanding of group
Used to gain greater understanding of individual
differences in terms of feelings, motives and
experiences
similarities
The value of qualitative study comes from its focus on the lived experience of the
participants, which enabled development of a greater understanding concerning the outcomes
that are important, relevant, and meaningful to the people involved.
from data rather than testing a hypothesis
Common Types of Qualitative Research
The following are the various types of qualitative research based on different fields of
inquiry (Merriam, S. B., et al, 2002):
0 Phenomenological study. This type of research seeks to find the essence or structure of an
experience by explaining how complex meanings are built out of simple units of inner experience.
It examines human experiences (lived experiences) through the descriptions provided by subjects
Uses structured processes
Uses more flexible processes
or respondents. The goal of this study is to describe the meaning that experiences hold for each
Methods include census, survey, experiments
and secondary analysis
Methods include field research, case study, and
secondary analysis
subject. Some of the areas of concern for these studies are humanness, self-determination,
uniqueness, wholeness, and individualism.
Example: What are the common experiences encountered by a person with a spouse who
is undergoing rehabilitation?
Source: Handout distributed by the SSREI, UP Baguio, 2009
With the given problem, the researcher has to discover the inner feelings, emotional
hardships, and mental disturbances that the respondent is experiencing.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
0 Ethnographic study. This study involves the collection and analysis of data about cultural groups
Kania (2008) presents the following key distinguishing characteristics of qualitative research:
0
Qualitative research is conducted in a systematic and rigorous way. However, it is more
flexible than quantitative research.
1
It usually follows an iterative process, which means that data collection and analysis
occur simultaneously. Data already collected are updated by the ongoing data collection.
2
It focuses on gathering information from people who can provide the richest insights
into the phenomenon or interest. As a result, small samples are commonly used in
qualitative research. Study participants are usually selected in a purposive manner,
using only those for whom the topic under study is relevant.
3
Collection of data is continuous until saturation, or when it reaches the point where no
new information is revealed with respect to the key themes emerging from the data.
4
Qualitative data collection examines everyday life in its natural context or in an
uncontrolled naturalistic setting.
Different Types of Research
19
or minorities. In this type of research, the researcher immerses with the people and becomes a
part of their culture. He or she becomes involved in the everyday activities of the subjects, and gets
to empathize with the cultural groups experiencing issues and
problems in their everyday lives. During the immersion process, the researcher talks to
the key persons and personalities called key informants who provide important
information for the study. The main purpose of this study is the development of cultural
theories.
Example: What is the demographic profile and migratory adaptations of squatter families
in Barangay Cutcut, Angeles City (dela Cruz, 1994)?
20
9
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual •
Qualitative and Quantitative Methods of Research
0
Discuss qualitative and quantitative research methods and present the matrix on Table 2.1 (page
19) to highlight the difference between the two.
1
Enrich the discussion with the additional information below.
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
There is one concrete reality that is governed by
unchanging natural laws that can explain any given
phenomenon.
Reality is socially and experientially constructed,
resulting in multiple realities
of a phenomenon.
There is one true reality regardless of context.
Reality is context-specific.
A phenomenon can be understood by studying its
component parts
A phenomenon can be understood only when
studied as a whole
The researcher is an objective observer.
The researcher is part of the context and
intrinsically linked to the findings.
Conditions must be carefully controlled to prevent
unwanted influences.
Concerns of bias are not part because the
researcher is transparent about this
Sources: “Competing paradigms in qualitative research” by E. G. Guba & Y. S. Lincoln (1994), pp. 105–117;
Research methods in health: Investigating health and health services (2nd ed.) by A. Bowling (2002), p. 118–131.
Category
Quantitative
Qualitative
Question Domains
Who, what, when, where
How, what, why
common Sample Size
150 to 200+
10 to 15
Contact Time
10 to 20 minutes
45 to 240 minutes each
Validity
Must be true of most of the data
or nomothetic (law- oriented)
Must be true of each case or
ideographic (case-oriented)
Defines relationships and
Describes relationships and
establishes meaning structures
and contexts
Variables
Outliers
Examples
establish general case
Unique positions lost to the
Valuable descriptive cases with
weight of the average
unique access to average cases
Surveys, numerical counts,
statistical analyses,
mathematical modeling
Interviews, literature content
reviews, real world observations,
case studies, ethnographies
Source: “What Is Qualitative Research” by P. Alasuutarii (1995), pp. 6 - 22.
10 • Practical Research 1
6
In studying the problem, the researcher immerses with subjects and becomes
involved with the activities that exemplify the cultural practices of the respondents.
0 Historical study. This study is concerned with the identification, location, evaluation,
and synthesis of data from past events. This is not only limited to obtaining data from the
past, but it also involves relating their implications to the present and future time.
Cross-case comparisons and analysis can be conducted.
7 It provides understanding and description of people’s personal experiences of phenomena
(i.e., the emic or insider’s viewpoint).
8
It can describe in detail the phenomena as they are situated and embedded in local
contexts.
Example: What were the roles of women in the Katipunan?
Different Types of Research
Some sources of data for a historical study are as follows:
0 Documents – printed materials that can be found in libraries, archives, or personal
collections
1 Relics and artifacts – physical remains or objects from a certain historical period
2 Oral reports – information that is passed on by word of mouth
The data sources are classified as follows:
0 Primary sources – materials providing first-hand information, e.g., oral histories,
written records, diaries, eyewitness accounts, pictures, videos, and other physical
evidence
1 Secondary sources – second-hand information such as an account based on an
original source, or a material written as an abstract of the original materials
The validity of materials used in the study are assessed through the following processes:
0 Internal criticism. This involves establishing the authenticity or originality of the materials
by looking at the consistency of information. Motives and possible biases of the author must
be considered in trying to determine the accuracy of the materials.
1 External criticism. This is based on the analysis of the material: the ink and the
type of paper used, the layout and physical appearance, and as well as the age and
texture of the material itself.
The researcher can consult authentic and original resource materials relevant to the
problem to determine the accuracy of information provided in the research paper.
0 Case study. It is an in-depth examination of an individual, groups of people, or an
institution. Some of its purposes are to gain insights into a little-known problem,
provide background data for broader studies, and explain socio-psychological and sociocultural processes. A case study also involves a comprehensive and extensive
examination of a particular individual, group, or situation over a period of time. It
provides information on where to draw conclusions about the impact of a significant
event in a person’s life (Sanchez, 2002).
Example: How do cancer survivors look at life?
The researcher is able to give an overview of the problem by interviewing a cancer
survivor about his or her experiences.
Different Types of Research
21
Merriam et al. (2002) proposes the following three “crises” as a result of the
questioning performed:
0
Whether the experience of another can be captured or whether it is created by the
researcher
1
Whether any study can be viewed as valid if traditional methodologies are flawed
2
Whether it is possible to institute any real change
Example: If our views of the self are themselves constructed by the society we live in and
the language we use, is true knowledge of the self, independent of these, even
possible? If our “selves” are constructed, then attempting to gain knowledge
through self-reflection is a miscognition and [it] instead results in the creation
of a less independent and more societal-regulated self (Bleakly, 2000).
ᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀ␀ĀĀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀᜀĀ
ᜀ̀̀0
Basic interpretative qualitative study. This is used when a researcher is interested in
identifying how individuals give meaning to a situation or phenomenon. It uses an inductive
strategy which is a process of analyzing patterns or common themes to produce a descriptive
account that summarizes and analyzes the literature that defined the study.
Example: An interview of 45 women from varying backgrounds and a comparison of the
developmental patterns discerned with earlier findings on male development.
They found women’s lives evolved through periods of tumultuous, structure-building
phases that alternated with stable periods (Levinson & Levinson, 1996).
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research
Anderson (2010), in her article “Presenting and Evaluating Qualitative Research,” lists the
following strengths of a qualitative research:
0 The study requires a few cases or participants. Data collected are based on the
participants’ own categories of meaning.
1
It is useful for describing complex phenomena.
2
Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.
3
Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided or redirected by
the researcher in real time.
4
Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects or topic are often missed by
more positivistic inquiries.
5
It provides individual case information.
23
0 Grounded theory study. The method involves comparing collected units of data
against one another until categories, properties, and hypotheses that state relations
between these categories and properties emerge. These hypotheses are tentative and
suggestive, and are not tested in the study.
Example: Ten school counselors were given structured interviews to help determine
how their professional identity is formed.
This data was coded first to form concepts. Then, connections between these
concepts were identified. A core concept emerged and its process and implications
were discussed. School counselors’ professional interactions were identified as
defining experiences in their identity formation (Brott & Myers, 1999).
0 Narrative analysis. The main sources of data for this type of research are the life
accounts of individuals based on their personal experiences. The purpose of the study
is to extract meaningful context from these experiences.
The common types of narrative analysis are as follows:
0 Psychological – This involves analyzing the story in terms of internal thoughts
and motivations. It also analyzes the written text or spoken words for its
component parts or patterns.
1 Biographical – This takes the individual’s society and factors like gender and
class into account.
2 Discourse analysis – This studies the approach in which language is used in texts
and contexts.
1 Critical qualitative research. This type of research seeks to bring about change and
empower individuals by describing and critiquing the social, cultural, and
psychological perspectives on present-day contexts. As such, it ultimately challenges
the current norm, especially on power distributions, building upon the initial
appraisal of the said present-day perspectives.
For example, a critical examination of consumer education texts used in adult
literacy programs revealed content that was disrespectful for adult learners, their
previous experience as consumers, and promoted certain ideologies regarding
consumerism. The texts also defended the status quo by blaming individual
inadequacies for economic troubles, ignoring societal inequities (Sandlin, 2000).
0 Postmodern research. As opposed to the traditional forms of qualitative analysis, the
approach of this type of research seeks to analyze the facts that have been established
as truths, the ability of research and science to discover truth, and all generalizations
and typologies.
0
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Common Types of Qualitative Research
0
Have the students organize themselves
into 9 groups.
1
Assign each group one type of
qualitative research.
2
Have them research information on their
assigned type. The students may use
additional library and online resources.
3
Call on each group to share their output
to the class.
4
Facilitate the sharing of outputs by providing
additional information and examples for each
type of qualitative research.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative
Research
0
Ask the class to discuss the strengths
and weaknesses of qualitative research.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 11
23
The researcher usually identifies contextual and setting factors as they relate to the
phenomenon of interest.
24
The researcher can study dynamic processes (i.e., documenting sequential patterns and
change).
25
The researcher can use the primarily qualitative method of grounded theory to
inductively generate a tentative but explanatory theory about a phenomenon.
26
It can determine how participants interpret constructs (e.g., self-esteem and IQ).
27
Data are usually collected in naturalistic settings in qualitative research.
CH APTER SUMMARY
5888 The general forms of research are scientific research, research in humanities,
and artistic research.
5889 The research design enables the researcher to organize the components of his
or her research in an orderly and coherent manner. This will ensure that the research
or study will effectively address the research topic or problem. The research design is
also a template for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
28 Qualitative approaches are especially responsive to local situations, conditions, and
stakeholders’ needs.
29
Qualitative data in the words and categories of participants lend themselves to exploring
how and why particular phenomena occur.
30
You can use an important case to vividly demonstrate a phenomenon to the readers.
31
It can determine idiographic causation (i.e., determination of causes of a particular event).
5890 Quantitative and qualitative research are two broad categories of research methods.
Qualitative research aims to discuss and analyze the underlying concepts and theories related
to the study. Quantitative research, meanwhile, uses statistical data to explain
5888 phenomenon.
5891
Anderson (2010) also enumerates the following weaknesses of qualitative research:
5889
1 It follows an iterative process.
2 It focuses on people who provide the richest insights.
Inflexibility is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate.
3 Collection of data is continuous until saturation points.
4 It examines experiences in a natural context.
5890
It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research
within the scientific community.
0 The common types of qualitative research are phenomenological study,
5891
The researcher’s presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in
qualitative research, can affect the subjects’ responses.
ethnographic study, historical study, case study, grounded theory study,
narrative analysis, critical qualitative research, postmodern research, and basic
interpretative qualitative study.
5892
Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can present problems when presenting
findings.
1 Some of the strengths of qualitative research are its requirement of only a few cases or
5893
It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.
5894
It is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools.
individuals for data collection; its usefulness in describing complex phenomena; its detailed and
5895
It might have lower credibility with some administrators and commissioners of programs.
in-depth analysis of issues; its ability to provide individual case information; and its capability to
5896
It generally takes more time to collect the data compared to quantitative research.
conduct cross-case comparisons and analysis among others.
2 Some of the weaknesses of qualitative research include its incapability to maintain,
5897Data analysis is often time-consuming.
5898
assess, and demonstrate inflexibility. It also produces very specific results leading to
misunderstanding or inapplicability; creates distraction to the subject’s responses just
by the presence of the researcher; presents problems on issues of anonymity and
confidentiality; makes quantitative predictions difficult to do; and involves large
participant pools making hypothesizing and theorizing difficult.
The results are more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases and
idiosyncrasies.
0
The key distinguishing characteristics of qualitative research are as follows:
0 It is systematic and rigorous.
5888
The knowledge produced might not be applicable to other people or other
settings (i.e., findings might be unique to the relatively few people included in the
research study).
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Different Types of Research
0
Discuss this part with a general point
of view. Point out how qualitative
research fits better on some topics as
compared to others. Ask the students
to relate this part to the comparison
of qualitative and quantitative
research.
CHECK-UP
0
Identify which research design is referred to by the following statements. Write your
answer on the blank.
0 This design studies a group of people over a long period of time.
1 This research focuses on a group of people sharing common
characteristics.
2 This research identifies a problem, implements a solution, and
studies its effects.
3 In this design, the researcher manipulates the variables and
determines its effects.
4 This research is done in stages in order to gather sufficient data.
assessment actIvItIes
5 This design seeks to establish and explain a “cause-and-effect”
relationship.
check-up
6 This research looks into a large group of people with different
characteristics.
0After answering, ask the students to
exchange books for correction.
7 This design aims to describe the present situation in order to gain
information about a phenomenon.
8 This research focuses on problems or topics with little or no research
done about them, and gathers information that will guide future
studies.
9
12 • Practical research 1
This design combines elements from various research designs and
uses both qualitative and quantitative methods.
25
0 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
0 Complete the box by filling out the missing characteristics of qualitative or
quantitative research.
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
23 For the second activity, refer to
the answer key.
Usually concerned with generating hypothesis
from data rather than testing a hypothesis
Has high output replicability
2.
Methods include census, survey,
3.
Application
experiments, and secondary analysis
4.
Uses more flexible processes
Uses large sample sizes that are
5.
23 Guide the students in answering
this activity.
24 Ask them to exchange books with
their seatmates for comparison
and checking.
representatives of the population
6.
Uses either unstructured or semi-structured
instruments
Aims to characterize trends and patterns
7.
Used to gain greater understanding of group
8.
similarities
Different Types of Research
27
APPLI CAT I ON
Read and analyze the following research topics and identify what type of qualitative research is
appropriate for each. Then, justify your answer by providing a brief explanation.
23
23
A researcher investigated the medical properties of the rare Amazonian
tree and discovered that its components can be made into a drug that can
cure dengue.
23
A researcher is looking into ways to create intervention on violent or
hostile behavior among young children.
23
A researcher analyzes music composition by researching on its
utilization of theory and intuition, technologies in creating music, and
critical approach in its design process.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 13
5888
A researcher immerses with the Badjao street dwellers to
learn how they were able to migrate from Mindanao.
Assignment (p.29)
Ask the students to compile the
abstract of each study and in a
matrix identify the type of research
used and the reason why each
study belongs to the type.
0 A researcher seeks to discover the events that transpired behind the
assassination of Antonio Luna in Cavite in 1899 and discuss the
implication of these events to history.
ASSIGNMENT
Choose five types of qualitative research and find one example of actual research studies for each.
Provide a summary for each study and explain why it belongs to that type of research.
Different Types of Research
14 • Practical Research 1
29
CHAPTER
3
Ethics in Research
Objectives
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
OPENING ACTIVITY
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
23 Read and analyze the article below and then answer
the guide questions that follow.
0
discuss the
importance of
ethics in research;
1
explain the ethical
codes in the conduct
of research, and the
rights of research
participants;
2
discuss the importance
of ethics in research;
and
3
define plagiarism
and identify
techniques to
avoid it.
23 discuss the importance of ethics
in research;
Ethics in Qualitative Research
Ethical issues are present in any kind of research.
The research process creates tension between the aims
of research to make generalizations for the good of
others, and the rights of participants to maintain privacy.
Ethics pertains to doing good and avoiding harm. Harm
can be prevented or reduced through the application of
appropriate ethical principles. Thus, the protection of
human subjects or participants in any research study is
imperative.
24 explain the ethical codes in the
conduct of research, and the rights
of research participants;
25 discuss the importance of ethics
in research; and
Violations of human rights in the name of scientific
research have been among the darkest events in history.
From 1932 to 1972, more than 400 African-American
people who had syphilis were deliberately left untreated
to study the illness. Although the Tuskegee syphilis study
was sponsored by the United States Public Health
Service, the disclosure of the 40-year study caused
public outrage (Caplan, 1992).
26 define plagiarism and identify
techniques to avoid it.
Another example of unethical research is the experiment conducted between 1950 and 1952, in
which more than 1,000 pregnant women were given diethylstilbestrol to prevent miscarriages. These
women were subject to a double-blind study without consent. Only 20 years later, when the children of
these women had high rates of cancer and other abnormalities, did the participants learn they were
subjects of these experiments (Capron, 1989).
The nature of ethical problems in qualitative research studies is subtle and different compared to
problems in quantitative research. For example, potential ethical conflicts exist in regard to how a
researcher gains access to a community group and in the effects the researcher may have on
participants. The literature provides few examples of ethical issues in qualitative health research. Punch
(1994) claimed that one hardly ever hears of ethical failures in qualitative research. However, Batchelor
and Briggs (1994) claimed that the failure
23
Opening Activity
0
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
of researchers to address ethical issues has resulted in those researchers being ill-prepared to cope
with the unpredictable nature of qualitative research. Qualitative researchers focus their research on
exploring, examining, and describing people and their natural environments. Embedded in qualitative
research are the concepts of relationships and power between researchers and participants. The desire
to participate in a research study depends upon a participant’s willingness to share his or her own
experience. Nurse researchers have to balance research principles as well as the well-being of clients
(Ramos, 1989).
Instruct the students to form
discussion groups. Ask them to
read the selection and answer
the following guide questions.
Qualitative health research is focused on the experiences of people in relation to health
and illness. Yet, nurse researchers may find that their roles as researchers and as clinicians
may be in conflict. Qualitative studies are frequently conducted in settings involving the
participation of people in their everyday environments. Therefore, any research that includes
people requires an awareness of the ethical issues that may be derived from such
interactions. Ethics in health research includes appropriateness of the research design, the
methodological design, the funding sources, and the behaviors in reporting data. The
purpose of this paper is to show these and related ethical issues and principles to be used in
qualitative research (Orb, 2000).
Source: Ethics in Qualitative Research by A. Orb, L. Eisenhauer, and D. Wynaden (2000)
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Based on the article, how will you define ethics in research?
5888
Are the Tuskegee syphilis study and diethylstilbestrol study on pregnant
women unethical? Why?
I
0 If you were a part of the research teams who conducted the research studies, what will you
do to correct the unethical aspect of the experiments?
Ethics of Research
31
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 15
0
Determine the appropriate ethical action to address the unethical practices described
below. Write your answers in the spaces provided.
Unethical Practices
0
3
Jaypee, a senior high school student, is
planning to conduct his first research
on the misbehavior of fellow students
during examinations. However, he has
no idea on the ethical guidelines in
conducting such research.
4
Because of non-participation in extracurricular activities, Trey, an honor
student, ranked last in the honor roll.
A qualitative research about Trey is
conducted without informing him.
5
Gabby, a graduating student, claimed
the research work of his classmate. He
erased the name of the original
researcher and placed his own.
6
A group of senior high school students
secretly chose their teacher as the
subject of their research.
7
To maximize the participants in her study,
Pauline, the class valedictorian, forced her
classmates to join her study.
Ethical Action
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Investigation
Importance of Ethics in Research
ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ AĀ AȀ ⸀AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ
ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ0
Have the students explain
why research should be guided by
ethical principles and considerations.
ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ AĀ AȀ ⸀AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ
AĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀAĀ ᜀ1
Let them
explain the benefits of
engaging in ethical research.
Ethical Codes and Policies and
Rights of Participants
0
Have the students divide themselves
into 20 groups.
1
Assign each group one ethical
code or participant right.
16 • Practical Research 1
25
INVESTIGATION
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH
26
Resnik (2007), in his article “What is Ethics in Research & Why is it important?”, explains the
importance of ethics in research. These are as follows:
0
1
Many of the ethical norms ensure that researchers are held accountable to the public.
2
Adherence to ethical principles helps build public support for research. People are more
likely to fund research studies that promote a variety of important moral and social values
such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, and health and safety.
ETHICAL CODES AND POLICIES FOR RESEARCH
Given the importance of ethics in the conduct of research, many professional associations,
government agencies, and universities have come up with the following codes and policies for
research:
Honesty. This must be maintained in all communications (e.g., when reporting data,
results, and procedures). Data should never be fabricated, falsified, or misrepresented.
24
Objectivity. Biases should be avoided in the experimental design, data analysis,
interpretation, expert testimony, and the other aspects of research.
25
Integrity. Consistency of thought and action is the foundation of the credibility of
any research work. Promises and agreements should be kept and all actions should be
made with a sincere purpose.
26
Care. Careless errors and negligence should be avoided. Your work and the works of
your peers should be critically examined. Records of research activities should be kept in
good order and condition.
27
Openness. The researcher should be open to criticisms and new ideas. Research
data, results, ideas, and resources should also be shared with the public.
28
Respect for intellectual property. Proper acknowledgement should be given to all
authors cited and sources used in your research. Patents and copyrights should be
recognized. Any unpublished data, methods, or results should not be used without
permission. Credit should be given to where it is due.
Ethics of Research 33
23
Confidentiality. Confidential communications or documents should be protected.
24
Responsible publication. The study should be done with the purpose of
advancing research and scholarship. Wasteful and duplicate publication should be
avoided.
25
Responsible mentoring. The research should seek to educate, mentor, and advise
students.
26 Respect for colleagues. All peers should be treated fairly.
27 Social responsibility. Social good should be promoted and social harm should be avoided.
28 Non-discrimination. All those eligible to participate in research should be allowed to do
so.
29 Competence. Professional competence and expertise should be maintained and improved
with the research.
30 Legality. A researcher should know and obey relevant laws, and institutional and
government policies.
31 Human subject protection. Harms and risks to human lives should be minimized.
Human dignity, privacy, and autonomy should be among the primary considerations of the
research.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
The main purpose of a research is to produce results that would benefit the stakeholders in
the study. Likewise, the participants are crucial elements of the research and they have the same
rights as the research beneficiaries. Some of the rights of research participants are as follows
(Trochim, 2006; Smith, 2003; Polit, 2006):
23
Voluntary participation. Any person should not be coerced to participate in any
research undertaking.
24
Informed consent. Prospective research participants must be fully informed
about the procedures and risks involved in the research. Their consent to participate must
be secured.
Confidentiality. Participants must be assured that their identity and other personal
information will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study.
27
Ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility. It also fosters values that
are essential to collaborative work. Research often involves a great deal of cooperation
and coordination among people in different fields or disciplines. The important values
include trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
23
Risk of harm. Participants should be protected from physical, financial, or
psychological harm. The principle of non-maleficence states that it is the researcher’s
duty to avoid, prevent, or minimize harm to the participants of the study.
Anonymity. The participants must remain anonymous throughout the study
even to the researchers themselves.
0
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WRITING
It is a general notion that in the written work of any author, be it in books, magazines,
research papers for a degree program, or even those papers which are to be submitted for
funding programs, the reader assumes that the author is the sole originator of the written work,
that any text or ideas borrowed from others are clearly identified as such by established
scholarly conventions, and that the ideas conveyed therein are accurately represented to the
best of the author’s abilities. For a writing to be considered ethical, it should be clear, accurate,
fair, and honest (Kolin, as cited by Roig, 2006).
The following reminders must be taken into consideration for ethical research writing (Logan
University, 2016):
0
Findings should be reported with complete honesty.
1
Intentional misinterpretation, misinformation, and misleading claims must be avoided.
2 Appropriate credit should be given when using other people’s work.
3
Plagiarism should be avoided by fully acknowledging all content belonging to others.
Plagiarism and Intellectual Property
Plagiarism refers to the act of using another person’s ideas, words, processes, and results
without giving due credit.
Have them research information on
their assigned type. The students
may use additional library and
online resources.
Call each group to share their output to
the class.
Facilitate the sharing of the outputs by
adding additional information and
examples for each one.
The following are considered as acts of plagiarism:
0
Claiming authorship of a work or creation done by another person
1 Copying an entire written work or a portion of it – including words, sentences, and ideas
– without acknowledging the author
2
Failing to put quotation marks to distinguish a quotation taken directly from a source
3
Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
4
Merely changing the words but retaining the sentence structure so that the selection or
quotes still bears a resemblance to the original source
5
Using so many words and ideas from the original source that it makes up a large portion
of your work, even if you acknowledge the original author
Plagiarism should not be tolerated as the unauthorized use of original ideas and works
constitutes a violation of intellectual property rights. The World Intellectual Property
Organization has the following definition of intellectual property:
“Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind: inventions; literary and artistic
works; and symbols, names, and images used in commerce.” (WIPO, 2004)
Ethics of Research 35
Intellectual property covers two categories: industrial property, which includes patents,
trademarks, and industrial desgins; and copyright, which includes published works such as
literary works, textbooks, reference books, and other artistic works such as creative design, film,
music, radio broadcasts, and performance art. Creators of such works and intellectual property
are given rights and protections, and the unauthorized use of intellectual property is subject to
legal sanctions.
In the Philippines, intellectual property is protected by Republic Act 8293 or the
Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines. Following are the provisions of the Code
regarding published works:
“Published works” means works, which, with the consent of the authors, are made
available to the public by wire or wireless means in such a way that members of the
public may access these works from a place and time individually chosen by them:
Provided, that availability of such copies has been such, as to satisfy the reasonable
requirements of the public, having regard to the nature of the work...
Ethical Standards in Research Writing
Discuss the general ethical considerations
for research writing.
Ask the students to explain the
importance of ethics and ethical
writing in a research study.
Discuss the concept of plagiarism,
intellectual property, and fair use.
Explain their legal aspects by
citing the relevant provisions.
Discuss the implications of
plagiarism in a research study.
Have the students identify and discuss
some controversial instances of
publicized plagiarism issues such as
the cases of Senator Tito Sotto and
Court Justice Mariano del Castillo.
Furthermore, the code also states the following provisions regarding copyright ownership:
178.1 Subject to the provisions of this section, in the case of original literary and
artistic works, copyright shall belong to the author of the work;
178.2 In the case of works of joint authorship, the co-authors shall be the original
owners of the copyright, and in the absence of agreement, their rights shall
be governed by the rules on co-ownership. If, however, a work of joint
authorship consists of parts that can be used separately and the author of
each part can be identified, the author of each part shall be the original
owner of the copyright in the part that he has created.
This is the basis of ownership of any published article or materials in the form of books, magazines and
the like as well as those that are in electronic form. Using these materials, in part or as a whole, in
commercial publications such as textbooks without recognizing the author or authors constitutes an
infringement of copyright which has corresponding consequences. This act states that in determining the
number of years of imprisonment and the amount of fine, the court shall consider the value of the
infringing materials that the defendant has produced or manufactured and the damage that the copyright
owner has suffered by reason of the infringement.
Copyright infringement and its corresponding sanctions, however, only apply to commercial
use of intellectual property. In academic research, plagiarism and its related acts constitute
academic dishonesty and may be cause for the invalidation of a research study and other
sanctions on the offender. Educational institutions and academic organizations have their own
rules and sanctions regarding plagiarism. Students who commit plagiarism risk academic
sanctions such as a failing grade in the course where such violation was committed, and in
extreme cases, the revocation of a degree conferred.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 17
0
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Sharma and Singh (2011) list the following tips to avoid plagiarism:
CH APTER SUMMARY
Sufficient time should be allotted for writing.
Hard copies of all the relevant references should be collected.
All references should be read carefully and its important parts should be highlighted.
Ethics in research promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility; helps ensure
researcher’s accountability; and builds public support for the study.
Some of the ethical codes are honesty, care, confidentiality, objectivity, openness,
respect intellectual property, and responsible mentoring.
Sufficient attribution should be placed when using the ideas of others.
Lines with factual details are to be referenced.
The appropriateness of inserting references should be determined.
Written permission should be acquired for text and figures copied from other sources.
All the text should be paraphrased—that is, written by the author in his or her own
language.
Copying and pasting text from sources while writing should be avoided. If one is not good
at typing, he or she can request assistance from a typist.
10. Before submitting an article, all files, figures, and references should be prepared in
accordance to the prescribed standards.
Participants in a research have the rights to voluntary participation, informed consent,
freedom from risk of harm, confidentiality, and anonymity.
For writing to be considered as ethical, the writing should be clear, accurate, fair, and
honest.
The purposes of literature review are to assess the body of the literature, to synthesize
previous works, and to locate gaps.
The following are reminders for ethical writing: honesty with professional colleagues,
protection from harm, and right to privacy.
Plagiarism is the claiming of other works as one’s own work.
Fair Use
The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines or R.A. 8293 contains provisions
regarding published works and copyright ownership.
The law, however, recognizes certain situations where the use of copyrighted content is
acceptable and constitutes “fair use” of intellectual property. The Intellectual Property Code
identifies the following as acceptable use of intellectual property:
Some tips to avoid plagiarism are to collect hard copies of all the relevant references; read
all the references carefully and highlight important areas; and place sufficient
attribution while using the ideas of others.
Use of works in the public domain. An intellectual property is considered to be in the public
domain once the rights of the author have lapsed after a period defined by law (50 years
after the death of the author)
Use of a copyrighted work for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching and classroom
use, scholarship and research, and other similar purposes
Reproduction of works as part of reports on current news which is broadcast to the public
Use of works and material from the government and its various branches, departments, and
offices, provided that permission for use is acquired.
Although fair use gives academic researchers great freedom in the selection and use of
certain sources, due diligence should still be taken in citing the sources and informing the
copyright owners regarding the use of their works.
Ethics of Research 37
CHECK-UP
Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. All the data to be reported should include all facts with accuracy.
a. Honesty
c. Competence
b. Objectivity
d. Care
2. Whatever agreed upon with the participants must be actualized.
a. Integrity
c. Social responsibility
b. Legality
d. Responsible publication
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
The researchers should accept all comments and give considerations.
Discuss various tips to avoid
plagiarism.
Present a sample plagiarized text and have
them correctly paraphrase it.
Highlight the importance of proper
citation and attribution.
Ask the students how they will apply the
guidelines on ethical writing in their
research study.
a. Openness
c. Non-discrimination
b. Respect for intellectual property
d. Responsible mentoring
When a paper is already submitted to a publication, no submission to another should be
done.
a. Objectivity
c. Care
b. Legality
d. Responsible publication
5. The researcher should be fully equipped with research skills when conducting the study.
a. Confidentiality
c. Legality
b. Competence
d. Openness
6. An experienced researcher should impart knowledge to his or her students.
a. Responsible publication
c. Respect for colleagues
b. Non-discrimination
d. Social responsibility
The researcher should ensure that the participants will not be adversely affected by the
research and its results.
a. Care
c. Respect for colleagues
b. Human subjects protection
d. Social responsibility
8. Any participants to any research activity must not be forced to take part in the study.
assessment actIvItIes
a. Voluntary participation
c. Risk of harm
b. Informed consent
d. Social responsibility
Informed consent for a participant is best exemplified in which of the following actions?
check-up
After answering, ask the students to
exchange books for correction.
Talking to him or her privately
Surprising him or her with a questionnaire
Writing him or her a letter
Using a padrino system
Confidentiality of a participant is best exemplied in which of the following actions?
Asking the participant to write his or her name in the questionnaire
Not mentioning his or her name in the Participants of the Study section
Introducing himself or herself in an interview
Taking his or her picture and placing it in the appendix
18 • Practical research 1
Ethics of Research 39
Put an “X” on the space before the statement that describes a case of plagiarism.
Alexandra puts her name on a quotation of Shakespeare.
Application
After reading a selection, Pristine correctly wrote the contents of the selection
and cited the author.
Let the students answer the
questions. Ask the students to
exchange their work with
their seatmates for
comparison and checking.
The author is Ramoso, Gabriel but the reference of Aaron is Ramoso, Gabrielle.
In Athena’s assignment, she carefully expressed the ideas of the author and
wrote the author’s name.
Because of lack of time, Pauline omitted some of the important details from a
source in her thesis.
APPLICATION
Facilitate the presentation by giving
guidelines for the performance. Use
the rubric provided on page 41 of the
textbook in judging each
performance.
Complete the following phrases by referring to the ethical principles for research. 1.
When I conduct research, I will
2. The participants of my study will be
Assignment
Instruct the students to write their
reaction piece on their researched
case of plagiarism on an
intermediate pad.
3. To finally arrive at the best findings, I will
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Divide the class into four groups. Each group will be assigned to create a thematic show about a
radio or television program airing an episode with the theme, “No Plagiarism Please.” Each
group will be given time to prepare their show. Their performance will be rated by the other
groups and the teacher with the use of the rubric below.
CRITERIA
4
3
2
1
Content
More than 5
concepts were
displayed.
4 concepts were
displayed.
3 concepts were
displayed.
Less than 3
concepts were
displayed.
Creativity
75% - 100% creative
50% - 74% creative
25% - 49% creative
1% - 24% creative
Coordination
0 to 1 instance of
discoordination
2 to 3 instances of
discoordination
4 to 5 instances of
discoordination
More than 5
instances of
discoordination
75% - 100%
participated
50% - 74%
participated
25% - 49%
participated
1% - 24%
participated
More than 5 props
were displayed
appropriately.
4 props were
displayed
appropriately.
3 props were
displayed
appropriately.
Less than 3 props
were displayed
appropriately.
Participants
Props
ASSIGNMENT
Research on one reported case of plagiarism. Analyze the case by identifying the
violations committed by the author. Write a reaction paper about it.
Ethics of Research
41
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 19
CHAPTER
Research Title,
4
Sources, and
Considerations
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
describe the different sources of
research problems;
discuss the considerations in the
selection of research problems; and
identify possible research problems.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
describe the different
sources of research
problems;
discuss the
considerations in the
selection of research
problems; and
identify possible
research problems.
OPENING ACTIVITY
Form groups of five members and select one of the
clusters below. Analyze the research titles in your
selected cluster. Identify the common elements of the
titles in your cluster and write them in the space
provided. Share your findings with the rest of the class.
Cluster A
Effectiveness of the Neuro-Linguistic Programming in
Enhancing the Self-Esteem of Adopted Children
(Tiamzon, 2003)
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of
School Managers: Basis for a Human Intervention
Program (Cristobal, 2003)
Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratory of Selected Private Schools
(Estrella, 2009)
Opening Activity
Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors and Total Quality Management
Competencies of Principals: Their Relationship to School Effectiveness (Barrameda, 2000)
Likeability of Teachers: Essential Qualities for Senior High School Instructors
Divide the whole class into 4 groups.
Cluster B
Assign a cluster to each group by
drawing lots.
Reading Difficulties and Comprehension Levels of Freshmen
Give students time to analyse the given
cluster and write their answers on
page 43.
Managerial Skills and Difficulties of Elementary School Managers (Lao, 2007)
Provide an introductory lecture on the
characteristics of a research title
first before conducting the
assessment of students’ outputs.
Human Relation Practices of Supervisors vis-aà -vis Motivational Factors in Subic Bay
Volunteer Workers (Perez, 2008)
Factors Affecting the Learning Styles of High School Students (Naco, 2006)
Predictors of Leadership Behaviors of Principals and Efficacy of High School Teachers
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Cluster C
The Effect of Computer Games to Mathematical Competencies in Algebra Among
Sophomores
The Effect of Computer Assisted Instruction in the Performance of Students in Asian History
and Civilization (Cuenca, 2008)
Principals’ Leadership Capacities as Perceived by Teachers (Garcia, 2009)
High School Classroom Climate Quality: Basis for Creating Faculty Development Activities
(Landar, 2008)
Correlation of English Performance of Students in Selected Schools (Valenton, 2009)
Cluster D
Participation Experiences of Graduating Students in Intramurals
Psychological Needs of Students with OFW Parents
Crushes and Dating Among Teenagers
Parenting Needs, Goals, and Strategies for Adolescent Mothers (Stiles, 2005)
Learning Styles and Level of Motivation of Honor Students
The common elements of the research titles are:
Students’ answers will vary.
20 • Practical Research 1
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations
43
INVESTIGATION
Investigation
RESEARCH TITLE
A research title prefaces the study by providing a summary of the main idea and is usually
short and concise. Writing it may seem to be a simple task but it actually requires more
consideration on the part of the researcher. While he or she may have written the contents of the
study in great detail, researchers may find it hard to create a research title for their study that is
concise and represents all the relevant elements of the study at the same time.
Research Title and Research Problem
Discuss the research title and the
research problem.
A research title should have the following characteristics:
It should summarize the main idea of the paper.
It should be a concise statement of the main topic.
Let the students discuss the purpose of
a research title and research
problem.
It should include the major variables of the research study.
It should be self-explanatory.
It should describe or imply the participants of the study.
In general, the researcher should avoid using words that serve no useful purpose and can
mislead indexers. Words such as “methods,” “results,” and “investigations” should not appear in
the title. In many cases, the general problem of the research or even the specific question that
the researcher intends to answer, when rewritten in a statement form, can serve as the title.
Discuss the criteria for determining the
research problem.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
The research problem states the area of concern of the research paper whether it is a
circumstance needing development, a difficulty requiring attention, or an inquiry necessitating
an answer. This section sets the direction of the research study as it provides the foundation for
the research hypothesis and defines what kind of research study is suitable to address the
problem. However, it is important to note that this section should only state the problem and not
preface or suggest a solution for it.
Review
Ask the students to go back to
their answers on the opening
activity on page 43.
Sources of Research Problems
Research problems may be derived in almost any kind of setting such as hospitals or clinics,
schools, offices, homes, or any part of the community. Research problems can be commonly
based from circumstances with the following characteristics:
Have the students evaluate the
research titles using the
information from the
discussion.
It conveys a feeling of discomfort or difficulty.
It has a perceived difficulty in broad subjects such as family affairs, home management, and
leadership system.
It displays a gap between theory and practice: what is said by the elders and what the
students see and observe.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Ask them to identify which
characteristics of a research
title are exemplified by their
assigned clusters.
It utilizes a procedure requiring technologically advanced equipment.
It involves the experience of any kind of individual.
It shows some kind of pattern or trend.
Let the groups share their final
report to the class.
It makes use of literature reviews, continuous readings, and past studies. These readings
can lead a student to a topic, and its scope and clues for further studies. The repetition
of a prior research study in a different setting and time is called replication.
It relates to an individual’s curiosity and interest.
Furthermore, a discerned problem is said to be researchable when the following criteria are
met:
Solutions are available but not yet tested and not yet known by the practitioner.
No solutions are available to answer the gap or the problem being assessed.
When the given answers or solutions, as well as the possible results, are seemingly untested
or are factually contradictory with each other.
A phenomenon requiring an explanation has occurred.
There are several possible and plausible explanations for the existence of an undesirable
condition.
Considerations in Formulating the
Research Problem
Discuss the two types of criteria to be
considered in formulating the
research.
REVIEW
Based on the assigned clusters in the Opening Activity (pages 42-43), discuss with your
group members how the researchers came up with each title. Then, write a report about
it. Refer to the lesson above when writing the report.
CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
In the book A Research Guide in Nursing Education, Barrientos-Tan (1997) discusses the
different criteria for choosing a problem for research. These are as follows:
External Criteria
Novelty – This refers to the practical value of the problem due to its “newness” in the
field of inquiry.
Availability of subjects – This refers to the people with the desired capability and
willingness to participate in the study. The sample of the study participants must be
representative enough to ensure reliability and validity of the results.
Support of the academic community – This refers to the assistance given by the
members of the institution, like the principal, teachers, staff, students, and the
parents, in the gathering of data and defraying the cost of the study. Permission of
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations
45
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 21
those concerned for the participation in the study of staff members, children, the
aged, and the mentally challenged should be secured.
Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment – Devices such as computers,
and telephones used in undertaking the study must be considered.
Ethical considerations – These include the avoidance of research problems that pose
unethical demands on the part of the research participants.
Internal Criteria
Experience, training, and qualifications of the researcher – These constitute the
researcher’s knowledge and expertise as a result of experience and study.
Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the researcher –
These are essential attitudes that bring anticipated satisfaction or enjoyment in the
completion of research tasks.
to the subjects to be studied. The entire cost of the study must be estimated—the travel
expenses when meeting with the respondents, purchase costs of the instruments to be
used, and expenses incurred in encoding the results.
External support is also an essential element to look into when determining whether a
research is feasible or not. Is the teacher or adviser present when conflicts arise in the
conduct of research? Are experts in the field accommodating? Do they lend a hand when
requested for technical assistance in finishing the paper? These questions are also
important concerns to be addressed.
The innovative quality of the topic should still be considered. A review of literature and
studies ensures that solutions are yet to be proposed for the problem, thus showing the
need to conduct the study.
Time factor – This considers the fact that studies must be pursued within a given time
frame.
Costs and returns – These factors matter in choosing a research problem. Research is
an expensive undertaking. The amount of funding needed, after all, depends on the
size of the sample, the place where the research is to be conducted, the treatment of
data, and the kind of research design.
Hazards, penalties, and handicaps – These depend upon the researcher’s physical and
intellectual capacity and moral judgment.
CHOOSING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AS A HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT
The background of the researcher is an important factor that defines the selection of
research problems and topics. A researcher in a particular field, like medicine, engineering, or
the social sciences, focuses on topics within their field or discipline. A student researcher, on the
other hand, focuses on more practical and relatable topics for research. One useful guide to
student researchers taking this course is to consider their respective tracks for Senior High
School. Students on the STEM track should consider researching on topics related to science and
technology. ABM track students, meanwhile, should consider topics on business and
management. Finally, HUMSS track students can choose from the wide variety of social science
and humanities topics such as history, politics, society, culture, arts, and music.
CH APTER SUMMARY
The title of the research should summarize the main idea, and include the major variables
and the participants of the study.
The potential sources of problems in research can stem from circumstances which conveys
a feeling of discomfort; have perceived difficulty; displays a gap between theory and
practice; involves experiences of oneself; shows some kind of pattern or trend; makes
use of literature review; and involves a personal curiosity or interest.
The chosen topic or problem in research must pass different external and internal criteria.
The external criteria include novelty, availability of subjects, support of the academic
community, availability and adequacy of resources, and ethical considerations.
The internal criteria consist of experience, training and qualifications of the researcher,
motivation, interest and curiosity, time factor, and cost and returns.
Special considerations for high school students in choosing research problems should be
considered such as the relevance to the K-12 tracks, feasibility of the study, external
support, and innovative quality of the chosen study.
Researchers should also be aware of the following factors in determining their research
problem and topic:
The feasibility of the research study is a very important consideration in choosing the
problem. The time needed to conduct the study must be measured and its setting should
be defined and located. The researcher must have ready access to the relevant materials
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Have the students explain the specific
criteria for each type and how
each one is applied in
formulating research problems.
Provide additional input when
necessary.
CHECK-UP
Categorize the following criteria as either external or internal.
Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment
Costs and returns
Ethical considerations
Time factor
Novelty
Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the researcher
Hazards, penalties, and handicaps
choosIng the research problem
as a hIgh school stuDent
Discuss the difference between formal
research in a particular field and
research done by a student
researcher.
Explain the limitations of research for
senior high school students by
discussing the different factors to
be considered when determining
the research problem and topic.
22 • Practical research 1
Experience, training, and qualifications of the researcher
Support of the academic community
Availability of subjects
APPLICATION
Answer the following questions.
What is the purpose of the research title in a study?
Why do you think research problems are more likely to be derived from circumstances that
convey a sense of difficulty?
As a high school student, how will you consider the innovative quality of your study if it is
recommended that the research is feasible and can be done within your means?
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
47
Name :
b.
Date :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 1
c.
PROPOSED PROBLEMS
Enumerate three possible problems you may encounter in the following circumstances:
Relationships with colleagues and mentors (classmates, teachers, heads) a.
Personal life (family and friends) a.
b.
b.
c.
c.
Other areas of interest or concern a.
School a.
b.
b.
c.
c.
Local community a.
Based on the enumerated possible research problems, identify at least three researchable
problems and explain why you chose them.
b.
Problem:
Reason:
c.
Government
a.
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations
49
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
2.
Problem:
Reason:
3.
Problem:
assessment actIvItIes
check-up
After answering, ask the students
to exchange books for correction.
Reason:
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations
51
applIcatIon
Provide them adequate time to
answer the questions. Have them
share their answers to the class.
research actIvIty 1
Ask the students to fill in all the
sections with the required
information.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 23
Clarify that possible problems can be written as a phrase or sentence.
Have the students determine the researchable problems using the internal and external criteria.
PROBLEM SELECTION SHEET
Rate each of the proposed problems according to the internal and external criteria by using the scale of
1 to 5, where 5 is the highest. Encircle the number of scale number of your choice.
Internal Criteria
Research Problem:
Scale
Rating
1.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
1
2
3
4
5
External Criteria
Scale
Rating
1.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
1
2
3
4
5
Total Rating
Ask the students to submit the accomplished Research Activity 1 by detaching it from the book.
Note:
You have the option to let this classroom activity be a take-home assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for additional research materials.
Carefully check the students’ outputs because the final research paper will be based on these. Return the
outputs to the students and provide comment or guidelines on some lapses they have made with the
information they have provided.
24 • Practical Research 1
CHAPTER
5
The Introduction
objectIves
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
OPENING ACTIVITY
Get a partner and role-play the situation below. Then,
answer the following questions.
identify the essential elements of the
introduction and
identify the essential
elements of the
introduction and
formulate the
introduction of the
research.
formulate the introduction of the
research.
Situation: If you are the businessman on the picture, how will you introduce yourself to the
prospective client?
openIng actIvIty
GUIDE QUESTIONS
Based on your role play, what are the elements of a proper introduction?
Assign each student a partner
Let the students perform a role play on
the following situation: If you are a
businessman, how will you
introduce yourself to a prospective
client?
For what purpose does an introduction serve in general?
In a research study, what do you think is the significance of an introduction?
The Introduction
53
Instruct the students to answer the
guide questions of Activity A on
page 53. Refer to the sample
answers below.
Answers to the Guide Questions:
Some of the possible answers are: name, age, title or position, name of the company, and products,
among others.
The purpose of introduction is to inform people of the general picture or the perspective of the
intention.
It is very important for it serves as the compass or guide on what the research is all about.
Introduction can also give more interest and excitement to the reader.
Ask the students to answer Activity B.
Instruct the students to base their answers in the first guide question on the graphic organizer in
Activity B.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 25
Based on your answer in the first activity, identify the elements of a proper introduction
using the graphic organizer.
Investigation
Beginning of the Research
Discuss the essential elements of the
beginning part of the research and
explain their purpose in the research
paper.
Ask the students to explain the functions
of each element of the first chapter.
INTRODUCTION
Have the students to read and analyze
the given example on page 61 to
gain further context.
Introduction
Discuss the elements of the
introduction.
Have the student discuss the guide
questions in formulating the
introduction.
Cite and discuss the examples given on
pages 58-59 for each element of
the introduction.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
INVESTIGATION
BEGINNING OF THE RESEARCH
Review
Have the students refer to
their corrected Research
Activity 1 and review your
comments.
Encourage them to ask
clarifications when
necessary.
Emphasize that the final
selected problem will
be used as they work on
developing the different
aspects of their
research paper.
The first chapter of the research paper is entitled “The Problem” or “The Problem and Its
Background.” Its purpose is to introduce the problem and clarify important variables, its
delimitations, and its significance to the field of study. It has the following essential elements:
Introduction
Statement of the problem
Scope and delimitation
Significance of the study
Notes in Chapter I
It should also be noted that the researcher has to introduce the different elements of the
first chapter by giving a brief description of each element, so that the reader knows what to
expect from the chapter.
Example:
This chapter presents the different essential elements: the introduction, which contains the
rationale (an explanation of the reasons for the conduct of the research); the review of literature
and statistical foundation; the statement of the general and specific problems; the scope and
delimitation which identifies the major variables, sub-variables and the indicators; the significance
of the study which enumerates the beneficiaries of the study and the corresponding benefits each
will receive; and lastly, the notations.
INTRODUCTION
The introduction is important in establishing the cognitive setting of the research. It has
the following elements:
Rationalization of the need to research on the problem
Clarification of the important terminologies for the reader to easily understand what the
research is about
Establishment of the degree of seriousness of the problem which prompted the researcher
to look for solutions
The following questions can aid the researcher in formulating the introduction:
What is the rationale of the problem? This question is answered by sharing the reasons why the
26 • Practical Research 1
researcher decided to look for solutions to the problem. A rationale may include the narration of
personal experiences, a description of an article read, a scene witnessed,
The Introduction
55
a news heard, or a theory that needs to be clarified. The researcher should describe the
existing and prevailing problem based on his or her experience. The scope may be local,
national, or international. Ideally, the rationale can start from a global perspective to a
more personal one.
Example:
As a Grade 12 student, Arjohn David, experienced some difficulties in performing
well because of various factors such as the attitude of his teachers as well as their
teaching methods, the absence of laboratory facilities, and inadequacy of books in
the library. He is having difficulties in his quizzes and class performance.
What is the setting of the problem? The setting forms part of the delimitation of the study.
It defines the geographic boundaries and certain demographic characteristics of the
research. This describes the place where the research was conducted, since the setting
has a significant bearing on the variables being studied. In the description of the setting,
its distinctive characteristics must be highlighted.
Example:
Puting Capunitan Elementary School is one of the barrio schools in Orion, Bataan
where most enrollees are from disadvantaged families whose immediate ancestors
are either laborers or fisher folks. This school is one of the schools with poorly
performing students in their division according to the Department of Education.
What is the basic literature foundation of the study? This is different from the review of
the related theories, conceptual literature, and research literature. This part seeks to
provide the researcher clarity on the terms or variables used in the study. The terms and
variables must be clear to the researcher for an easy understanding of the readers. As
such, sufficient background can assist the investigator in determining the boundaries of
the study. This part is derived from different literature sources. The use of various
references is crucial in this part of the first chapter.
Example:
As teaching is considered to be a complex activity (Medley, as cited in Iqbal,
1996), the scholars and researchers in the field of education have since long been
exploring into and analyzing the teaching phenomenon. Teaching is an arrangement
and manipulation of a situation in which a learner tries to overcome the learning
problems. Teaching is also a multidimensional set of activities intended to facilitate
learning (Torrington et al., 2003). However, it is universally recognized that teachers’
instructional performance plays a key role in students’ learning and academic
achievement (Panda and Mohanty, 2003).
How serious is the chosen research problem? The researcher is tasked to identify the
intensity and magnitude of the problem. When the gravity of the problem has already
been described, he or she may then gauge the kind of action to be used to identify the
problem. In most cases, the researcher at this point looks for statistical or quantitative
evidence to assess the significance of the problem at hand.
Example:
Based on the DepEd Division Memo series 2012, among the 12 schools with the
most poorly performing students, Puting Capunitan Elementary Schools ranked 12th.
What is the general objective of the problem? This is the general statement of the
problem or the major tasks of the researcher to discharge and should also be the basis of
the enumerated statements of specific problems.
Example:
With the abovementioned scenario and situations, it is the main objective of the
researcher to determine the common reasons of the poor performance of the
students. Therefore, the research findings on that objective become the basis of an
intervention program for school effectiveness.
What is the overall purpose of the problem? It is important to note that the researcher
must be totally aware of the purpose of the research problem. He or she must fully
understand the implications of the resulting findings of the study.
Example:
This is mainly for the purpose of letting the students acquire the needed
competencies before graduation and enabling the school to perform better in the
Regional Achievement Examinations.
REVIEW
From the three research problems you identified in Research Activity 1, choose one as the
topic of your research study. Decide carefully as this will be the topic for your main
research study. Your chosen research topic will be used in answering Research Activity 2.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Introduction Sample:
Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratory
of Selected Private Schools (Estrella, 2009)
Rationale
Experimenting is one of the tasks in a science class. No science course is ever
complete unless each student has been given the opportunity to conduct an experiment.
It opens opportunities to students to be exposed to hands-on activities where they
discover the answers to their scientific queries. Laboratory activity requires students to
use many of the other scientific process skills like observation, measurements, inference,
prediction, and generalization.
All levels of students from primary, secondary, and tertiary levels conduct laboratory
activities. It is a well-known fact that college students taking up professional courses
cannot do away with science as one of their basic subjects. However, it has been
observed that students still find difficulties even in identifying common laboratory
apparatus and following simple procedures. This is despite the fact that they have been
already exposed to science activities during their high school years.
Setting of the problem
To cite, they have Integrated Science in their first year, Biology in their second year,
Chemistry in third year, and Physics in their fourth year. It is therefore, expected that they
are already familiar with the basics in science experiment. However, this is not the case.
Most of the time, the teacher repeats simple laboratory procedures, whereby, it must be
explained properly “to the letter,” and all the observations would lead the teacher to
teach the “ABCs” of doing a laboratory activity so that they can perform it correctly. In
addition, the teacher would have to orient the students on the basic and the most
commonly used laboratory apparatus.
Literature foundation
However, as cited by Cuyegkeng (2008), in the Philippine educational system, one of
the most disturbing problems is the poor achievement of Filipino students in the areas of
science and technology. Educators agree that one of the major causes of this problem has
to do with the method of facilitating the learning of science concepts, processes, and
poor laboratory practices inside the classroom. Somehow, this indicates that the current
methods do not fully develop the skills of both students and teachers. Also, Puno (2005),
citing specific issues concerning higher education, mentioned that academic excellence
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
The Introduction 57
must be viewed in terms of excellence in practical or applied learning theories.
Application of these theories and concepts will make the learner a productive member of
society. It is not the quantity of knowledge but more importantly how much of these
knowledge can be put to good use. We need graduates whose lives will be full of action
and not merely have heads which are just full of facts.
Seriousness of the problem
Earlier studies show that one of the problems of students, in general, is the failure to
connect the chemistry principles they have learned in class with the problems in the real
world. They fail to appreciate chemistry concepts and draw connections between them,
because chemistry is usually presented as a very theoretical, abstract body of knowledge.
This is especially true if the teacher is not properly trained, which is often the sad plight of
Philippine secondary schools. Coupled with poor learning facilities and materials, the
result is a failure in science education.
All these ideas point to the significance of learning by doing. For this reason, it is
viewed that in studying science, students may not only be more on theories but
application as well. There are many experiments that may be conducted and performed
in any science unit of study, and yet conducting them may not be that effective and the
mark of knowledge is absent.
General objective
At present, the researcher, as a college instructor, is experiencing the abovementioned
scenario in science education. If not dealt with properly, it might result to poor performance in
science laboratory activities. It is in this light that this research was conducted to determine the
factors affecting the student’s performance in Chemistry laboratory.
General purpose
To improve the performance of science instructors, which will result to improved
student performance in achievement examinations and a positive impact on school
effectiveness
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual
The Introduction
•27 59
CH APTER SUMMARY
APPLICATION
The introduction of the problem has the following elements: rationale, setting, literature
foundation, proof of urgency, general research objectives, and general purpose.
Based on the sample introduction below, identify the different parts of the sample
introduction. Encircle the paragraph/s and then label which part they correspond to.
The rationale is formulated not only by stating the reasons of the conduct but also
narrating incidences from international to local scenarios.
Problems of State Universities and Colleges’ Middle Level Managers: A Basis for the
Development of A Management Intervention Program (Muello, 2002)
The setting of the problem describes the distinctive characteristics of the geographical
location of the place where the study is to be conducted.
Since time immemorial, conflict has been a natural part of human existence. It exists
on many levels and takes many different forms. It is an inevitable part of organizational
life.
The definition and the description of the major variables must be done through analyzing
literatures.
The urgency of the problem must be proven by citing statistical evidences.
The general objective of the study is the major task of the researcher and is the general
statement of the problem.
Although conflict is natural and unavoidable, it is important that administrators
Rationale, learn to manage conflict effectively and turn it toward a constructive end. When properly
Setting
The general purpose is the general benefit or significance of the study.
Managers must understand that conflict is an almost constant and continuous
process (Himoc, 1989). By sound planning and action management, leaders can
constantly direct the energies of conflict into productive and creative channels of related
endeavors. These perspectives on conflict give the manager additional roles like that of a
referee and a counselor who help the protagonist reach an acceptable solution. They act
as motivators who direct human energies towards organizational goals. Ultimately, this
educational experience of resolving conflict could provide the managers deeper insights
into, and a greater understanding of the goals of the organization, vis-aà -vis the interests
and needs of their subordinates. The feedback on conflicts may serve as clues
CHECK-UP
Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.
In introducing the problem, the (1)
of the problem is done
by narrating the incidents from the (2)
circumstances. The (3)
perspective to the local
of the problem
description of the (4)
focuses mainly in the
characteristics of the place of study.
After this, the definition and description of the (5)
is important to include the (6)
the study more (7)
l
is written. It
of the references, since this makes
. The proof of urgency of the proposal is done by
evidences.
including (8)
Generally, the last paragraph of the introduction is composed of the overall
which states the general tasks of the researcher, and
which states the general benefits if the problem is answered.
handled, it does not disrupt the normal operation of the organization. At its intense level,
however, conflicts may lead to more radical measures of reform like strikes, mass leave
of absence, and even unwanted unionism. Therefore managers need to understand the
nature and cause of conflict. Managers need to analyze what the conflict is, where it
comes from, and how it develops and dissipates.
Literature
in potential problem analysis, and enhance the development of measures to minimize conflict and
maximize smooth interpersonal relationship.
Today’s educational leaders are faced with more changes, more conflicts, and more
pressures than in any other decades in the 20 th century (Gmelch, 1981). This is largely
due to substantial increases in their responsibilities. Many factors have also contributed
to the broader scope and expanded amount of work that leaders need to fulfill. Among
such factors are the tremendous increases in the school population and additional job
requirements necessitated by many educational innovations. Not only are they expected
to continue their traditional duties such as planning and overall school organization, but
they are also asked to give personal leadership and inspiration. Leaders are expected to
actively engage in establishing educational programs and in developing good
The Introduction
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
assessment actIvItIes
check up
teachers’ morale. Thus, it has become exceedingly important that school administrators
and teachers understand and are prepared to meet the many responsibilities inherent
to their position. Thus, time management becomes exceedingly important for managers
to efficiently attend to their duties and avoid conflicts (Muello, 2002).
The researcher, being a manager, will surely be personally benefited from the results of this
study which generally aims to analyze the common problems encountered by middle level
managers in state universities and colleges in Region IV which in turn will be utilized as the basis
for proposing a management intervention program.
After answering, ask the students to
exchange books for correction.
Objective,
Purpose of
the Study
applIcatIon
The following paragraphs are encircled and
labelled as follows
research actIvIty 2
Ask the students to answer all questions and
provide the required information.
Allow them to go to the library to research
on relevant resource materials and
utilize the computers for research
purposes.
28 • Practical research 1
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
61
Name :
Date :
What are the terms, variables, or concepts that need to be defined, clarified, or described to you
and to your reader?
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 2
THE INTRODUCTION
To help you formulate the introduction of your study, fill out the following:
Proposed Study
1. What is the rationale of your chosen problem?
Look for related literatures that define the main concepts of your study. Provide at least
three (3) references per concept. Provide a brief description of each.
Reference 1:
Description:
Reference 2:
Description:
2. Describe the setting where your study is to be conducted.
Reference 3:
Description:
64
The Introduction
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
63
Give additional guidelines to the
students for their research.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Determine the significance of your chosen problem. Research contextual evidence of its
“gravity.” Provide the details (and references) below.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
2 by detaching it from the book.
Note:
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
6. What is the general objective or overall purpose of the study?
Carefully check the students’ outputs
because the final research paper will
be based on these.
After the problem had been solved or the research was conducted, who will be the main
beneficiaries of the research? What direct benefits will they receive from it?
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 29
The Introduction
65
CHAPTER
6
of the Problem
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
1. differentiate the general problem
from the specific problems of the
research;
2. compare the different types of
research questions; and
3. formulate the general problem of the
The Statement
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter,
the students will be able
to
differentiate the general
problem from the
specific problems of
the research;
OPENING ACTIVITY
Recall an event in your childhood when you did not fully
comprehend what was happening. Write it on the space
provided below. Afterwards, write at least three questions
regarding that event back then that still remain unanswered
today. Write a reason why the questions remain unresolved.
Discuss in class a way to finally provide answers for them.
compare the different
types of research
questions; and
formulate the general
problem of the study
and its specific
questions.
study and its specific questions.
Question 1:
Reason:
Question 2:
Reason:
Question 3:
Reason:
The Statement of the Problem
67
Opening Activity
Give the students 10 minutes to do the activity.
Let each student share his or her output to at least two classmates.
Have the students comment on the shared outputs.
Provide the following examples of questions and corresponding reasons as guide in formulating their
own answers.
Why are my some of classmates much taller than I am?
Possible Reason: The genetic make-up or traits of my parents and ancestors should be
considered.
Why am I always alone in the house?
Possible Reason: My father and mother are both working.
30 • Practical Research 1
INVESTIGATION
Investigation
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
After the investigator has clarified the rationale, identified the degree of seriousness of the
problem, provided the literature review, and set the overall objective, the formulation of the
heart of the thesis—the statement of the general and the specific problems—must be done. The
opening paragraph of this section contains the general problem of the study.
Statement of the Problem
Define the statement of the problem
and describe its function in the
research paper.
Writing the General Problem in a Qualitative Study
In the book Principles of Qualitative Research: Designing a Qualitative Study, Creswell and
Clark (2014) provide the following criteria in writing the purpose statement:
It should use single and not compound sentences.
It should clearly express the purpose of the study.
Have the students discuss the criteria
on writing the purpose
statement. Discuss the criteria
for specific problems.
It should include the central phenomenon.
It should use qualitative words, e.g., explore, discover, and explain.
It should identify the participants in the study.
It should state the research site.
A sample pattern for the purpose statement is provided below.
The purpose of this (narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic,
case) is to (understand, describe, develop, discover) the (central phenomenon of the
study) for (the participants) at (the site). At this stage in the research, the (central
phenomenon) will be generally defined as (a general definition of the central concept)
(Creswell and Clark, 2014).
Discuss the examples on pages
68-69 and explain how they
follow the criteria in writing the
research problem.
Below are some examples of a general problem.
Example 1:
Discuss the two types of research
questions.
The overall objective of this phenomenological study is to describe the intrapersonal
and interpersonal competencies of school principals, and their relationship to the school
effectiveness in the Division of Bataan for the school year 2001-2002. The result is used as
a basis for an intervention program (Cristobal, 2003). Here, intrapersonal is the school
managers’ own self-concept and personality while interpersonal is their communication
and expressions in dealing with subordinates.
Ask the students to discuss the guidelines
in formulating the central and subquestions on pages 69-70.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Have the students provide an
example of a central question
and sub-question.
Example 2:
The objective of this ethnographic study is to differentiate the customs and traditions
of the Aetas and the locals of Zambales enrolled in Olongapo National City High School
for the school year 2014-2015. In this research, the customs and traditions are defined as
their practices in the celebration of feasts.
Example 3:
The objective of this grounded theory study is to characterize the general study
habits of the high school students that belong to the top ten of the class. The study
habits are concentrated on the student’s preparation before attending classes daily.
The general problem is followed by an enumeration of the specific problems. These
problems are usually stated as questions that the researcher seeks to answer. Therefore, the
specific problems must meet the following criteria:
They must be in question form.
They must define the population and the samples of the study (respondents).
They must identify the variables being studied.
According to Creswell and Clark (2014), there are two types of research questions. These are
as follows:
Central questions – These are the most general questions that can be asked.
Sub-questions – These questions subdivide the central question into more specific topical
questions and are only limited in number.
Creswell and Clark (2014) also provide some guidelines in formulating the research question:
The question should begin with words such as “how” or “what”.
The readers should be informed of the information that will be discovered, generated,
explored, identified, or described in the study.
The question “What happened?” should be asked to help craft the description.
The question “What was the meaning to people of what happened?” should be asked to
understand the results.
The question “What happened over time?” should be asked to explore the process.
In addition, Cresswell and Clark (2004) also provide the following scripts as a guide in
designing qualitative central and sub-questions:
Central question script
a. “What is the meaning of/what does it mean to (central phenomenon)?”
The Statement of the Problem
69
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 31
Examples:
TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
What is the meaning of intrapersonal competencies?
What does it mean to differentiate the customs and traditions of Aetas to those of the
locals?
What does it mean to characterize the study habits of the top 10 students of the
class?
“How would (participants) describe (central phenomenon)?”
In general, there are two types of questions formulated in research. These are as follows:
Non-researchable questions – These are questions of value and are answerable by yes or
no.
Examples:
Should all mothers breastfeed their babies?
Examples:
Should high school teachers be watchful over their Grade 7 students?
How would school managers describe intrapersonal competencies?
Should the schools offering different majors in senior high schools require their
students to have a mandatory review before taking the National Assessment Exam?
How would the Aetas and locals of Zambales differentiate their customs and
traditions?
How would the top ten high school students characterize their general study habits?
Sub-question script
“What (aspect) does (participant) engage in as a (central phenomenon)?”
Examples:
What level of self-concept does the school managers engage in as a characteristic of
interpersonal competencies?
What nature of practices do the Aetas and locals of Zambales engage in as a part of their
customs and traditions?
What kind of preparation does the top 10 high school students engage in as an indicator
of their general study habits?
REVIEW
Choose one type of qualitative research. Then, identify a research problem and formulate its sample
research questions. Remember to specify the central question and sub-questions.
Do all head teachers have a master’s degree?
Are family members helping their children in reviewing their lessons?
Researchable questions – These are questions of opinions, perceptions, or policy that are
raised to accumulate data. Formulating a clear, significant question prepares the
researcher for subsequent decision-making on research design, data collection, and
data analysis.
Examples:
What are the common preparations done by Grade 7 students during their first days in
school?
How do senior high school students respond to their Math teacher?
What are the study habits of students who are poorly performing?
What is the relationship of the attitudes of the adviser to the classroom behavior of
Grade 9 students?
How do the officers of the Parent-Teacher Community Association assist in the
improvement of school facilities?
Dickoff et. al (as cited by Wilson, 1989) provide further classification to research questions.
These are as follows:
Factor-isolating questions – These ask the question “What is this?” These questions are
sometimes called factor-naming questions because they isolate, categorize, describe, or
name factors and situations.
Examples:
a. What is the profile of school principals in terms of the following?
Age
Management experience
Civil status
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
The Statement of the Problem
Review
Ask the students to recall their lesson about the types of qualitative research.
Call at least 3 students to recite and define some of the types.
Give the students time to write their answers.
Provide the example below as an additional guideline to the students.
Example:
The general objective of this case study is to explain the rationale behind the poor
performance of Grade 11 students of senior high school of Saint Paul School of
Professional Studies in the subject, “Research for Daily Life 1.” The main variable
focused in the research is the relevance of the students’ personal lives in the
development of their study habits. Specifically, the researchers seek to identify the
behavioral implications of their personal lives.
Ask volunteers to share their answers.
32 • Practical Research 1
71
What are the levels of competencies of school principals as described by their respective
teachers and themselves in terms of the following?
types oF research QuestIons
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Discuss the different types of
research question.
Factor-relating questions – These ask the question “What is happening here?” The goal of
these questions is to determine the relationship among factors that have been identified.
Examples:
What is the relationship of the level of performance of the senior high school teachers to
the OJT performance of the students enrolled in the business track of Saint Paul
School of Professional Studies?
Ask the students to formulate an
example for each type of research
question based on their outputs
in the research activities.
How does the performance level of volleyball teams of boys differ to that of the girls?
Situation-relating questions – These questions ask the question “What will happen if...?”
These questions usually yield hypotheses testing or experimental study designs in which
the researcher manipulates the variables to see what will happen.
Examples:
Have them write the questions down as
reference for Research Activity 3.
What are the effects of computer-learning assisted methods of teaching to the interest
level of the sophomores to their history subjects?
How significantly different is the performance of the call center agents who are well
rested than those who are not?
Situation-producing questions – These ask the question “How can I make it happen?”
These questions establish explicit goals for actions, develop plans or prescriptions to
achieve goals, and specify the conditions under which these goals will be accomplished.
Examples:
assessment actIvItIes
Based on the findings, what human relation intervention program can be adopted to
enhance or improve effectiveness of existing teaching methods?
What faculty development activities can be sponsored by the PTCA to improve the
performance of graduating students in the UP College Admission Test (UPCAT)?
check-up
After answering, ask the students to
exchange books for correction.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
CH APTER SUMMARY
In writing a good qualitative general problem or central question, the following criteria
should be considered:
It should be written in a single sentence.
It should include the purpose of the study.
It should include the central phenomenon.
It should use qualitative words.
It should identify the participants in the study.
It should specify the research site.
The general problem can be followed by specific problems or sub-questions which must
satisfy the following criteria:
They must be in question form.
They should define the population and the samples of the study (respondents).
They should identify the variables being studied.
Questions in qualitative research usually ask how or what questions.
The two general types of research questions are researchable and non-researchable
questions. These are further classified into four (4) types: factor-isolating, factorelating, situation-relating, and situation-producing questions.
CHECK-UP
Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong.
A good central question includes the central phenomenon of the study.
The participants of the study must not be included in the central objective.
The statement of the sub-problem must be a declarative sentence.
“When” and “Where” are good pronouns to start the research questions.
What are the common experiences of CPA board topnotchers?
Note: set as item #6 of Test B.
The Statement of the Problem
73
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 33
Evaluate the following research questions. Put a check (3) if the statement is correct, and
put an “x” mark if it is incorrect.
applIcatIon
How would you cope to the challenges of being a senior high school student?
Students’ answers may vary. Some
possible answers are provided below.
What common difficulties have you encountered in dealing with classmates?
The problem statement seeks to
clarify the main task of the study,
what hypothesis is to be tested,
and what type of literature is to
be referenced, among others.
The purpose of dividing the problem
statement into a central question and a
set of sub-questions is to highlight the
main problem of the research and
identify the different steps to be taken
(or questions to be answered) to arrive
at the best solution.
A non-researchable question can
become a researchable when it is
changed into a
“5ws and h” questions. Sample
questions provided may vary
for each student.
Examples: Non-
What is the degree of satisfaction of the parents in senior high school?
Why did you enroll in Saint Paul School of Professional Studies?
At what time do you come to school?
APPLICATION
Answer the following questions.
1. What is the significance of a problem statement in a research paper?
What is the purpose of dividing the problem statement into a central question and a subquestion?
How do you think can non-researchable questions become researchable ones? In addition,
provide a sample of a non-researchable question and then change it into a researchable one.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Name :
researchable:
Do Senior High School students
find it difficult to study
Practical Research in Daily Life?
Researchable:
Why do senior high school
students find difficulty in
studying Practical Research
in Daily Life I?
Date :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 3
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Formulate the statement of the problem part of your research.
Title of your research:
Purpose statement:
The investigator seeks to
3. Central question:
34 • Practical research 1
The Statement of the Problem
7
5
4. Sub-question:
5. Other questions:
research actIvIty 3
76 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Ask the students to answer all
questions and provide the
required information.
Instruct them to refer to their
answers in the previous
Research Activities.
Give additional guidelines to the
students for their research.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
3 by detaching it from the book.
Note:
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final
research paper will be based on
their outputs.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 35
CHAPTER
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
specify the different variables, subvariables, and indicators of the study
and
cite the potential benefits of the
study.
7
The Scope and
Delimitation and the
Significance of the Study
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
specify the different
variables, subvariables and
indicators of the
study and
OPENING ACTIVITY
Form groups of three members. Then, follow the
instructions below in doing this activity. Answer the
guide questions that follow.
cite the potential
benefits of the
study.
A
B
Directions:
Synthesize your ideas and create captions for the two pictures.
Discuss to the class why you chose the captions. Compare your answers with those of the other
groups.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
What is the common interpretation of the groups on the pictures?
What is the most likely meaning of the target board relative to research?
How can you relate the pictures in the conduct of research?
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study
77
Opening Activity
Instruct the class to form groups of three.
Ask each group to answer the opening activity.
Let each group share their answers to the activity to two more groups.
Ask the students to give comments on the outputs of the other groups.
Students’ answers to the guide questions may vary.
The archer is trying to hit the eye of the target board. He or she must hit the bull’s eye on the
target.
The researcher is doing his best to accurately answer the research problem.
The researcher (archer) is looking into the accurate answers (bull’s eye) to the research problem
(target board).
36 • Practical Research 1
Kinds of Variables
INVESTIGATION
SETTING THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The scope of the study is determined primarily by the selection of variables that the research study
will focus on. Defining the scope of the research requires the careful selection of variables that will be
investigated, as well as the attributes that will define and measure these variables.
A variable refers to any characteristic that can have different values or traits that may vary
across research participants. Variables are measured, controlled, and manipulated by the
researcher. Examples include age, gender, height, and weight. Based on the research problem,
the researcher identifies the possible variables that will be investigated to address the problem.
Attributes are important elements of a variable. It refers to the value assigned to a specific
variable. For example, if the researcher focuses on gender as a significant variable in the study,
he or she then identifies male and female as attributes of gender. The variable agreement may
have the following attributes – strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree.
Variables have the following important characteristics:
Dependence – this refers to how the variable is considered in a cause-and-effect
relationship. Independent variables are those characteristics that are changed,
manipulated, or selected by the researcher. Dependent variables, on the other hand,
are those that change because of changes to the independent variable.
For example, in a study that investigates the use of computer-aided teaching
instruction on student performance, the independent variable is teaching instruction as
the researcher chooses to implement computer-aided teaching in the classrooms. The
dependent variable, therefore, is student performance as it is expected to change in
reaction to the introduction of computer-aided teaching.
Mutually exclusive – this means that a participant or respondent cannot possess two
attributes of a variable. For instance, a person cannot be both male and female.
Exhaustive – this means that the researcher should consider all possible attributes of a
certain variable. In identifying the possible responses of the participants to survey
questions, the researcher must identify all possible answers or reactions. In reality,
considering all possible attributes and including them in the research study is a difficult
and almost impossible task. Therefore, selecting the most relevant attributes for each
variable is part of setting the scope of the study.
Continuous variables – variables that may have an infinite number of values and may vary
widely among the research participants. Examples include age and weight.
Discrete variables – variables that have specific limits to their value. Examples include
income, number of children, or years of employment.
Categorical variables – these cannot be expressed in numbers but are given in nonquantitative, descriptive terms. Examples include civil status (single, married, widowed),
and educational achievement (high school graduate, college graduate, post-graduate).
DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The delimitation of the study describes the various limitations that arose during the
design and conduct of the study. These include the characteristics of the research design and
methodology that affected or influenced the findings of the study. These limitations are
constraints on certain aspects of the research, such as the interpretation of data and the
applicability and usefulness of the results and findings.
The limitations of the study are defined primarily by the scope of the study. While the scope
of the study defines the variables that are the focus of the research, the delimitation of the study
identifies the other variables that were not considered for the study. The limitations that are
identified are only those that are significant or may have had an impact on the findings of the
study. For instance, in the study on the effect of computer-aided teaching on student
performance, the researcher only focused on students in a specific school. Therefore, one
limitation of the study would be that the findings and conclusions are only applicable to the
particular school that was selected and may not apply to other schools in the country. The
characteristics of chosen respondents, as well as the time period and place where the research
was done, are major variables that define the scope and delimitation of a research.
The following may be the possible limitations that may arise from the research design and
methodology:
Sample size. The research design and methodology will determine whether the research
will have a small or large sample size. The sample size will determine the quality of data
and the relationships that will be identified among the variables.
Lack of available and/or reliable data. Missing and unreliable data will limit the scope of
analysis and the ability of the researcher to determine meaningful trends and
relationships among the data.
Lack of prior studies. This will limit the effetiveness of the literature review and may limit
the initial understanding of the research problem. This, however, can be a basis for
identifying avenues for further research.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study
Chosen data collection method. Limitations in the data collection instrument may affect the quality
of data collected. Unclear or vague questions in a questionnaire will result to unclear or erroneous
answers from the respondents. The method employed in data collection may also affect the
quality of the data. For example, the researcher may have conducted an interview or survey at a
time the respondents may be busy or preoccupied; there may be a possibility that the respondents
may not have accomplished the survey form or answered the question thoroughly and the
responses given may have been vague.
Nature of the information collected. Relying on preexisting data may impose limits on the
researcher as he or she can no longer clarify certain data. Self-reported data have the
risk of being false and cannot be easily verified.
Apart from the design and methodology, the characteristics of the researcher and the limits
that he or she experiences in the conduct of the research will also give rise to limitations. These
are as follows:
Access. The amount and quality of data will depend on the ability of the researcher to access
people, organizations, libraries, and documents that can provide him or her the best
available data.
Time period. The length of time devoted to the study will affect almost all aspects of the
research. It is advisable to select a research problem and design that gives way to a more
manageable time period.
Bias. This refers to a way of viewing a certain thing, issue, or idea, and may be influenced by
the researcher’s background. The researcher, therefore, should be aware of his or her
personal biases and how these affect the conduct of the research. Biases may affect the
way the researcher states and defines the research problem, the selection of research
design and methodology, the variables chosen, data collection methods, and the
interpretation of data.
Language. This may have an effect on data collection, especially if the researcher is involved
with respondents that speak a variety of languages. This is especially a challenge in
studies that involve documents that are written in different languages.
It is important to state the limitations of the study in detailed but concise terms. The
researcher should also explain why such limitations arose in the conduct of the study and
provide a reason why these could not be overcome by the research method employed. The
impact of the limitation on the data collected, as well as its effects on the interpretation and
analysis, should also be assessed. The limitations can also lead to further research, and the
researcher should include a brief explanation of how these can help future researchers improve
their research design and methods.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Investigation
Setting the Scope of the Study
and Delimitation of the Study
Define the scope and delimitation of the
study.
Describe their relevance to each
other and their purpose in the
research paper.
Discuss the variables and attributes.
Provide examples for each to provide
further context.
Discuss the different characteristics and
kinds of variables.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 37
79
Scope and Delimitation Example 1:
Ask the students to discuss each one
and provide an example for each
based on their research topic.
Identify and describe the limitations
that may arise from the research
design and methodology and from
the actual conduct of the research.
Provide examples for each one.
For further context, discuss the
components of this section in the
research paper and cite the
examples on pages 81-82.
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers:
Basis for the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention (Cristobal, 2003)
The study assessed the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of the school managers
in the Division of Bataan, school year 2001-2002. The school managers that were included in the
study were the secondary school principals and head teachers of big national high schools in the
division. Moreover, teacher respondents included only the teachers who are teaching Teknolohiya,
Edukasyong Pangkabuhayan, at Pantahanan subject.
Robbins (1996) enumerated the intrapersonal competency was measured by the
variables as enumerated. According to him, the most powerful predictors of behavior in
an organization are the following specific personality traits: locus of control;
machiavellianism; self-esteem; self-monitoring; risk-taking; and personality A.
Appodaca (1997) discussed the five aspects of the supervisor’s role in order to
maintain good relationship with others. These aspects are management, learning and
training aspect, motivation, developing positive employee attitudes, and problem-solving
techniques.
Finally, the school effectiveness variable was measured by the school manager’s
profile, teacher’s performance, and school performance. Some indicators of school
performance like the dropout, completion, survival, and achievement rates were based
from the average rating of three consecutive school years, SY 1999-2000 to SY 2001 –
2002.
A validated questionnaire-checklist served as the main instrument of the study, a
follow-up interview was also used to clarify vague answers and documentary analysis was
also employed to answer the specific questions raised in the proposal.
Scope and Delimitation Example 2:
Problems of Middle Level Managers in State Universities and Colleges: Basis for the
Development of a Management Intervention Program (Muello, 2002)
This study was concerned with the development and evaluation of a management
intervention program after a thorough identification and analysis of conflicts/problems as
experienced by middle – managers in Region IV state universities and colleges. Middle
level managers, such as deans, directors, chairmen and department heads, and principals,
with at least two years of continuous service in the same institution, were the
respondents of the study. Personnel outside the main campus were not included since
the problems they met were perceived to resemble that of the mother units.
Transportation constraints in the island provinces turned out to be another problem,
thus, other personnel in the other campuses were not included.
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study
This study produced an intervention program composed of a training package on
leadership and motivation. The said program is deemed important in developing the
managerial skills of middle-level managers in terms of their management functions such
as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. It is assumed that their competencies
will eventually be enhanced after developing the five-day seminar workshops.
Prior to the conceptualization of the management intervention program, the data
gathering procedure was conducted from January 1999 to June 1999. Open-ended
questionnaires, interviews, and observations were used as data gathering instruments.
Scope and Delimitation Example 3:
Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratories
of Selected Private Schools (Estrella, 2009)
This study was focused on the factors affecting student’s performance in chemistry
laboratory in selected schools in Balanga City for the school year 2008-2009.
In this study, the student’s performance refers to the average grade of the students
in their chemistry laboratory from first to third grading period. Chemistry, the chosen
field for the study, is the science with more abstract theories which must be proven with
actual events through experiments by the students.
The grade point average (GPA) were gathered and tabulated to measure their
performance in the chemistry laboratory.
The study considered the following schools in Balanga City Schools as the research
locale of the investigation: Tomas del Rosario College, Asia Pacific College of Advanced
Studies, and Bataan Christian School. This is because these schools belong to the same
category as private institutions.
Specifically, the factors in this research were student-related ones which pertain to
the attitude of students in the chemistry laboratory. Teacher-related factors pertain to
the teaching strategies, competencies, and teacher’s attitude in conducting experiments
in the chemistry laboratory. Lastly, laboratory-related factors pertain to the adequacy,
availability, and usability of the laboratory equipment and the laboratory manual and
facilities.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Research is a very noble undertaking if it makes significant contributions to the community or the
academic field or discipline where the researcher is affiliated with. That is why the significance of the
study should clearly discuss the purpose that the research will serve to society, the country, the
government, the institution or agency concerned, the curriculum planners and developers,
38 • Practical Research 1
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
81
and the research community. This section describes the contribution of the study to the existing
body of knowledge. It could be in the form of new knowledge in the field, a confirmation of the
major findings of other studies, verification of the validity of findings in a different population,
analysis of trends over time, and validation of other findings using different methodologies.
The researcher also has to identify the beneficiaries who will directly gain from the results
of the study. In identifying the beneficiaries, the researcher should be specific in mentioning
them in the paper. The specific benefits must also be enumerated and explained if necessary. It is
also important that the beneficiaries should be listed according to the significance of the study’s
results to them.
Significance of the Study Example 1:
Significance of the Study
Ask the students to define the
significance of the study and
its purpose.
Discuss the importance of identifying
the beneficiaries of the research.
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for the
Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program(Cristobal, 2003)
Studies on how to improve management competencies are numerous. However the
researcher focused on the development of a human intervention program, which was
evaluated by management experts. The human relation intervention program considered
the enhancement of the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of school
managers in the division of Bataan. Questionnaires were fielded first and interviews were
done before the intervention program was conceived.
Discuss the examples on pages 83-85
for further context.
The information generated from this research can provide the respondents, the school
managers in the Division of Bataan, with insights on how to enhance their human relation skills. The
researcher can provide a database of information for future reference. Likewise, the findings can
showcase ideas and suggestions for the improvement of their management competency,
specifically in dealing with their subordinates and establishing good rapport and stable
relationships. This can also serve as a tool for school managers for self-analysis on how good they
are as managers. Moreover, the assessment that was conducted can serve as a guide for managers
and teachers for a more effective discharge of their duties. It can also help identify and clarify the
problems and issues related to human relation, and can encourage the educational community to
extend more cooperation and support for school effectiveness.
Future administrators can gain insights in the development of their intrapersonal and
interpersonal competencies. Organizations and school officials can be provided with
information in the necessity of upgrading the different competencies through seminars,
workshops, and in-service training and the like. Researchers can be motivated to make
similar studies that treat other variables not mentioned in the study. They can also profit
from the result of this study since the paper presents a framework that can be utilized in
other institutions and localities.
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study
83
Significance of the Study Example 2 :
The Effects of Computer-assisted Instruction in the Performance of Students
in Asian History and Civilization (Cuenca, 2008)
The findings of the study may provide deeper insights on how teaching can be made easier and
more meaningful by the use of computer-aided instruction. The study determined the significant
effects of slide presentation in instruction, a form of computer instruction on the performance of
the students in the subjects Asian History and Civilization.
To the students, the results may serve as an inspiration for them to continuously improve their
skills in using computers because they will realize the comfort that computer skills offer in
complying with the requirements of major subjects in the coming years.
To the administrators, the results may serve as a guide in the program-planning and
implementation of the IT department so that they can be of great help to the teachers of
the university.
To the teachers, the results may serve as an eye opener for those who are not
comfortable on the use of computers in their class lesson presentations. The findings of
this study may encourage more of them to apply computer-aided instruction in teaching.
Significance of the Study Example 3:
Staff Nurses’ Roles on the Accuracy of Specimen Collection in Selected Government and
Private Hospitals in Bulacan: Relations to Their Work Performance (Reyes, 2007)
The results of this study will be of great benefit to the following:
Clinical instructors. The results of the study will provide them research-based
information as to the extent of participation engaged in infection control. From the
results, they could identify which areas they need to enhance and improve as well as the
areas needed to be sustained for better implementation.
Head nurses. This will provide a clear picture of the performance of their subordinate nurses.
This will enable them to give emphasis in supervising and coaching the staff nurses so as to
increase their level of performance. Furthermore, this will determine the type of management
skills that head nurses need to function effectively in the organization and will shed light on areas
in the current management practices that needed to be worked up.
Nursing personnel. This study will provide information on the extent of managerial
skills that the head nurse actually employs. This can be realized if these nurses become
aware of their behavior towards others which must be in accord with the standard
values of the nursing profession.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 39
These variables have specific limits to their value.
Other researchers. This research can be a source of another study or can be
replicated using additional variables in another locale or setting or with different
respondents. The results will be a possible research literature for their own study.
Enrichment or validation of the study of the same variables is recommended for them to
be able to reinforce the results of this study. The findings of this study can also serve as a
conceptual framework of another research.
These are variables whose values are expressed in descriptive terms.
This part of the research defines the variables and their respective
attributes.
This part of the research describes the constraints to the research.
This part of the research explains the benefits that can be gained from
the study.
CH APTER SUMMARY
The scope of the study is determined by the major variables of the study while the subvariables serve as the delimitation.
APPLICATION
Choose one of the given examples in the “Scope and Delimitation” part of the discussion.
Write down the variables identified in it.
The scope of the study identifies and defines the significant variables that are the focus of
the study. It also determines the relevant attributes of each variable.
The different characteristics and kinds of variables include the following: independent
variable, dependent variable, continuous variable, discrete variable, and categorical
variable.
The delimitation of the study identifies and describes the limitations encountered by the
study. The limitations of the study may arise from the research design and
methodology and the specific limitations encountered by the researcher in the conduct
of the study.
The significance of the study discusses the benefits of the study to the society in general,
and to its beneficiaries in particular.
Choose one of the given examples in the “Significance of the Study” part of the discussion.
Identify the general significance of the study, its beneficiaries, and the benefits that
can be gained from it.
CHECK-UP
Identify the following. Write your answers on the blanks.
It is any characteristic that can have different values or traits.
The value assigned to a specific variable.
Variables whose characteristics are changed, manipulated, or
selected.
These are the variables that are affected by the changes implemented
by the researcher on the variables in the study.
These are variables that have an infinite number or great variation in
values.
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study
85
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
assessment actIvItIes
check-up
After answering, ask the students to exchange books for correction.
applIcatIon
The students’ answers may vary. Some possible answers are provided below.
Scope and Delimitations Example 2
The variables are intervention program, conflicts or problems encountered, managerial skills,
and management functions, among others
Significance of the Study Example 1
General Significance of the Study – For school managers of Bataan, the results will allow them to enhance
their interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies through the intervention program.
Beneficiaries and Benefits – For teachers, the results of the study will serve as a guide for a more
effective discharge of their duties; for future administrators, the results will enable them to gain
insights in the development of their competencies.
40 • Practical research 1
Name :
Date :
research actIvIty 4
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 4
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Ask the students to answer all
questions and provide the
required information.
Provide the required information by answering the following items:
1. Identify the variables that your research will focus on. Write them on the table below.
Variable
Characteristic/Kind of Variable
Indicators
Instruct them to refer to their answers
in the previous activities.
Give additional guidelines to the students
in identifying the variables, attributes,
and beneficiaries of their research
paper.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
4 by detaching it from the book.
2. Where and when will the data be gathered?
Note:
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study
Who are the beneficiaries of your study and what benefits will they receive from the results of
your study? Cite at least three benefits for each beneficiary.
Beneficiaries
Benefits Received From The Results Of The Study
1.
2.
87
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Personally and carefully check the
students’ research activities
because the final research paper
will be based on their outputs.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 41
UNIT
2
REVIEW OF
LITERATURE
CHAPTER
8
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
differentiate the different processes of
reviewing literature and
apply the symbols used in marking the
pages of a book.
The Review Process
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
different processes
of reviewing
literature and
2. apply the symbols used
in marking the pages of a
book.
OPENING ACTIVITY
A. Read and analyze the selection below. Answer the
guide questions that follow.
1. differentiate the
The Importance of Reading Comprehension
Imagine your employer has just handed you an important
document to read and tells you he expects a summary of the
material on his desk tomorrow. You take a look and see it is
written in a language totally foreign to you. After your initial
confusion, you may try to make some sense of it and scan the
document. While you may be able to phonetically decipher
the words and sound
them out, that’s where your “reading” would end. You wouldn’t have any idea what the
words you just read actually meant. How would you feel? Upset? Discouraged?
Obviously, this is an extreme example but sadly, classrooms across the nation are interspersed with
students who experience the same type of frustration every day. They don’t possess adequate reading
comprehension skills to do what is expected of them. Without comprehension, reading is simply
following words on a page from left to right while sounding them out. The words on the pages have no
meaning. While people read for many different reasons, the chief goal is to derive some understanding
of what the writer is trying to convey and make use of that information—whether for fact gathering,
learning a new skill, or for pleasure. That’s why reading comprehension skills are so important. Without
them, the reader cannot gather any information and use it to efficiently function and enjoy the
richness of life.
Reading is a multifaceted process that develops only with practice. There are certain
aspects of reading, such as fluency and word recognition, which can be learned in a few
years. These basics must be mastered but at the same time reading comprehension should
be emphasized in the process. Students can parrot words on a page all day but if they don’t
have the necessary comprehension skills, they will not be able to make predictions about
what will happen next, monitor their understanding of content, sequence or characters,
clarify confusing parts of the text, or connect what they’re reading to their own experience
or prior knowledge. And that is what true comprehension is all about.
Source: The Importance of Comprehension Reading by K12 Reader, n.d.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Opening Activity
Activity A
Ask the students to read the selection in this activity.
Have them answer the guide questions afterwards.
Ask students to share their output to the class.
Activity B
Divide the whole class into groups of four members.
Ask the groups to brainstorm on the topic, “Different ways of reading effectively.”
Instruct the group to assign one reporter to share their discussion output to the class.
Facilitate the class sharing by asking additional questions to the reporter.
44 • Practical Research 1
GUIDE QUESTIONS
INVESTIGATION
If you are in a similar scenario as the one stated at the beginning of the selection, what would
you have done?
REVIEW of LITERATURE
The review of literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other
researchers have written on a certain topic. It can be a partial component of a research
undertaking, but it can also stand alone as a self-contained review of writing on a subject. The
review of literature is a crucial aspect of research, and serves the following purposes:
It helps in placing the work being reviewed in its context.
Do you agree that “without comprehension, reading is simply following words on a page from
left to right while sounding them out”? Why? Why not?
It describes the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken.
It identifies new ways to interpret and shed light to various gaps based from previous
researches.
It helps in solving conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
It identifies the areas that are subject to a prior study to prevent duplication of efforts.
It points to another research undertaking.
3. How has improving your reading comprehension benefitted you in real life?
Types of Reading
The investigator’s reading skills are essential in conducting the review of literature. In the
book, Research in Nursing, Wilson (1990) identifies four different types of reading:
What do you think will be the significance of reading comprehension in a review of literature in
a research study?
Elementary reading. This is the most common kind of reading. It consists merely of the
recognition of letters and basic sounds and the literal comprehension of sentences. It is
primarily useful that an individual can recognize letters and sounds correctly, but it is
better if he or she comprehends the ideas presented in each sentence after reading.
Systematic skimming. Research demands a lot of reading. Hence, the reader must establish
a system through which he or she can maximize time in searching for pertinent or
relevant literature. The reader must therefore choose wisely before investing time in a
book or an article.
The following are some guidelines for systematic skimming:
The title page and the preface of the abstract should be quickly read.
Form groups of four members. Conduct a brainstorming session on the question, “What
are the different ways of reading effectively?” Report the results of your discussion the
class.
The table of contents should be studied carefully. Alternatively, the headings or
subheads of the article can be scanned. These act as roadmaps by informing the
reader in advance where he or she is headed.
The index should be checked. A quick estimate of the range of topics included should
then be made to see which ones are relevant to the study.
The publisher’s blurb or any boldface excerpts should be read. It is common for authors
to summarize their main points in these parts.
The Review Process
91
From the reader’s knowledge of the general nature of the book’s or article’s contents,
chapters or sections that seem pivotal should be carefully scrutinized. For example,
in the case of a research report, the section with the heading “Findings” or
“Conclusions” should be read.
Finally, the whole paper should be leafed through. It should be remembered to read a
few lines, because most authors sum up important points at the end.
Analytic reading. The reader asks questions to understand the article such as, “What is the
book or article all about?”, “What is being said in detail and how?”, and “What of it?” He
or she takes time to understand every detail of the piece.
The following are some guidelines to analytical reading:
a It should be discerned whether the findings reported in a book or an article satisfy the
canons of science or whether they were arrived at through personal trial and error,
or what is often called ‘’conventional wisdom.’’
It should be stated in a sentence or two what the reader has gained from reading.
The book or article should be thoroughly scanned to uncover the structure and
organization of the major parts.
The main questions or problems that the article or book is set out to answer or solve
should be determined. When reading a thesis, the reader should be able to do this by
comparing findings and conclusions to the purposes or objectives.
Important and unfamiliar words should be noted and defined.
The most important sentences in an article or book should be marked, and the
propositions they contain should be uncovered. This is best done when reading the
conceptual framework of the study proposal or report.
The basic arguments or premises should be identified.
The solutions or conclusions an author has to come up with should be recognized even
before reading about them.
Before writing a critique paper, the reader should have a thorough understanding of its
contents.
Comparative reading. This is the highest level of reading which requires the reader to place
what he or she is currently reading in relation to other materials he or she has
previously read. This type of reading helps the reader identify the similarities and
differences between two or more articles in terms of their variables and propositions.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Investigation
Review of Literature
Ask the class to identify their
favorite books.
Have the students give the reason for
their choice of favorite book and
discuss the lessons they have
learned from it.
Relate the discussion to the review of
literature.
Define the review of literature and its
purpose in the research paper.
Discuss the different types of reading
and demonstrate how each is done
for further context.
This skill is very essential in research, as one has to look for similar studies for the firm
foundation of the study.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 45
The Review Process
93
The following are some guidelines to comparative reading:
The passages that bear one’s questions, needs, or interests should be identified.
The ideas of the various authors using one’s own words should be expressed.
The reader should formulate his or her own set of questions. He or she should read
comparatively to determine how the respective authors address them.
Issues that emerge should be defined so that one can recognize, sort out, and resolve
controversies or contradictory findings in the literature.
The discussions read should be analyzed by asking, “Are they true?”
CONDUCTING A REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Steps in Reviewing Literature
The review of related literature is a systematic process composed of three steps:
Finding relevant materials. It is the researcher’s priority to enrich his or her work by
reading literatures containing important data relative to his problem in order to fully
comprehend the variables being studied. The library is a good source for reference
materials such as journals, textbooks, reference books, abstract of theses, dissertations,
and computers with internet access.
Actual reading. After the preselection process, the researcher must thoroughly critique the
contents of the materials. Critiquing involves asking questions which at this stage should
focus on the variables.
REVIEW
Identify which type of reading is described by the following statements. Write the
corresponding number of your answer from the choices below.
1
– Elementary Reading
2
– Systematic Skimming
3 – Analytical Reading
4 – Comparative Reading
Some examples of questions to ask are as follows:
What variables are mentioned?
What are the characteristics or descriptions of the variables?
What relationship exists between the variables based on the information given?
How can the information provided in this material be of use to my research?
Looking at the main ideas in a paragraph
The difference of the points of view of author 1 to author 2 regarding school
bullying
Reading every sentence loudly
Finding the correct pronunciation of the word “euthanasia”
Note-taking. One of the characteristics of a good researcher is being systematic. He or she must
establish a system of note-taking to save time and effort. The researcher must take notes, putting
only the important data in his or her own words. It is suggested that the researcher prepare index
cards on which he or she can take down notes before gathering or searching for reference
materials for the review of literature. The note-taking process is useful, especially when the
researcher is already synthesizing and compiling ideas from the different references. Note-taking
also facilitates consolidation of the literature gathered. The titles of the journals read should also
be indicated in the index cards.
Reading the last paragraph of the article
Reflecting on the emotions conveyed by the actor in the musical play, “Les
Miseé rables”
Strategies in Reading Literature
There are three strategies in reading literature. These are as follows:
Determining the background of the author and his experiences
Previewing. It is the process of reading to get a general idea of the things to look for in the
text. Systematic skimming is done here.
Locating the italicized and bold words and phrases in the literature
Highlighting. It is done by physically marking the text to identify key details and to note the
relationships among ideas.
Writing the synthesis of five articles regarding global warming in one
paragraph
Reading the articles on networking three times
In using highlighting symbols, one should take note of the following:
The important ideas are underlined.
Words, phrases, or images that need further analysis should be boxed.
Question marks are written beside confusing passages, unfamiliar references, or words
that need to be defined.
The Review Process
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Review
Ask the students to exchange
books for correction.
Related words, ideas, or images are encircled. Lines can be drawn to show their
connection.
Incidents that occur in sequence are numbered.
Key portions of the text should be set off with a vertical line in the margin.
Stars are placed beside particularly important ideas.
Example of Highlighting:
Malaysia is a hotbed of human trafficking. The White House thinks a huge trade
deal is the best way to fix it.
Conducting a Review of the Literature
Discuss the steps in reviewing
literature and strategies in reading
literature.
Ask the students if they have
personally done the strategies
discussed in the past.
Ask them to provide some additional
guidelines they have learned from
their personal experience.
Cite the examples provided in the
book for further context.
Last week, Malaysian authorities announced the discovery of 28 sites that they
suspected had served as human trafficking camps. Days earlier, they had found 139
grave sites, many apparently filled with the bodies of dead migrants who had been
smuggled from Myanmar; survivors recounted months of being caged while friends
and relatives died around them of disease and starvation.
The revelations seemed to contradict government denials that such camps
existed on Malaysian soil, and they presented just the kind of thorny issue that has
made negotiations swing back, in an attempt to smooth the already rocky path
towards final ratification.
The dispute highlights the difficulty President Obama faces in balancing a desire to
aggressively promote human rights with the need to pull a fractious coalition of nations across
the finish line — even when that puts him at odds with members of his own party.
Negotiations on the Trans-Pacific Partnership, an expansive agreement that
encom-passes everything from internet policy to financial services, have been
underway for much of his presidency. Trade between the parties accounts for nearly
40 percent of global commerce, and an agreement could become an important part
of Obama’s economic legacy. However, some of the nations that would be part of the
accord have poor track records of respecting basic rights, leading many to argue that
the United States should force them to improve before granting the economic
privileges a trade deal confers.
Malaysia1 had been on the State Department’s watch list of countries with trafficking
problems until 2014, when repeated failures to take corrective action landed the nation a spot
on a U.S. list of bad actors, along with Iran2, Syria3, and North Korea4. Migrant women recruited
to work from countries like Cambodia 5 and Thailand 6 often find themselves compelled into
prostitution, and whole industries depend on forced labor — 28 percent of workers in
electronics production are there against their will, according to a 2014 report commissioned by
the U.S. Department of Labor.
46 • Practical Research 1
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
95
Annotating. It is the recording of the reader’s reactions as marginal notes. In these notes, one
defines new words, identify allusions and patterns of language or imagery, summarize plot
relationships, list a work’s possible themes, suggest a character’s motivation, examine the
possible significance of particular images or symbols, or record questions that occur in
reading. Ideally, annotations will help one find ideas to write about.
Example of annotations:
The following are guidelines on how to annotate while and after reading (New Hampshire
School Administrative Unit #53, n.d.):
While reading:
Ask questions. Items which are confusing or unclear must be noted. The answers to these
should be found while reading.
React to what you read. Contents that elicited a reaction from you should be noted. One’s
reaction to the text should be recorded for future reference.
Give an opinion. Ideas that one liked or disagreed with should be noted.
Locate important passages. Important quotes, ideas worth remembering, or “big ideas”
which will serve as foundations to one’s writing should be noted.
Make connections. Information that reminds one of a past experience or important events in
his or her own life should recorded. These connections can help a reader find meaning
and relevance with the reading material.
Define new words. When confronted with an unfamiliar word, consult a dictionary or search
for its meaning online.
Track themes. Recurring themes in the text should be noted. Doing so will help one
understand the message that the text is trying to express.
After reading:
Give a title to the chapters or article sections. Some books and articles already have chapter
titles. If they do not, they should be given relevant titles after finishing the reading on
that section. This helps in remembering what was discussed in that part. It also aids in
organizing the main idea of that particular section.
Source: https://www.cpp.edu/~ramp/program-materials/marking-your-textbooks.shtml
Figure 8.1 – Sample Annotation
Summarize the material read. In the empty space at the end of a page, the article should be
rewritten, noting the essential points and using only a couple of sentences.
Respond to the reading itself. Sometimes, a summary is not enough. One might want to
comment on what he or she just read, give an opinion about a concept, or complain
about the author’s insight or viewpoint.
Make a prediction. Predicting is a great thinking exercise and the best time to do so is
immediately after finishing one section and before beginning the next one. Correctly
predicting the following information or events can show that one has improved his or
her reading proficiency, or his or her knowledge on the topic.
The Review Process
97
The levels of reading are elementary reading, systematic skimming, critical reading,
and comparative reading.
CH APTER SUMMARY
Review of literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other
researchers have written on a certain topic.
The purposes of reviewing literature are to help place the work being reviewed in its
context; describe the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken;
identify new ways to interpret various gaps based from previous researches; solve
conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies; identify topic that are
subjects of previous studies; and point out new topics for a study.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Assessment Activities
The three steps in conducting the review of literature are finding relevant literatures,
actual reading, and note-taking.
The three strategies in reviewing literature are previewing, highlighting, and annotating.
check-up
CHECK-UP
After answering, ask the students
to exchange books for correction.
Identify the word or term being described in each statement.
This is done by physically marking the text to identify key details and
note the relationships among ideas.
It is the highest level of reading which requires the reader to place what
he or she is currently reading in relation to other materials he or
she has previously read.
In this stage of reading, the researcher must critique the contents of the
materials.
It is a good source of reference materials where journals, textbooks,
reference books, theses abstracts, dissertations, and computers
with internet access can be found.
It is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other
researchers have written on a certain topic.
With this type of reading, the researcher should establish a system
through which he or she can maximize time in searching for
relevant literature.
It is the process of reading to get a general idea of the things to look for
in the text.
It is the recording of the reader’s reactions as marginal notes.
This is useful especially when the researcher is already synthesizing
and compiling ideas from various references.
It consists merely of the recognition of letters and basic sounds and the
literal comprehension of sentences.
The Review Process
99
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 47
APPLICATION
AppLicAtiOn
Ask the students to exchange books for
correction.
Indicate the points in the text to be
highlighted.
Read and analyze the article using the highlighting strategy. Apply the highlighting marks
on the text.
Philippines wins arbitration case vs. China over South China Sea
It has finally been decided that the Philippines has exclusive sovereign rights over
the West Philippine Sea (in the South China Sea) and that China’s “nine-dash line” is
invalid, according to the United Nations (UN) Arbitral Tribunal.
The Tribunal issued its decision last Tuesday after several months of hearings and
submission of documents. China was absent throughout the proceedings, refusing to
recognize the case.
“The Tribunal concluded that there was no legal basis for China to claim historic
rights to resources within the sea areas falling within the ‘nine-dash line,” the statement
released to the media said.
Assignment
Ask the students to find a
partner for this assignment.
Instruct them to visit the library to
conduct their research.
Have them produce a photocopy of
their chosen text.
Provide further guidelines in
highlighting and annotating the
text.
In the next class, have them
exchange
papers
to
critique each other’s work.
Ask them to attach their outputs by
partner before submission.
“Having found that none of the features claimed by China was capable of generating
an exclusive economic zone, the Tribunal found that it could—without delimiting a
boundary—declare that certain sea areas are within the exclusive economic zone of the
Philippines, because those areas are not overlapped by any possible entitlement of
China,” it added.
The Tribunal also said that China has violated Philippines sovereign rights.
“Having found that certain areas are within the exclusive economic zone of the
Philippines,theTribunalfoundthatChinahadviolatedthePhilippines’sovereignrightsinits exclusive
economic zone by (a) interfering with Philippine fishing and petroleum exploration,
constructing artificial islands, and (c) failing to prevent Chinese fishermen from fishing
in the zone,” the Tribunal said.
“The Tribunal further held that Chinese law enforcement vessels had unlawfully created a
serious risk of collision when they physically obstructed Philippine vessels,” it said.
The Spratly Islands and its many reefs are being claimed by China under its “ninedash line” claim that covers nearly the entire South China Sea including parts of the
Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
China insists it has “historic rights” in asserting its ownership of the region believed to be rich
in natural gas resources and also a vital trade route for international cargo ships.
Philippines filed its case in January 2013 following a tense standoff between Chinese
and Philippines ships at Scarborough shoal in April 2012.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Since the initiation of the arbitration case, China has conducted several massive
reclamation projects to turn submerged reefs into artificial islands capable of hosting
military structures and equipment.
China’s reclamation activities have alarmed other Southeast Asian nations,
particularly Vietnam, that also has competing claims in the South China Sea.
Source: “Philippines wins arbitration case vs. China over South China Sea” by Matikas Santos,
Philippine Daily Inquirer, 2016 July 12
Assignment
Visit the library and find an article related to your research study. Perform highlighting
and annotations on the reference material. With a partner, exchange outputs and then
critique each other’s work. Submit your critique along with the highlighted and annotated
references to your teacher.
48 • Practical research 1
The Review Process
101
CHAPTER
9
The Standard Styles of
Writing
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
differentiate the styles
of research writing
and
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
OPENING ACTIVITY
Think about any topic that you can passionately talk
about. Then, in the space provided below, write a formal
essay about that topic as if you are writing an academic
paper. Provide a title for your work as well. Afterwards,
each student will share his or her work to the class.
differentiate the styles of research
writing and
apply the styles of
research writing
in the proposed
research study.
apply the styles of research writing in
the proposed research study.
Title:
Opening Activity
Ask the students to answer the
activity for 15 minutes.
Provide some general guidelines in
writing an essay with an academic
tone.
Have them share their work to the
class.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Investigation
INVESTIGATION
DIFFERENT STYLES OF RESEARCH WRITING
In research writing, there are many different style guides that are followed by researchers. However,
the three most common styles followed at present are the Modern Language Association (MLA) Style,
American Psychological Association (APA) Style, and Chicago Style or Turabian.
Modern Language Association
The Modern Language Association (MLA) is an American professional organization for
scholars of literature and language based in New York City. It publishes the MLA stylebook titled
MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing with its first edition printed in 1985 and its
third edition in 2008. The MLA began in 1883 at Purdue University as a discussion group for
literature and modern language. Today, several regional associations compose the MLA.
Formatting a Paper Using the MLA Style
by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott
Alignment. Align the text flush left. If your word processor, such as Microsoft Word, has a
“full justify” setting, which spreads the text and aligns it both left and right, do not use it.
Leave the text ragged on the right side.
Binding. MLA Style calls for binding the pages with a simple paper clip or spring clip. Do not
use a staple or other permanent binding system, unless your instructor requests it.
Different Styles of Writing
Introduce the lesson by talking about
academic writing, how it has been
used in various research papers,
and the different styles of research
writing.
Introduce the three most commonly used
styles today which are the APA, MLA,
and Chicago or Turabian styles.
Endnotes and footnotes. You may use endnotes or footnotes with MLA Style, but they
should only be used to further explain a term or a complex idea beyond what you are
able to include in the main text. Endnotes and footnotes should not be used to cite
sources. Save those for the “Works Cited” page.
Font. MLA Style calls for a 12-point font size, along with an easily readable font such as
Times New Roman.
Headings. In MLA Style, headings and subheads that break up the text are optional. Check
with your instructor before using them.
Indentions. You will need to indent the first line of any paragraph by one-half inch from the
left margin. If you are not using word processing software, indent by five spaces.
Italics. You should use italics for titles of longer works. MLA Style also allows the use of
italics within the body of the text for emphasis of a particular word or phrase, but use
such items sparingly.
The Standard Styles of Writing
103
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 49
Margins. All four sides of the MLA paper—top, bottom, right, and left—require a margin of 1 inch.
The only items that should appear outside the margins are the page numbers.
Page numbering. Place the page number in the upper right corner of every page. Use
Arabic numerals for the page numbers. The page number should appear one-half inch
from the top of the paper and even with the right margin (1 inch from the edge of the
paper). If you choose to use an optional title page, you should not number it. If you
choose not to create a separate title page, instead including the title and other relevant
information on the first page of the main text, you must use “1” as the number of that
page.
It was only in 1959 when an official APA style manual became publicly available. Because of the
practicability it brings, many education institutions use the APA style as the standard for writing
research papers.
Formatting a Paper Using the APA Style
by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott
Abbreviations. Avoid using abbreviations in your paper. However, if you need to use an
abbreviation or acronym that is recognized in your language and you can find it in the
dictionary, then you can use it.
Punctuation. Follow all standard punctuation marks with just one space, including colons, commas,
Hyphenations. Do not separate and hyphenate words at the end of a line. Rather, leave one
line slightly short and put the complete word on the next line; otherwise, proceed a
couple of characters past the right margin to adjust the complete word on the line.
periods, and semicolons. Some instructors still prefer the old rule of using two spaces after
Indentions. Indent paragraphs within the primary text of the paper one-half inch if using a word
Paper type. Use standard, 20-pound white paper that measures 8.5 by 11 inches.
periods that end sentences. MLA Style does allow some flexibility in punctuation when the
processing program or indent five to seven spaces in if typing on a typewriter.
instructor requests a change from the standard MLA Style.
However, do not indent in these unique circumstances: the abstract, block quotations,
figure captions, notes, reference list entries, table titles, and titles or headings.
Quotation blocks. Whenever using a quotation that will be longer than four typed lines, set
the entire quotation block apart by indenting it from the left margin 1 inch (or 10
spaces). Double-space within the quotation block. You do not need to use quotation
marks with a quotation block.
Spacing. You will need to double-space all of the text within the paper, except in special
circumstances as directed by your instructor. All quotations, notes, and lists of works
cited should be double-spaced.
Title. MLA Style does not require a separate title page. You can include the information used for the
title on the first page of the paper, and begin the paper’s main text on the same page. All text
should be double-spaced on the first page. You can place the page number in the upper right
corner. In the upper left corner, flush left, and beginning at the margins, include your name, the
instructor’s name, the course, and the date. Then, center the text for the title, mixing uppercase
and lowercase letters. If you choose to skip the separate title page, you can begin the main text
immediately after the title text.
Underlining. With the third edition of the MLA Style Manual, the new guidelines have
eliminated the use of underlining. Now, italicize all published works, rather than
underlining.
American Psychological Association (APA)
The American Psychological Association or APA developed its own uniform style of formatting written
works. Originally, the resulting style book was provided to their associates as a guide for composing
scientific publications, articles, handbooks, journals, and the like for the organization. It was in 1929 when
the original APA style guidelines were featured in a magazine write-up.
Margins. Use 1-inch margins on all four sides of the paper: top, bottom, right, and left. Old
rules required 1.5-inch margins, but these rules are now obsolete.
Page numbering. Number nearly every page in the paper, including the title page. Put the
number in the upper-right corner of the page, and use only Arabic numbers. Put the
number “1” on the title page and the number “2” on the abstract page. Begin the main
body of the text on page number “3.” Do not number pages that consist of only statistics
or illustrations.
Paper type. Use regular white, 20-pound bond paper that has measurements of 8.5 by 11
inches. If printing from a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper; if
you must use a tractor-feed printer, make sure to tear off the pinhole borders from the
sides of the paper.
Parentheses. Aim to restrict parentheses to separate or divide items that are structurally
independent, such as listing a number or illustration that is associated with a sentence.
If you are enclosing a full sentence in parentheses, position the punctuation inside the
parentheses. If you are enclosing only a piece of a sentence inside parentheses, then
place the punctuation outside the parentheses.
Punctuation. In most cases, use single space after all common punctuation marks, such as
periods, commas, colons, and semicolons. There are three exceptions to this norm:
(1) do not use a space after periods inside an abbreviation, such as when writing U.S. for
United States; (2) do not use a space after a colon in a ratio, such as 4:7; and (3) some
professors like the outdated rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences. If
you are using Courier or another mono-space font, APA Style does permit two spaces
between sentences, although one space is recommended.
The Standard Styles of Writing
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Short title. A short title is a two- or three-word introduction of the main title. Put it on
every page in the top right corner, except for pages that consist of only numbers or
illustrations. The short title should appear slightly to the left of the page number.
Discuss each one by explaining its
origins and what its general
characteristics are, and how is it
applied in academic writing.
Discuss the formatting guide
provided in the book to provide
further context.
Slash mark. Do not use slash marks in your paper. For instance, rather than writing “blue
and/or purple,” it is better to write, “blue, purple, or both.”
Spacing. Use double spacing throughout the whole paper, unless your professor expressly
asks for single spacing in specific situations, such as with block quotations.
Text alignment. Always format the text flush left. Do not use the “full justify” feature on
your word processor’s toolbar because this will spread the text fully across the paper
and align sentences both left and right.
Title. Center the title on the title page, creating a combination of uppercase and lowercase
letters. If the title is long enough to warrant a second line, double space between the
lines. After the title, include your name, followed by the college that you attend. If you
do not belong to a college, you can substitute the city and state. Double space between
each line on the title page. Put the number “1” in the upper right corner of the title
page.
Typeface. If using a word processor like MS-Word, opt for a Serif font, such as Times New
Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size.
Chicago Style and Turabian Style
The University of Chicago Press manages the standards and rules for the Chicago style. The
principal handbook entitled The Chicago Manual of Style, is sometimes shortened to “CMS” or
“CMOS.” The University of Chicago Press produced the original Chicago Style Manual in 1906.
Chicago Style also has a second handbook entitled A Manual for Writers of Term Papers,
Theses, and Dissertations, which is written by Kate Turabian, a senior disquisition assistant at
the University of Chicago. She developed the Turabian manual as a supplement to the Chicago
Style manual.
One will often hear that the Turabian Style and Chicago Style are of the same style because
they have identical but slightly refined rules. The two styles are nearly similar that professors
often refer to them in combination. Turabian Style permits the use of footnotes for citing
sources, which splits it from other styles on writing formal papers. Papers that adhere to
Chicago Style typically are less formal papers and not designed for publication. However,
Chicago Style is versatile enough to deal with any style of paper, including research papers,
essays, reports, theses, or dissertations.
50 • Practical Research 1
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
105
Formatting a Paper Using the Chicago Style or Turabian
by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott
Abbreviating. Abbreviations are more acceptable in academic papers than they were ten
years ago. If you need to abbreviate, use the customary, well-known ones such as
“AIDS” or “ADHD.” One exception is not to abbreviate phrases of ranges, such as “yards”
or “miles.” If your abbreviation contains two periods, such as “U.K.” or “N.J.,” do not
include a space after the first period.
Text alignment. Justify all text to the left (excluding indentions), but you may also use
ragged right justification or use full (block) justification. If you opt for full justification,
you must make sure that you space minimally between words and you hyphenate text
properly and moderately. Your word processing software should allow you to comply
with these two guidelines for full justification, except if you have many multi-syllable
big words in your paper.
Capitalizing. Use “headline-style” capitalization to capitalize all words aside from articles,
some prepositions, and conjunctions. Use “sentence-style” capitalization to capitalize
only the first word, a word following a colon, and proper nouns.
White out. You can apply white correcting fluid to mask black dots and stray spots on the
final paper.
Date format. You can use either one of two date formats: “23 April 2012” (day, month, year) or
“April 23, 2012” (month, day, year). When you choose one format, you must stick with the same
one throughout your paper. Do not use a combination of the two.
Font style. Always use a Serif font, such as Times New Roman, for the primary text of your
paper. Use a font size between 10- and 12-point sizes. A computer-generated font is
exceedingly better than any mechanical type because it creates perfect italicized and
solid boldface text.
When to hyphenate. You can hyphenate words at the end of a line in your primary text,
but you should avoid hyphenating words at the end of two successive lines.
When to indent text. Indent paragraphs within the primary text of your paper by one and
a half inch or approximately 5 to 8 spaces. Chicago Style does not mandate a precise
measure of indention, but you must use the same space of indention in your entire
paper.
Margin sizes. Use the standard 1-inch margin on all four sides of your paper. However, if you are
going to bind your paper on the left side, then you can use a wider left margin.
Numbers. Always spell out and use words for each number, one through one hundred. For numbers
exceeding 100, use basic numerals. Adhere to these exceptions: (1) spell out every number that
begins a sentence; (2) use numerals for every percentage and decimal number; and (3) use
numerals for every number within a set of amounts.
The Standard Styles of Writing
107
Review
Numbering your pages. Use Arabic numerals to number every page in your paper, except
for pages that introduce the body text, such as (1) the copyright page; (2) the
dedication page; and (3) the table of contents page. Chicago Style dubs these pages as
“display” pages, and you must number these pages with lowercase Roman numerals.
Do not put a number on the title page, but you MUST count the title page as part of the
“display” pages. The next page is left blank unless you use a copyright page. You do not
number the copyright page (or the blank page) either. Number the next page (after the
copyright or blank page) “iii” in Roman numerals, centered at the bottom of the page.
When you begin the main (body) text, change from Roman numerals to Arabic
numbers. Put the number “1” in the upper-right corner of the page. If your page has a
chapter heading or a main heading, you can center the Arabic numeral at the bottom of
the page. Number all blank pages, including any other pages. Your page number must
run consecutively. Position all page numbers about three-quarters of an inch from the
side of the paper.
Paper type. Use standard 20-pound regular white bond paper that is 8.5 by 11 inches.
Spacing. Double-space between sentences and paragraphs for your entire paper’s body
text. However, you can single-space block captions, endnotes, footnotes, headings, and
quotations.
Title. Center all text on the title page, using both horizontal and vertical alignment.
Uppercase all text and double-space too.
REVIEW
Using your output in the Opening Activity, format your essay according to your chosen
research writing style.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Ask the students to refer
to their output from
the Opening Activity.
Instruct the students to format
their output according to
their chosen formats of
research writing.
Ask the students to exchange
outputs with their
classmates to check if they
have correctly followed the
formatting of their chosen
research writing style.
Ask them return the papers to
their respective owners for
submission.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 51
CH APTER SUMMARY
APPLICATION
The three common writing formats are the American Psychological Association (APA)
Style, Modern Language Association (MLA) Style, Turabian, and Chicago Style of
Writing Style.
Write an essay about the different research writing styles. Use the questions below as a
guide in writing your essay.
MLA published the first edition of its manual in 1985 and the third edition in 2008.
If given the chance to research on any topic, which style will you use?
The origin of MLA STYLE is in the Purdue University in New York City.
Why did you choose that style?
The APA manual was first published in 1952 and at present, it is the most popular
standard for writing academic papers used by most universities and colleges.
Do you think that the style you have chosen is easier than the others? Why or why not?
Why do you think there many writing styles if it does not affect the research study itself?
The Chicago Style manual was first published in 1906 by the University of Chicago Press.
Kate Turabian, a senior disquisition assistant in University of Chicago, published the
second handbook, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, as a
supplement to the Chicago Style manual.
ASSIGNMENT
Format your research paper according to your chosen writing style or the writing style
assigned by your teacher (whichever is set for your class). The chosen style should be
consistently used throughout the paper.
CHECK-UP
Differentiate the three styles of writing by completing the table.
Indicators
APA
MLA
CSW
Alignment
Font
Indentions
Margins
Page type
Punctuations
Spacing
Titles
Page numbering
The Standard Styles of Writing
109
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Assessment Activities
check-up
After answering, ask the students to exchange books for correction. Refer to the answer key below.
Indicators
APA
MLA
CSW
Alignment
Flush left
Flush left
Flush left
Font
Serif fonts
Serif Fonts, Times New Roman
Serif fonts
Indentions
½ inch
½ inch
1 ½ inches
Margins
1 inch for all sides
1 inch for all sides
1 inch for all sides
Page Type
8 ½ x 11, white, #20
8 ½ x 11, white, #20
8 ½ x 11, white, #20
Punctuations
Single space for all
punctuation marks
Single space for all punctuation
marks
Single space for all
punctuation marks
Spacing
Double
Double
Double
Titles
Center, first letter/word
in uppercase
No title page
Center but upper case
Page Numbering
Upper right corner
Upper right corner
Upper right corner
52 • Practical research 1
Application
Give the students sufficient time to answer the activity.
Have them write their answers on a whole sheet of intermediate pad.
Ask the students submit their output for assessment.
Assignment
Ask students to apply the chosen format (APA, MLA, or CSW)
in writing their research paper.
AdditionaL Tasks
As a preparation for the opening activity for the next lesson (Chapter 10), divide the class into eight
groups.
Assign one theorist per group. (Refer to Opening Activity of Chapter 10, page 111 of the textbook.)
Instruct them to research on their assigned theorist and have the groups prepare their outputs for
group synthesis in the next lesson.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 53
CHAPTER
10
Research Framework
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
discuss relevant theories and
formulate relevant theories for the
study.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
discuss relevant
theories and
formulate relevant
theories for the
study.
Opening Activity
OPENING ACTIVITY
Divide the class into eight groups. One theorist will be
assigned to each group. Each group will be given time to
research about their respective theorist and their
theories. Then, the members of each group will discuss
the theories of the theorist assigned to them. Their
collective ideas will be presented to the class.
2.
Robert Owens
Frederick Taylor
5. George Elton Mayo
6. Abraham Maslow
3.
Max Weber
7. Kenneth Blanchard
4.
Henri Fayol
8. Robert Greenleaf
1.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
Have the students prepare their output
from their additional task in the
previous lesson.
What are the significant ideas, concepts, and theories proposed by this theorist?
What are the significant applications of these theories?
Have each group present their
outputs to the class.
Ask them to answer the guide
questions after the sharing.
To which disciplines or areas are these theories most relevant?
Have them prepare their outputs for
submission.
Research Framework
Investigation
I NVEST I GAT I ON
Research Framework
Introduce the lesson by defining the
research framework and describing
its function.
Identify the two types of research
framework.
Ask the students to discuss and compare
the two framework types.
RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
A framework is defined as “a set of ideas that provide support to something” (MerriamWebster, n.d.). Essentially, any concept or theory requires a strong framework to establish its
general feasibility. In the case of research, it serves as the building blocks for the foundation of
the study. There are two types of research framework: theoretical framework and conceptual
framework.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
The theoretical framework is formulated from existing theories and serves as the
foundation of the study. The present study can adopt the original model used by the cited
theorist. However, the researcher can modify the variables of the original framework to better
suit the study, provided that the whole theory is utilized.
In contrast, the conceptual framework is derived from a combination of theories or parts
of theories. This framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the different theories used in
formulating a new one.
Ideally, the theoretical framework is more suitable for student researchers than the
conceptual framework because of the former’s simpler approach. That is, it is less complicated
to directly base on existing theories than to formulate a new one. Although creativity and
variability in research are valuable, a student researcher should also consider the extent of his
or her access to resource materials, which may be limited. With that consideration in mind, the
following chapter discussions are tailored for theoretical framework.
Elements of the Theoretical Framework
Since the theoretical framework prefaces the entire study by providing background
information, it should be supported by established facts from different resource materials. In
order to formulate the framework of the study, the following major elements should be present:
Relevant theories. These are theories that are partially or fully relevant to the present
study and are discussed to provide a basis for the variables being tested.
Review of related literature. These are published materials that compare the study with
existing knowledge on the research topic. This part defines, classifies, and facilitates
objective comprehension of the variables being studied.
Review of related studies. This part includes the theses or dissertations on research topics
carrying the same variables. The findings from the previous studies define the approach
that the researcher took in measuring the variables.
54 • Practical Research 1
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
111
Paradigm of the study. This is a diagrammatic presentation of the study used to visually
summarize the whole study. It is the result of a clearer understanding of the theoretical
or conceptual framework. It is usually comprised of symbols and figures such as lines,
shapes, and arrows.
One of the most commonly used paradigms is the IPO (input-process-output) model. It is
used when the research seeks to discuss a factor or a major variable that causes a problem,
phenomenon, or transformation in the subject.
INPUT
PROCESS
OUTPUT
(the variables that
causes the problem,
phenomenon, or
transformation)
(the method by which the
variables are collected and
synthesized)
(the problem,
phenomenon, or
transformation; the
outcome of the variables)
• Profile of
entrepreneurs
a. age
b. sex
c. seminars
Analysis of data through:
• questionnaires
• informal interviews
• statistical and
scientific treatment
•
•
•
Improved role of
entrepreneurs
Higher returns
Better quality of
services
Roles of
entrepreneurs
assessment
planning
implementation
evaluation
Discuss further the two types of
research framework by providing
more extensive definitions and
presenting other examples.
Emphasize that the theoretical
framework should be used in
their study.
Elements of Theoretical Framework and
Specimen collection
Performance
DevelOping the Theoretical Framework
Figure 10.1 – Paradigm for Entrepreneurs’ Roles
Toward Improved Work Performance
Developing the Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework serves as the basis of the research. It points out, through its cited
theories, which specific variables will be the focus of the study. In doing so, the approach that
the researcher will adopt in evaluation and interpretation of the data is better established. It
also prefaces the new knowledge introduced in the research by validating or challenging
theoretical assumptions. Thus, writing a sound theoretical framework provides the readers a
better understanding of the research study.
The University of South California (2016) provides the following strategies in formulating
the theoretical framework:
Have the students define the
elements of the theoretical
framework.
Discuss each one and explain their
purposes in the research study.
Present examples for each one.
Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem should be wellfounded since it serves as the foundation of the theoretical framework.
Research Framework
113
Relevant Theories
Brainstorm about what is considered as the key variables in the research . The factors
that are presumed to have significant bearing on the results of the study should be
identified.
Review related literature and studies. The basis of the research should be supported by
relevant literature and studies from authors who had conducted an extensive research
on the topic.
List the constructs and variables. Constructs are information inferred from observation
while variables are research factors that are measured in the study. These should be
identified to create the framework.
Review key theories. The theories that best explain the relationships between the key
variables in the study should be identified.
Discuss the assumptions or propositions. The relevance of the cited theories to the
research should be established to effectively support the framework of the study.
Define the word “theory.”
Discuss the relevant theories and its
purpose in the research paper.
Discuss the different parts of this
section.
Present the examples for further
context.
Relevant Theories
The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theoria, which means “vision.” Singh
(2009) defines theory as a non-observable construct that is inferred from observable facts and
events that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study and is primarily
concerned with determining cause-effect relationships among variables.
In this part of the theoretical framework, the researcher cites and discusses related theories
that serve as the foundation of the variables and their relevance to the study. It prefaces the
readers on what theories are used as the basis of the research story.
In the discussion of relevant theories, the following parts are mentioned:
Name/s of the author/s
Title/s of their theory/ies
Theoretical statement or principles
Explanation of the theoretical statement
Relationship of the theory to the present study
Relevant Theories Example 1:
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School
Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija (Valenton, 2009)
There are four theories on how children learn a language: behaviorism, linguistics,
social interactionism, and the neurobiological perspective (Vukelich, 2002). Only the
theory of social interactionism (theory title) is adopted in this study.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 55
Social interactionist theory does not come from either side of the nature or
nurture debate. Rather, it acknowledges the influence of genetics and parental
teaching (theory statement). However, it shares with behaviorists the belief that the
environment plays a central role in children’s language development. Likewise, along
with nativists, it poses the belief that children possess an innate predisposition to
learn language. Parents and teachers also support the children’s effort to learn
language by focusing the child’s attention on objects in the immediate environment
and labeling each object and its action (theory explanation).
Building upon need-press theory, Knight and Waxman (1990) reasoned that students
perceiving that their classroom environments are fulfilling their needs for classroom
involvement and classroom affiliation tend to be environmentally encouraged toward
developing positive academic self-concepts. While for Frazer, Fisher, and MacRobbie
(1996), environmental measures were rarely considered, but various numbers of
measures of personality were developed from Murray’s need-press theory in early
studies. They argued that when the study of human environments was being
established, researchers recognized that different people bring different perspectives
to research, which in turn may lead to different interpretations of results.
This social interactionist theory was conceptualized in English language, since
English is the Philippines’ second language. This study assumed that the English
performance of second year high school students in terms of their English factors
such as social-demographic, school, and home (relationship to the present study).
Considering the generally recognized performance of students in the achievement
tests and poor command of the English language, this study aims to find out what
influences their performance for the school year 2008-2009.
The prevailing model for assessing school climate involves the use of survey-type
objective inventories in this present study. This approach in assessing school climate
is typically used by the researcher to also determine the present classroom climate in
the area of study.
The assumed interplay of the student’s profile and classroom climate quality
could influence the nature and the kind of faculty development activities a school
may create. Likewise, the faculty development activities, to some extent, may directly
or indirectly affect the classroom climate quality and aspects of the student’s profile.
Recognizing the cognitive and affective needs of the teacher in improving student
performance in the classroom and enhancing the teacher’s ability to provide and
adapt instruction to meet the needs of each individual student is assumed to lead in
establishing and maintaining a harmonious and dynamic classroom climate. Assessing
the present classroom climate quality of high school students will help the school
plan and implement a feasible intervention program if a need warrants it.
Relevant Theories Example 2:
High School Classroom Climate Quality:
Basis for Creating Faculty Development Activities (Landar, 2008)
As cited by Jarvilehto (1999), environment is defined not as it is, but as it is
perceived and experienced. This phenomenological approach was expanded by
Lewin’s (1936) field theory of life space as discussed by Smith (2001). Lewin defined
behavior not as a function of the objective physical properties of the stimulus
environment, but as an environment transformed into an “innerworld” by a cognizing
organism. Thus, it is the psychological environment rather than the physical
environment that determines the way an individual will respond.
CH APTER SUMMARY
A framework is defined as “a set of ideas that provides support to something.” In the case
of research, it serves as the building blocks for the basis of the study.
Dorman (2002), in his review of the classroom environment research, described
that on Lewin’s approach, Murray (1938) developed a “need-press model.” Murray
introduced the terms “alpha press” that describes the environment from the point of
view of an external observer and “meta-press” that describes the environment from
the point of view of someone involved in the experience.
The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theoria, which means “vision.”
A theory is a non-observable construct that is inferred from observable facts and events
that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study and is primarily
concerned with determining cause-effect relationships among variables.
In the need-press model, personal needs are motivated by personality
characteristics representing tendencies to move in the direction of certain goals. On
the other hand, environment press provides an external situational counterpart that
supports or frustrates the expression of internalized personality needs. Furthermore,
the theory holds that people have needs for human fulfillment that include students’
needs for classroom involvement and the students’ needs for classroom affiliation.
Research Framework
Assessment Activities
The theoretical framework is formulated from existing theories and serves as the
foundation of the study. It points out, through its cited theories, which specific
variables will be focused in the study.
The conceptual framework is derived from the combination of theories or parts of
theories. This framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the different theories
used in formulating a new one.
115
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The elements of the theoretical framework are the relevant theories, review of the related
literatures, review of related studies, and the paradigm of the study.
The following are some strategies in formulating the theoretical framework:
Examine your thesis title and research problem.
Brainstorm about what is considered as the key variables in the research.
Review related literature and studies.
check up
List the constructs and variables.
Review key theories.
Discuss the assumptions or propositions.
Ask the students to bring out their
outputs from the Opening Activity.
Instruct the students to base their
answers on their output from that
activity.
In writing the relevant theories, the following must be included: names of the authors; titles
of their theories; theoretical statement or principles; explanation of the theoretical
statement; and relationship of the based theory to the present study.
CHECK-UP
Using the researched information on the assigned theorist for your group in the opening
activity, provide the required information below.
Theory title –
Theorist –
Theory statement –
Theory explanation –
Relationship of the theory to the present study –
56 • Practical research 1
Research Framework
117
AppLicAtiOn
APPLICATION
Ask the students to create their own
paradigm for their research study.
Using the IPO model, create a paradigm for your research study. Refer to the example
provided in the lesson as a guide. Write your answer in the space provide below. You can
use your work in your actual research paper if you prefer.
Have them refer to the given example
on page 113 as a guide for their
work.
Ask the students to compare their
work with their seatmate.
Remind them that they can use their
output in their final research paper
if they prefer.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
ReseARch Activity 5
Name :
Date :
Ask the students to fill in all the
sections with the required
information.
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 5
RELEVANT THEORIES
Research on theories that are relevant to your proposed study. Then, provide the
required information below.
Allow them to go to the library to
research on relevant resource
materials and utilize the
computers for research purposes.
Proposed study:
Theory title:
Theorist:
Theory statement:
Theory explanation:
Theory’s relationship to the present study:
Theory title:
Theorist:
Theory statement:
Theory explanation:
Theory’s relationship to the present study:
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 57
Research Framework
119
Give the students additional guidelines
in identifying the relevant theories
for their research.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity 5
by detaching it from the book.
Theory title:
Theorist:
Theory statement:
Theory explanation:
Theory’s relationship to the present study:
Note:
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Theory title:
Theorist:
Theory statement:
Theory explanation:
Theory’s relationship to the present study:
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final research
paper will be based on their outputs.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
58 • Practical research 1
CHAPTER
11
Related Literature
Objectives
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
describe the variables
and sub-variables
of the study and
write a review of
related literature.
OPENING ACTIVITY
Visit your library and browse through its book and
resource collection. List down the titles of ten possible
resources that you can use in your study.
1.
2.
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
describe the variables and subvariables of the study and
write a review of related literature.
3.
4.
Opening Activity
6.
7.
8.
1. Instruct the students to go to the
library and have them find relevant
books on their research. Provide
them 20 minutes for this.
2. Ask them to answer the Opening
9.
10.
INVESTIGATION
RELATED LITERATURE
The related literature examines facts and principles from other resources that are related
to the present study. That is, a research study on the learning curves of high school students
would utilize literatures that deal with the same subject. These resource materials include
books, encyclopedias, published journals, newspapers, and magazines.
The related literature, which is also called conceptual literature, serves to clarify the different variables
being studied. It removes any vagueness surrounding the central concepts of the research. As the literature
is gathered, the different major variables, as well as the sub-variables,
Related Literature
Activity.
3. Ask the students to share their
output to the class and explain why
they chose those books.
121
Investigation
are clarified and the delimitation of the study is established. The indicators for each variable are
identified and objectively established.
The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help specify
which particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The indicators, on the other
hand, are specific information that describes the sub-variables.
Examples:
Major variable: Study habits
Sub-variable: Time required for studying, methods of studying, and place for studying
Indicators: Employing patterned time intervals for effective studying; using mnemonics in
memorizing the terms; and studying in one’s ideal environment
The American Psychological Association (2001) states that review articles (called the literature review
for research papers) are crucial in the review process. A review article summarizes all the related literature
and their relation to the study. Readers who are not knowledgeable on the topic are provided with a basic
understanding of the research before the new findings are presented.
APA provides the following definition for a review article:
Review articles, including meta-analyses, are critical evaluations of materials previously
published. By organizing, integrating, and evaluating such materials, the author of a review
article considers the progress of current research towards clarifying a problem. In a sense, a
review article is a “tutorial” in which the author defines and clarifies the problem; summarizes
previous investigations in order to inform the reader of the state of current research; identifies
Related Literature
Define the related literature and its
purpose in the research paper.
Relate the opening activity to the
discussion.
Discuss the three elements of the
variable and provide examples
for further context.
relations, contradictions, gaps and inconsistencies in the literature; and suggests the next step
in solving the problem. (p. 7)
The different variables used in the study are the focus of the review of literature. The title,
statement of the problem, scope and delimitation, as well as the framework of the study are the
elements that give the researcher an idea of its relevance to his or her own research.
The number of resource materials to be gathered for the review of literature depends upon
the researcher’s judgment. If he or she believes that the important concepts and variables have
been adequately explained and that enough indicators have been established, then the review of
related literature is considered sufficient.
It is a traditional practice that the review of related literature is divided into foreign and
local literature. It is highly recommended that the researcher use the different variables and
sub-variables being studied as subtitles in the review. This is very beneficial to the researcher
and to future investigators studying similar problems as there is a clear and logical organization
of the variables under investigation. With this system, the researcher can systematically define
the important concepts and variables as well as the discussions, descriptions, and other
information gathered from the different sources. When the related literature is arranged
systematically, the construction of the research instrument (e.g., questionnaire) will be easier
since the indicators are presented logically and sequentially.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 59
Have the students provide their own
examples as well.
Define the review article and its
function in the related literature
section.
Present an example of a review
article for further context.
Review
Ask the students to write
their essay with at least
50 words in a ½ sheet
of intermediate pad.
Provide sufficient time to the
students in writing their
essay.
Ask each student to share his
or her output to the class.
Related literature also includes works of experts in refereed or peer-reviewed journals.
Expert readers or peers who are recognized authorities on the topic are consulted to review the
written works of the researchers to determine if they meet the standards of a good reference
material, i.e., reliability and timeliness. Refereed journals are published nationally and
internationally.
REVIEW
It is important for a researcher to fully comprehend the significance of using validated
resources. As a high school student, what do you think is the purpose of using refereed or
peer-reviewed resources? Write a short essay about this.
WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
In her book, Conducting Research Literature Review: From the Internet to Paper, Fink (2009)
defines a literature review or review of literature as a presentation of the analysis, patterns, and
critiques of individual sources or the body of literature as a whole. Its purpose is to offer a wide
review of referred scholarly articles, and other sources like journals, theses, and dissertation.
It is important to note that in reviewing literature, understanding and comprehension both
matter. Thus, the write-up expressed in one’s own words is the measure of the researchers’
synthesis of the reviewed materials.
Essential Elements of a Literature Review
The literature review serves as in-depth summary of the related literatures to the study. It
does not only restate facts but rather critique and highlight their relevance to the research. In
doing so, several elements should be observed in writing this section:
Overview of the subject or topic, issues, or theories to be considered
Division of works such as those that support a particular position, those against, and those
that offer other ideas
Explanation of the comparison of the gathered literature
Conclusion and the best arguments
Stages Observed in Writing the Literature Review
Since a literature review serves to preface the purpose of the study, the related literature cannot be
evaluated without setting the foundation for the review. A literature review, therefore follows a systematic
approach in writing its content. The premise of the review should be clarified
Ask students to pass the
paper for evaluation.
Writing the Literature Review
Related Literature
and the relation of the cited resource materials to the study should be established. Thus,
different stages are observed when writing the literature review:
Problem formulation. The researcher must determine the research problem before the review of
literature is conducted to fully understand the variables considered in the study.
Ask the students if they have read a
book or movie review before.
Ask them to describe what it was
about and how it was written.
Compare a book review to a
literature review in research and
discuss how the latter is more
extensive.
Literature search. Any reading material that is related to the study must include a
discussion and explanation of at least one of the variables.
Data evaluation. The indicators that are synthesized from various relevant sources must
further build the researcher’s confidence as the variables of his or her study are made
clear.
Analysis and interpretation. Breaking the entire reading article into smaller parts will help
the researcher correctly interpret the information in the reviewed materials.
Format of a Literature Review
In writing the literature review, the researcher can be flexible in utilizing different related
literature. However, as stated earlier, the literature review is not merely a restatement of facts.
Thus, the organization of thought should be duly considered when writing the review.
The general format of a literature review is as follows:
The Introduction
The general problem and the variables should be defined.
Every important data should be highlighted to effectively discuss the problem or the
variables such as the theory, methodology, evidences, conclusions, or even gaps.
The criteria in selecting the literature should be considered to assess which resources
are pertinent and should be included, and which are irrelevant and should be
removed.
The Body
Chosen approaches, conclusion of authors, specific objective, and the like should be
included.
Studies and literature should be summarized. For the studies, primary consideration
must be given to the result of the studies that includes the variables.
In choosing the literature, the following should be considered:
Provenance. This refers to the author’s credentials and the empirical basis of the
article or literature.
Objectivity. This refers to the rationality of every data or facts cited.
Persuasiveness. This refers to the degree of credibility of the data.
60 • Practical Research 1
Value. This refers to the degree of the contributions of the literature to clarify
variables.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
123
The Conclusion
On the Types of Breakfast Prepared. Choosing the right breakfast foods is very
important to make sure you get 1/3 of your daily nutrient requirements. That is why
you must realize that skipping meals is not a quick way to lose weight (Bailey, 1993).
Creveling (2014) noted that a morning meal will help you power through a workout,
as compared to those who fasted until noon. Control of food choice like starchy
carbohydrate intake must be considered to avoid fat gains (Mehdi, 2009). Thus, one
should adopt healthy habits such as regularly exercising, eating healthy foods such as
fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
Major contributions of the studies or articles should be summarized.
Current developments and new information should be evaluated.
The review should be concluded by relating the gathered data to the central theme or
problem.
Practical Tips in Writing the Literature Review
Now that the technical aspects are laid out, one should have a better understanding of the
purpose of the literature review in a research paper. Since it prefaces the entire research study,
the researcher should observe meticulous writing of the each section of the paper. After all, a
well-written literature review can help readers to easily grasp the actual content.
The following are helpful tips in writing the review:
Sources, scholarly works, references, and other materials that are refereed and indexed
should to be used. Electronic sources should be properly scrutinized since the contained
information are sometimes inaccurate or erroneous.
Each source should be selected based on its contribution to the topic under review.
Review of Related Literature Example 2:
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals
(Cristobal, 2003)
On management roles. A manager of an organization plays various roles that
need specific skills and competencies in order for him or her to be effective.
According to George (1994), a manager needs the following competencies to be
termed as a “total quality manager”:
The relationship of one source to another should be described.
Interpretation should be done appropriately by looking into gaps of previous research.
Courage. A courageous manager stands up in unpopular ideas, does not avoid
confrontations, and gives feedback to subordinates and superiors; his
confidence is his own capability;
Conflicts or contradictions should be resolved.
Areas of prior scholarship should be identified.
Dependability. A dependable leader follows through, upholds commitments,
meets deadlines, takes and accepts responsibilities for actions, admits
mistakes to superiors, works effectively with little or no supervision from
supervisors, and keeps supervisors informed of his/her progress;
One’s original work should be placed in the context of existing literature.
Review of Related Literature Example 1:
Flexibility. Functions effectively in a changing environment, provides stability,
remains objective when confronted with many responsibilities at once, and
handles several problems simultaneously;
Skipping Breakfast of High School Students (Bacsal, et al., 2015)
On Eating Breakfast. Breakfast is often called the most important meal of the day
Integrity. Adheres to a code of ethics and moral values, behaves in a manner that
is inconsistent with organizational climate and professional responsibility,
does not abuse management privileges, gains trust and respect, and serves
as a model to his or her peers;
(Henager, 2010). Eating breakfast allows one’s body to start the day off right. With the right
nutrients, your breakfast can be a great way to function properly. It is true that many students
are coming to schools without eating breakfast for various reasons or students are making
poor nutritional choices at breakfast times for many reasons including: not enough time in the
morning, eating habits, and food preferences. According to Baley (2003), any of these can lead
Judgment. Carries logical and intellectual assessment to reach sound evidence of
to a lack of concentration at school or throughout the day or even weight issues in the future.
alternative actions, bases decisions on logical and factual information, and considers
the welfare of other people in his or her judgment; and
Poor breakfast choices can be blamed on education, historical developments, and income and
social determinants. In addition, children who skip meals barely meet the required dietary
Respect for others. Honors rather than belittles the opinions or works of others
and demonstrates a belief on each individual’s value regardless of their status
in the organization.
intake. This results to lethargy and difficulty in doing mental tasks (Bailey and Earl, 1993).
Related Literature
125
On management practices. There are five behavioral management practices in
order to become effective managers according to Posner (1987). These are as follows:
They challenge the process. They are willing to take the status quo. They make
mistakes to push innovations.
They inspire a shared vision. They have a dream and purpose, a goal, or agenda.
They live their lives backwards by studying a practice in their work. They are
interested to share passionately that vision and make it happen.
They enable others to act. They focus on “we” to build coalition and encourage
collaboration. They build teams and empower others.
They model the organization. They are clear about their beliefs and act
consistently within their beliefs. They show others their values by behaving as
they expect others to act.
They encourage the heart. They celebrate and offer dramatic encouragement and rewards.
They show their members they can win and that winning is exciting.
Allen (in De Guiana, 1998) presents only four major functions: planning,
organizing, leading and controlling. He reduced the five functions to four by
incorporating Payol’s “coordinating” with “organizing”; by changing “commanding”
to the less autocratic “leading”; and retaining to planning and controlling.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Discuss the elements, stages observed,
and format of a literature review and
cite the examples on pages 125-135
for further context.
Provide some guidelines in writing the
literature review and relate these in
writing the literature review as a
student researcher.
He broke down all four functions into nineteen specific activities:
Planning – forecasting, establishing objectives, programming, scheduling,
budgeting, formulating policies, and establishing procedures
Organizing – developing organization structure, delegating, and establishing
relationship
Leading – decision-making, communicating, motivating, selecting people, and
developing
Controlling – establishing performance standards, performance measuring,
evaluating, and correcting.
The school managers are endowed not only with a higher degree of responsibility,
but also of discretionary powers. Thus, this responsibility and authority include
coordinating all resources of their work group to achieve set goals. They have to
organize direct, motivate, communicate, control, evaluate, and develop people in his
work group. Leveriza (1995) regards the managers as supervisors or overseers. This is
because they deal not only with people but also with objectives. In actual practice,
the supervisor is more than a manager or an overseer of people. He is the
organization’s man responsible for the conduct of others in the achievement of
various organizational tasks: the maintenance of quality standard, the protection and
care of materials, and the services to be rendered under his control.
Related Literature 127
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 61
Likewise, Bittle (1991) looks at the school manager’s responsibilities in five directions,
enabling them to fill effectively the following five different roles: leaders and trainers of their
employees; implementers of ideas; co-workers with other supervisors; subordinates to their
own supervisors; and mediators of employees’ needs.
Clearly, these roles indicate that a manager is not only responsible for the
development of his people, but also for the maintenance of things, materials, and
equipment within the organization.
On intrapersonal competency. It is the ability to relate effectively with
subordinates, colleagues, superiors, and representatives of other organizations. In
the US, an ASCR-sponsored research project yielded 12 dimensions of outstanding
supervisors, gleaned from the literature of the past 15 years and verified by experts.
These are community staff development, instructional program, planning and
change, motivating and organizing, observation and conferencing, curriculum,
problem-solving and decision-making, service to teachers, personal development,
community relation, and research and program evaluation.
Telephone surveys were made to confirm further the importance of the 12
dimensions. There was a strong belief in the importance of human relation and that a
key to a supervisor’s effectiveness is the “love and like of people.” A supervisor
should be willing to give other people credit for success and should be more of a
“cheerleader” than a “scorekeeper.”
Supervisors, according to Pajak (1990), are a very person-oriented activity. They
require knowledge and skill but the human element is paramount. As asserted by one
of the respondents in his study, “You always have to remember that people are
important.”
Intrapersonal competency is termed by Holmes (1999) as intrapersonal intelligence.
According to him, it includes the thoughts and feelings of an individual. The more one can
bring into his own consciousness, the better he can see his inner world to the outer world of
experience. It helps an individual understand his desires and goals and emotional nature. He
describes a person with a well-developed intrapersonal competence as one who is aware of his
range of emotions; finds approaches and outlets to express his feelings and thoughts;
develops an accurate model of self; is motivated to identify and pursue goals; establishes and
lives by an ethical value system; works independently; is curious about the big questions in life:
meanings, roles, and purposes; manages ongoing learning and personal growth; attempts to
seek out and understand inner experience; gains insights into the complexities for self and
human conditions; strives for self actualities; and empowers others.
Dr. Howard Gardner (1992), in his theory of eight multiple intelligences, defines
and which things he can have. He seeks to know what he cannot do and tends to
know where to go if he needs help. The individual loves to control his own feelings
and moods, pursue personal interest and set his individual agenda, learn organization
by observing and listening, and use meta-cognitive skills. Another scholar, Chase
(2000), termed intrapersonal competency as personal mastery. According to him,
personal mastery takes many different forms depending on the person’s background
and life experiences. The focus may be on overcoming one’s limitations such as
procrastination or a particular learning disability. Others may struggle with addiction
or dependency. Stress may also fall under personal mastery, as does the actual dayto-day implementation of that idealistic time management program you would like to
adopt. An often overlooked dimension of personal mastery is the development of an
ethical stance on all aspects of the organizational life.
To be an effective agent of change, this intrapersonal competence is necessary.
According to Whittaker (2000), those involved in works as agent of change need to
appreciate that the personal lives of individuals are characterized by a struggle to
secure and find fulfillment. The ways that an individual behaves in an organization
and reacts to the change in expectations may be determined similarly with the
developed struggle, as described by Erickson with regard to the particular details of
the organizational issues at stake. A curiosity about human behavior and sensitivity
for the psychological struggle of human beings are important parts of being an
effective manager and leader. Many educators and scholars used personality in lieu
of intrapersonal competence. According to Appodaca (1997), to better understand
how to work effectively with people, it is necessary for a manager to first understand
himself. Studying and understanding one’s own desires and mental make-up can
accomplish this. This is better known as looking at one’s personality.
Personality is the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a person as
shown in his manner of walking, talking, dressing, attitude, interests, and ways of
reaching out to other people. It refers to all the factors within the person that
influence his character, behavior, thinking, and feelings (Santos, 1997). Personality is
a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustment to his environment. It is the sum total of ways in
which an individual reacts to and interacts with others (Robbins, 1996). It is also a
secondary description of psychology, which is concerned, with the distinctive pattern
of thoughts, behaviors, and experiences, which characterize the individual’s unified
adjustment to his or her life situation (Allyn, 1999).
Personality needs personal skills and abilities in order to be effective according to Boak
(1998). Personal skills and abilities include the three areas of managing self. These are selfawareness; the practical understanding of one’s self and one’s own innate reactions and
intrapersonal competence as referring to having an understanding of oneself and of knowing
preferences; personal effectiveness, the number of key skills and competencies that can be
who he is, what he can do, what he wants, how to act on things, which to avoid,
used to help people achieve their goals; and self-development
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Related Literature
to help people learn to cope with changing circumstances and demands in their skills
and competencies. Self-awareness, as mentioned by Boak, is synonymous to
intrapersonal competencies. It has five useful mental models. These are assertive
behavior, foundations of assertiveness, life position, drivers, and personality.
Personality, as one of the factors, is given importance in this study. As defined by
Boak, these are more or less stable internal factors that make one person’s behavior
consistent from one time to another and different from the behaviors that other
people would manifest in comparable situations.
Personality plays an important role in an individual’s personal, educational,
vocational adjustment, and success. The probability of success in these three areas is
determined to a large extent by personality factors. There have been studies of
failure and maladjustments in these areas which are usually attributed to the lack of
necessary personality traits. Employers of big firms resort to personality testing to
meet and get an objective, unbiased, and accurate assessment of their prospective
employees’ personalities.
An individual’s written account of his past behaviors, feelings, and wishes can
also be a good source of information about his personality, since the kind and quality
of behavior directly affect work output or performance. Plunket (1990) mentioned
that aptitude areas of a person’s personality may or may not be developed. They are
related to different competencies because they are the areas in which competencies
are developed. A person with an aptitude for determining special relationships has
the potential to become effective managers.
Conscientiousness – This dimension refers to the number of goals on which a
person focuses on. A highly conscientious person pursues fewer goals in a
purposeful way. A highly persistent person tends to be more easily
distracted, pursues many goals, and is more hedonistic.
Emotional stability – This dimension taps a person ability to withstand stress.
People with positive emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm,
enthusiastic, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous,
depressed, and insecure.
Openness to experience. The final dimension addresses one’s range of interests.
Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty and innovations. They tend
to be imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intelligent. Those at the other end
of the openness category appear more conventional and find comfort in the
familiar.
The terms used by Ormrod (1995), which are related to intrapersonal competence, are
self-concept and self-esteem. Self-concept, according to him, is the belief in one’s self,
character, strengths, and weaknesses. Self-esteem is the extent to which your believe yourself
Moreover, Santos (1997) continued that knowing one’s personality is so important that
to be capable and worthy individual. Individuals who have positive self-concept and high selfesteem are more likely to succeed academically, socially, and athletically. There are also
success and failure in dealing with others. An understanding of one’s own personality and of
factors to negative and positive self-concept. These are behavior and performance; behavior
others can make the difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory adjustment. One of
of other individuals; and expectations that others hold for performance. She also gave reasons
the most widely used personality framework is called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
why self-concept is resistant to change:
act in a particular situation.
On the basis of the answers of individuals in the test, they are classified as
extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T
or F), and perceiving or judging (P or J). There is also the five factor model of
personality dimensions (Robbins, 1996). These are as follows:
Extroversion and introversion – This dimension captures one comfort level with
relationships. Extroverts tend to be friendly and outgoing and spend much of
their time maintaining and enjoying a large number of relationships.
Introverts tend to be reserved and have fewer relationships and they are
more comfortable being solitary than most people.
130
Agreeableness – This dimension refers to an individual’s propensity to differ with
one another. Highly agreeable people value harmony more than they value
having their say or their way. They are cooperative and trusting with others.
People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs than
on needs of others.
through understanding of it and the personalities of others, it will spell the difference between
Test. It is essentially a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or
62
REVIEW
• Practical
OFLITERATURE
Research 1
129
People usually behave in ways consistent with what they believe about
themselves, so their behaviors are likely to produce reactions on others that
confirm their self-concept.
People tend to seek out information that confirms what they already believe
about themselves. Individuals with positive self-concept are more likely to
seek positive feedback whereas those with negative self-concept may
actually look for information about their weakness and limitations.
People often put themselves in situations where they believe they would not
succeed, thereby eliminating any possibility of discovering that they can
succeed.
Related Literature
131
Review of Related Literature Example 3:
On Leadership Competencies and Management Skills (Seongkil, 2010)
On leadership skills. There are two factors to consider in leadership. These are as
follows (Barron, 2010; Hayden, 2005; Hersman, 2007):
Spiritual factors
He must be called by God.
He must meet the biblical requirements in his life.
He must be empowered by the Holy Spirit to accomplish his job.
He must have an understanding of the biblical principles and be able to apply
them to the ministry of the Sunday School.
He must be a man of prayer.
Natural factors
He should understand basic human relationship and how to get along with
people.
He should understand how to motivate people to get job done.
He must know to train people, both technically and in informal settings.
He should have the ability to supervise and evaluate workers.
He should solve interpersonal problems, produce a cohesive staff, and keep
everyone working toward the goal.
Leaders seem to arise in almost all societies and organizations, large and small,
simple and complex, in every historical period and in every part of the world. Some
observers claim that leaders exhibit special traits that compel people to accept their
authority. Despite decades of research on the long list of leadership traits, the results
remain inconclusive. Leaders, it turns out, come in all shapes and sizes. Everywhere,
the search is on for new leaders, different categories of leaders, and more relevant
forms of leadership.
Beerel (1998) lists the various foundational principles of leadership touch
personality and traits and principles:
We are not the center of the universe; we are a tiny part in an infinite system.
As living creatures, we are in a continuous process of evolution and we must
adapt in order to survive.
We must be attentive to the power of the unconscious in influencing human
behavior (Aadmodt, 2009; Hersman, 2005).
Leadership is necessary. So it is written:
According to Berkley (1997), “without a vision, the people perish.
Sheep without a shepherd are scattered. How can people hear without
someone preaching to them? Someone needs to guard the good
deposits that were entrusted to us by God. Someone must teach what is
in accord with sound doctrine. So God supplies leaders—some to be
apostles, some to be prophets, some to be evangelists, and some to be
pastors and teachers—to build up the body of Christ.”
There are five exemplary practices of a good leader (Haber, 2009; Barron, 2010):
modeling the way; inspiring a shared vision; challenging the process; enabling others
to act; and encouraging the heart.
On leadership models. There are also leadership models that were mentioned
(Kouzes and Posner, 2008):
Relational leadership model – It involves a relational and ethical process of people
attempting to accomplish together a positive change (Hayden, 2005; Hersman, 2007).
It is an inclusive, empowering, purposeful, and ethical process.
Social change model of leadership – This is anchored on the premise that leadership is
inclusive of people in positional or non-positional roles. It is a process that promotes
values of equity, social justice, self-knowledge, service, and collaboration. This model
emphasizes three major values: individual values like consciousness of self (Barron,
2010), congruence, and commitment; group values like collaboration (Aadmodth,
2000), common purpose, and controversy with civility; and community values like
citizenship (Hayden, 2005).
Its major objective is change and to make a better world and a better society
for one’s self and others (Hayden, 2005; Barron, 2010). It conveys the belief
that individuals, groups, and communities have the ability to work together
to make the change.
Servant leadership – It is characterized as a natural feeling that one wants to
serve first. A servant leader is one who listens intently and receptively,
exercises empathy, nurtures healing and wholeness, unflinchingly and
consistently applies ethics and values, builds cooperation within the team
through persuasion, dreams big dreams, exercises foresight, understands
service and stewardship as the first and foremost priority, nurtures the
growth of employees, and builds community within the organization (Barron,
2010; Hersman, 2007).
All things are relative.
All systems comprise interrelated networks linked by a complex of relationships
that are in perpetual change and motion.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Emotionally intelligent leadership – This involves three areas of consciousness:
context, self, and others. Consciousness of context includes environmental
awareness and group-savvy. Consciousness of self includes emotional selfperception, honest self-understanding, healthy self-esteem, emotional selfcontrol, authenticity, flexibility, achievement, optimism, and initiative.
Consciousness of others includes empathy, citizenship, inspiration, influence,
coaching, being an agent of change, conflict management, developing
relationships, teamwork, and capitalizing differences (Barron, 2010;
Aadmodth, 2001).
Related Literature
133
Self-confidence – They possess self-efficacy that they are capable to lead others.
Intelligence – Leaders have above average cognitive ability to process enormous
amounts of information. Leaders are not necessarily geniuses, but rather have
a superior ability to analyze alternative scenarios and identify potential
opportunities (Barron, 2010).
Knowledge of business – Effective leaders understand the business environment in which
they operate. This assists their intuition to recognize opportunities and understand
their organization’s capacity to capture those opportunities.
Leadership identity development – This is composed of the following stages:
awareness;
exploration/engagement;
leader
identified;
leadership
differentiated; generativity; and integration or synthesis.
Literatures of McShane (2005), Hayden (2005), Goodbog (2009), and Aadmodt
(2001) explain the five perspectives of leadership: competency (trait) perspective of
leadership; behavioral perspective; contigency perspective; transformational
perspective; and implicit leadership perspective.
On leadership competencies. The construct, competency (trait) perspective of
leadership began when experts reexamined the trait approach but with more
emphasis on specific competencies. Competencies encompass a broader range of
personal characteristics such as knowledge, skills and abilities, and values. Experts
identified seven competencies (traits) of an effective leader:
Emotional intelligence – This is an ability to perceive and express emotions,
assimilate emotion and thought, understand and reason with emotions, and
regulate them with others. This requires a strong self-monitoring personality
because leaders must be sensitive to situational cues and readily adapt their
own behavior appropriately (Barron, 2010; Hayden, 2005).
Integrity – This refers to a leader’s truthfulness and tendency to translate words into
deeds. Integrity is sometimes called “authentic leadership” because the individual acts
with sincerity. He or she has a higher moral capacity to judge dilemmas based on sound
values and acts accordingly (Aadmodt, 2001).
CH APTER SUMMARY
The related literature serves to clarify the different variables being studied and the
central concepts of the research study.
Through a review of literature, the major variables of the study, sub-variables, and
indicators are defined and clarified.
A literature review is a specific type of research paper that focuses on published
literature on a given topic. It serves as the initial step in doing a research.
The stages involved in writing the literature are problem formulation, literature search,
data evaluation, analysis, and interpretation.
The common format in writing the literature review includes an introduction, a body,
and a conclusion.
The following tips can be followed in literature review: choose refereed sources and
check electronic sources; select sources based on their contribution ; describe
relationships among sources; and identify areas of prior scholarship.
Drive – Leaders should have a high need for achievement. This represents the
inner motivation that leaders possess to pursue their goals and encourage
others to move forward with theirs. A drive inspires unbridled inquisitiveness
and a need for constant learning.
Leadership motivation – Leaders have a strong need for power because they
want to influence others. However, they tend to have a need for socialized
power.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual
RelatedLiterature
• 63135
Assessment Activities
check-up
CHECK-UP
Identify the major variables, sub-variables, and indicators of the examples of literature
review featured in the discussion. Write your answers in the space provided below.
Example 1: Skipping Breakfast of High School Students
Major variable/s:
Ask the students to refer to the examples
of review of literature in the book in
answering this activity.
Sub-variable/s:
Some answers are provided below.
Indicator/s:
Example 1
eating breakfast; on the types of
breakfast prepared
reasons for not eating
breakfast; results of not
eating breakfast
not enough time in the
morning; eating habits;
and food preferences.
Example 2
management roles;
management practices
factors that make an
effective manager
intrapersonal and interpersonal
competencies of principals
Example 3
leadership skills; leadership
model; leadership
competencies
considerations for good
leadership
spiritual and natural factors;
foundational leadership
principles of leadership
Example 2: The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals
Major variable/s:
Sub-variable/s:
Indicator/s:
Example 3: On Leadership Competencies and Management Skills
Major variable/s:
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Sub-variable/s:
Indicator/s:
APPLICATION
Recall your favorite book. Write a simple review about it in the space provided below. Try
to include all the elements and follow the proper format of a literature review.
Title:
AppLicAtiOn
Ask the students to recall their
favorite book.
Students’ answers will vary.
Have them write a review of the book
and remind them to follow the
proper guidelines in writing it.
Ask them to exchange their work with
their seatmates for critiquing.
64 • Practical research 1
Related Literature
137
Name :
Date :
Have them write comments on a
separate piece of paper on how well
their seatmate wrote their
literature review.
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 6
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Outline the Related Literature section of your research paper by providing the required
information below.
Have them return the books and ask
them to refer to the comment paper
for revising their work.
Proposed study:
Major variable:
As a take-home activity, instruct them to
revise their work on another piece
of paper.
Sub-variable/s:
Indicators:
Require them to pass their output in the
next meeting.
Reference:
Major variable:
ReseARch Activity 6
Ask the students to fill in all the
sections with the required
information.
Sub-variable/s:
Indicators:
Related Literature
Reference:
3. Major variable:
Sub-variable/s:
Indicators:
Reference:
4. Major variable:
Sub-variable/s:
Indicators:
139
Ask them to review the literatures they
will be using in their research
paper. Allow them to visit the
library if necessary.
Give additional guidelines in identifying
the major variables, sub-variables,
and indicators, as well as proper
referencing of their resource
materials for their research.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
6 by detaching it from the book.
Note:
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Reference:
140
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final
research paper will be based on
their outputs.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 65
CHAPTER
12
Related Studies
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the
students will be able to
OBJECTIVES
differentiate the different research
literatures that are related to the
proposed problem and
describe the different
research literatures
that are related to
the problem and
construct a review of related studies for
the proposed study.
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
construct a review of
related studies for a
research study.
OPENING ACTIVITY
Complete the table below. Think of five pivotal events in your
life. Then, write about how it helped you improve yourself in
the long run. Afterwards, answer the following guide
questions.
Life Events
Realizations, Benefits
1.
2.
3.
Opening Activity
4.
1. Ask the students to remember
important events in their lives that
have been crucial in their overall
personal growth.
5.
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. How can you describe in general these “pivotal events” in your life?
2. Have them write their answers in the
table.
3. Ask the students to share their
Students’ answers will vary.
outputs to the class.
4. Have them answer the guide
questions.
Related Studies
141
Do you think other people can benefit from learning about your experience to infer some helpful
guidelines for themselves? Why do you think so?
Investigation
How can you relate this activity to research and the review of related studies?
Related Studies
Introduce the lesson by defining the
related studies and its purpose in the
research paper.
Discuss the criteria on how two or
more studies can be considered
similar studies.
INVESTIGATION
RELATED STUDIES
The review of related studies is an essential part of the planning and research stage of the
study. That is, determining if the research is objective and empirically-based entails the
surveying of previous studies that involve similar variables. In doing so, it provides insight into
the methods through which validity of the results is to be established.
The review of the related studies serves as the basis of the analysis of results because it
allows the researcher to compare and contrast his or her findings with those of past studies.
The results of a study are verified by similar findings or negated by different findings from other
researchers. The studies can be in the form of theses, dissertation, or journal articles.
The gathered studies are related to the present study when they have the following similarities:
They use the same variables, sub-variables, concepts or construct.
They have the same subject or topic.
The researcher should be reminded however, that even if a previous research used the same
variables as his or her study, the two studies may vary in the delimitation in terms of the subvariables investigated or in terms of focus and purpose.
In writing a review of a related study, the following data must be indicated:
The name of the author, the date, and the setting of the study
The title
The salient findings, which are the most important “ingredients” to include since the
discussion of the variables and their relationship/s will be based on them
66 • Practical Research 1
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Related Studies Example 1:
Buenafe (1983) conducted a study that was designed to determine the
relationship between the job performance of principals and teachers, and the
principals’ managerial attitudes, needs, personality traits, and mental ability among
50 principals and 388 teachers in three dioceses in Abra, Ilocos Sur, and Ilocos Norte.
She found out that there was significant relationship existed among variables
measured. Teacher’s performance correlated meaningfully to the principal’s
attitudes, personality, and mental ability. There was also a positively marked
relationship between the teacher’s and principal’s performance. Some variables on
personality and on performance of both the teachers and principals and the
respondents are similar with the present study. It differs on needs and mental ability
since these are not taken variables of the present research.
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for the
Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2003)
As this study is focused on the effectiveness of managers, a study conducted by
Catacutan (1992) is related. Its objective is to analyze the effectiveness of middle-level
managers in six selected private elementary schools in Metro Manila where she
analyzed 42 subject coordinators, 25 head teachers, 6 principals, and 275 teachers.
The study utilized variables like management skills focusing on human relation and
non-manipulative variables like educational attainment, years of experience as
managers, and management trainings, as well as the kind of respondents. She found
out the following:
Another research on personality was conducted by dela Cruz (1996) that aimed
to assess the personality traits and leadership effectiveness skills of the public
elementary school principals in the Division of Laguna. Her respondents were 34
public elementary school principals, 68 teachers, 13 education supervisors, and 9
districts. Her findings were as follows:
42 years old, female, married, has a doctorate degree in Education, has earned
MA units, has received no honors, has administrative experience of 15 years,
has attended more than 40 seminars, and has a “very satisfactory”
performance rating
The public elementary schools principals possessed the personality traits in terms
of ability, occupation achievement, decisiveness, self-actualization, and
initiative. Majority of the principals obtained scores above the average and in
the borderline.
Excellent in the performance of the four management skills and the five
leadership styles
The correlation of the effectiveness of middle-level managers are the teachers’
rating on management skills, schools where they graduated, age, honors, and
awards received
There was a significant difference in the personality traits of public elementary
principals.
The best predictors of the middle-level managers are the school where they
graduated from, housing, and honors and awards received
The highly favorable and evident leadership effectiveness should reveal that a
public elementary school principal possessed technical, human relations, and
conceptual skills.
Becoming (1993) determined the teacher’s relating and affective behaviors among mentors
with or without SEDP training and their personality variables among faculty members of five
The leadership effectiveness skills in terms of technical and human relation skills
differed significantly while leadership effectiveness skills in terms of
conceptual skills were similar as prescribed of the principal themselves,
peers, teachers, and education experience.
private schools in Pablo City. She arrived at the following conclusions:
Trainings such as SEDP have minimal effects on both relating and affective
behaviors among teachers.
Some personality variables relate to relating behaviors of teachers. However,
such correlations are moderately small.
Among the demographic variables, only years of teaching experience correlated
significantly with personality traits in terms of decisiveness. The present study differs
for it will focus on high school principals and not utilize the response of supervisors,
Some personality variables relate in varying degrees with affective behaviors of
teachers. The correlation is negligible to low. This study is related to the
present because of some personality variables of mentors that are also
variables under the study and the effects of training in their personality.
but the study of dela Cruz is mostly related in most aspects.
Del Rio (1993) conducted a study about the influence of management competencies of
school principals in the performance of pupils. Her study aimed to determine the perceived
influence of management competencies of the grade school principals
Related Studies
143
on teachers’ and pupils’ performance among the elementary schools in San Pablo City.
She had the following results:
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Ask the students how they think similar
studies help in improving the
results of future ones.
that the grade school principals perceived themselves as “very satisfactory” in
their management competencies;
that the teachers with “very satisfactory” performance tended to rate the
principals higher than those teachers with outstanding performance;
that the Grade VI pupils’ perceptions of the teaching performance of their
teachers indicated to some extent the perceived influence of the
management competencies of the grade school principals; and
Discuss the different components of a
review of related studies.
that the scholastic performance or ability is not a factor in the perception of
teaching performance among the pupils. Del Rio’s study is similar to the
present study for it assessed the relationship of the management
competencies of principals to the performance of teachers and pupils. Only
she conducted it in elementary schools.
Provide some guidelines in writing the
review of related studies.
Also, a study was conducted by Fontenilla (1996) who identified the correlates of
professionalism and competencies among tertiary school middle-level managers of
three colleges in Nueva Viscaya. Findings of his study revealed that the correlates of
competencies, which came out very high, are organizational skills, work values and
attitudes, vision, external services, and community relations.
Discuss and compare the differences
between related literature and
related studies.
Cortes (1992) conducted a study in the competencies of presidents of state
colleges and universities in the Philippines. Some of her findings were as follows:
Cite the examples on pages 143-147 for
further context.
In terms of decision-making, the presidents were rated most effective as
perceived by themselves.
The correlates of competencies of presidents of state colleges and universities
are education, scholarships, experience, travel, training fellowships, and
study grants.
The factors that affect performance of these presidents are professional
development, professional maturity, and recognition.
Years of experience, self-concept, and personality characteristics are some of the
variables studied by Brawner (1980). These are variables that are also considered in
the present study. Her study found out that the non-promoted principals had the
highest profile on four aspects of promotion: policies, pressures, smooth
interpersonal relations, and personality factors.
Related Studies
145
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 67
Ramos (1986) gave the five most important skills/competencies, listed in the
order of priority, which are expected of teachers generally at all levels:
fluency and proficiency in the language of instruction
The studies conducted by Rosenthal and Owen are related to the present study
since the two researchers and the new study focuses on the spending habits of the
high school students.
skills in the use of teaching methods appropriate for the class activities of the day
mastery of the subject/discipline he teaches
skills in maintaining order and discipline in class
CH APTER SUMMARY
skills in evaluating the achievements
Related studies serve as the basis of the analysis of results because it allows the researcher
to compare and contrast his or her findings with those of past studies.
Related Studies Example 2:
On the Spending Habits of Students (Abas, 2015)
The study entitled “Let the Games Begin: Gaming Technology and Entertainment
Among Students,” which was conducted by Steve Jones, a professor in the
Department of Communication at the University of Illinois at Chicago found out that
there is a significant impact of video games on young people’s lives. Through gaming,
extra expenses are incurred by students. Another study by Rosenthal (1989) when
she studied how and where the male and female students spend their money, she
found out that female students are more interested in social activities than males.
Also, female have significantly higher interest than males in hobbies, social funs, trips,
and church but significantly less interested in sports.
“Your Spending Habits as an Adult are Affected by Your Childhood Experiences”
is a research conducted in the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of
Management by Charlene Owen in 2013, which is based from the theory of “life
history” or that the events in an organism’s life are guided by its need to produce the
largest possible number of surviving offsprings and is dependent on its environment.
In the study, she hypothesized that how a person uses money during dire times is
affected by their lifestyles during their younger years. She found out that in two
experiments, volunteers were asked to complete tasks related to risk-taking with the
premise of experiencing economic recession. Those who grew up in low-income
homes tended to be more impulsive; they gravitated quicker toward luxury goods,
and were loose with money whenever they had a lot of it. On the other hand, those
who grew up in financially stable homes were more cautious; they gravitated less
toward luxury goods and believed in delayed gratification.
Studies are related when they used the same variables, sub-variables, concepts, or
construct, and they have the same subject or topic of the study.
In writing a review of related study, the following data must be indicated: the name of the
author, the date and the setting as in when and where the study was conducted; the
title; and the salient findings.
CHECK-UP
Read the questions below and then write a short essay for your answer.
1. What is the purpose of the review of the related studies in a research paper?
2. What is the difference between a review of related literature and a review of related studies?
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Related Studies
147
Do you think a research can withstand on its own without having to compare with related
literatures or studies? Why or why not?
inadequate facilities, poor scheduling, overloading of faculty, and inconsistencies in rules
and policies were assessed as common problems encountered by managers. Thus, an
intervention program on leadership and management skills was proposed.
APPLICATION
Read the sample review of related studies below. Then, on a separate sheet of paper, list
down the researchers and their respective studies mentioned in the text. Provide a short
explanation for each study.
Correlates of Leadership Competencies and Management Skills of Classroom Managers:
Basis for a Management Intervention Program (Seongkil 2010)
The study of Goodbog (2009) on transformational leadership was found to be
associated to student learning and student perception which is similar with the study of
Barrameda (2000). Though in the latter study, there is a low association but the one
variable of transformational leadership which is a stakeholder focus that appears to be a
significant correlate to student achievement. Furthermore, among the total quality
management competencies, information and analysis, school performance results,
faculty and staff focus, educational support process management, and student and
stakeholders focus show a low level of correlation with the teacher’s competence.
Although the studies of Muello’s, Barrameda’s, Vostakalei’s and Lao’s were focused
on middle-level managers like supervisors and principals, these are also related to this
study since they experienced being classroom managers before they were promoted as
school managers.
The studies of Lao (2007), Vostakalei (2009), and McGoran (2005) enumerated the
common leadership skills used. These are administrative functions, professional
competence, supervisory skills, moral and spiritual qualifications, integrity, passion for
work, responsibility and trustworthiness, and managerial skills like planning,
communication, technical, and people skills. Lao (2007) found out that profile
descriptions like gender and educational attainment were highly significant, while age,
civil status, and years of experience were not significantly related to managerial skills.
McGoran (2005), Cheng (1994), and Richard and Fisher (1996) concentrated on
leadership qualities like service, authenticity, empowerment and delegation, community
involvement, confidence, and friendliness. They found out that these variables are
significantly and positively correlated to school effectiveness like influencing the
students’ motivation and their relationship with fellow students and teachers, and
finishing tasks (MacGoran, 2005), the students’ attitude, and affective performance like
self-concept and self-efficacy (Cheng, 2006; McGoran 2005).
In classroom management studies conducted by Stalling (2005), Muello (2002), and Garcia
(2009), variables like policies and rules, use of time, class intrusions, and legal and ethical
principles were found to be significantly associated with teacher morale and student behavior.
They further found out that there are few class misbehaviors, lower absence rates, less littering,
and strengthened classroom relationships. In Muello’s study,
68
•
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Practical research 1
Related Studies
149
Assessment Activities
Check-up
Instruct the students to write their essays with at least 50 words.
Ask them to share their answers to the class afterwards.
Refer to the answer key provided below.
Some of the purposes of the review of related studies are to provide insights into the methods
used, to serve as the basis of the analysis of results, and to verify current results by
comparing them with previous ones.
Review of related literature serves as the platform to discuss the variables being studied using
the published materials, while review of related studies is the search for related studies
conducted on the topic to look into what has already been determined about the problem by
other researchers.
No, because the related literatures and studies serve to provide credibility and validity to your work.
While one may have produced results from his or her research work, a benchmark is needed to
validate the results if it provides new substantial information or simply a reiteration of another
study’s results.
Application
Give the students at least 10 to 15 minutes to answer the activity.
Provide the table below as blank to the student as a guide in answering the activity.
Refer to the sample answer below.
Researcher/s
Lao, Vostakalei,
McGoran
McGoran,
Cheng, Richard
and Fisher
Stalling, Muello,
Garcia
Goodbog,
Barrameda
Title/Variables
being studied
common leadership
skills
relation of certain
leadership qualities to
student performace
external factors
affecting teacher
morale and student
behavior
relationship of
transformational
leadership to
student learning and
perception
Year
Explanation
2007,
2009,
2005
Common leadership skills include administrative
functions, professional competence, supervisory
skills, moral and spiritual qualifications, integrity,
passion for work, responsibility and trustworthiness,
and managerial skills like planning, communication,
technical, and people skills.
They found out that certain variables are
significantly and positively correlated to school
effectiveness.
Variables like policies and rules, use of time, class
intrusions, and legal and ethical principles were
found to be significantly associated with teacher
morale and student behavior.
There is a low association but the one variable of
transformational leadership which is a stakeholder
focus that appears to be a significant correlate to
student achievement.
2005,
1994,
1996
2005,
2003,
2009
2009,
2000
Ask them to write their answers on a separate sheet of paper.
Ask the students to exchange books for correction.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 69
Name :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 7
REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES
ReseARch Activity 7
Ask the students to fill in all sections
with the required information.
Ask them to review all the related
studies they will be using in their
research paper. Allow them to visit
the library if necessary.
Give additional guidelines in
identifying relevant information
from their resource materials and
the relationship to their present
study.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
7 by detaching it from the book.
Date :
Gather related studies to your proposed study and complete the following items below.
Proposed Study
1. Title of the thesis:
Author:
School:
Year:
Relevant findings:
Relationship to the present study:
2. Title of the thesis:
Author:
School:
Year:
Relevant findings:
Relationship to the present study:
Note:
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final research
paper will be based on their outputs.
Related Studies
3. Title of the thesis:
Author:
School:
Year:
Relevant findings:
Relationship to the present study:
4. Title of the thesis:
Author:
School:
Relevant findings:
Relationship to the present study:
70 • Practical research 1
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Year:
151
UNIT
3
CONDUCTING
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
CHAPTER
13
Methodology and Design
for Qualitative Research
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students
will be able to
display the fundamental knowledge of
various qualitative research
designs and
differentiate the commonly used
qualitative research designs from
each other.
Opening Activity
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
knowledge of various
qualitative research
designs and
2. differentiate the
commonly used
qualitative research
designs from each other.
OPENING ACTIVITY
Read the following selection regarding the significance of
interviews. Then, answer the guide questions that follow.
1. display fundamental
Interview as Parts of Daily Life
by Cesar A. Cisneros-Puebla, Robert Faux & Günter Mey
Ask the students to read the selection.
Interviews have become a part of our daily lives. We read
interviews in the press; we see people interviewed on
television; many of us know of the “celebrity interview.” One
Have them answer the guide
questions.
Ask the students to share their
output to the class.
Refer to the sample answers
provided below.
Interviews conducted by the media
sometimes involve closed and
leading questions which produce
non-insightful answers. On the
other hand, interviews in
qualitative research goes beyond
mere fact gathering and attempts
to construct meaning.
The contemporary form of interview
is more fluid because the
individuals (both the
interviewer and interviewee)
engage in insightful dialogue
and meaningfully exchange
ideas and experiences.
Yes. The conduct of interview has
improved the peoples’ critical
thinking skills: how they
recognize the most important
issues in the society, identify
the appropriate solutions to
long-persisting problems, etc.
72 • Practical Research 1
consequence of this familiarity is a tendency to simplify. An
interviewer asks the interviewee questions—a question
eliciting an answer (Gubrium & Holstein, 2002). However, the
interview in qualitative research is a critical method in much
of the work many of us do. Unlike the interview of the
“popular” media
with its rigid question and answer format, the interview in qualitative research comes in
many guises, as can be seen in this issue. It goes beyond mere fact gathering and attempts to
construct meaning and interpretation in the context of conversation (Kvale, 1996).
The interview, as a way to gather information, is of fairly recent origin; there being a time
when an interview as such did not exist. Of course, as Benney and Hughes (1956) point out,
people have always asked questions and most of the time, people have responded, but these
encounters would not be perceived as an interview. The emergence of the interview only
came about when the roles “interviewer” and “interviewee” became formalized.
The development of interviews reflected changing relationships between individuals. It gradually
became commonplace for “strangers” to ask questions of one another to gain knowledge. Riesman and
Benney (1956) see this change as the result of “the modern temper.” More recently, David Silverman
(1997), seeing the widespread use and impact of interviews on contemporary life, has suggested that
we live in an “interview society” (p. 248). Among the conditions required by an interview society,
Silverman sees an informing subjectivity—the evolution of a self as an object of narration. This can
come about only when individuals qua respondents are perceived as offering meaningful knowledge to
share with others. Interpersonally, this is seen in the democratization of the interpretations of one’s
experiences;
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
individuals are seen as “significant commentators on their own experience” (Gubrium &
Holstein 2002, p.5). What this means, in part, is that the traditional roles of interviewer and
interviewee have become more fluid. Individuals are able to come together in dialogue and
meaningfully discuss their experiences.
We see a transformation of the individual through the interview. The interview gives
individuals appropriate outlets through which their experiences and thoughts can be shared
with others in meaningful interactions. But, given the widespread use of interviews, have
they, the interviews, transformed society? Gubrium and Holstein (2002) rightly suggest that
interviews have prepared us “as both questioners and answerers to produce readily the
society of which we are a part. The modern temper gives us the interview as a significant
means for realizing that subjectivity and the social contexts that bring it about” (p.9).
Source: http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/547/1180
GUIDE QUESTIONS
According to the selection, how do the interviews in “popular” media differ from those
qualitative research?
How can you describe the contemporary form of interview?
Have interviews really changed the society (at least in the relevant aspects of life)? Why or why
not?
What do you think is the utmost importance of interview in a qualitative
research?
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research
INVESTIGATION
The conduct of interview in
qualitative research is vital in
seeking truth and distinguishing
the real meanings of subjects of
interest.
GATHERING AND GENERATING DATA
Having established what previous researchers have discovered, documented, and published on the
topic of interest, the next step in conducting a study is gathering and generating new data.
This step requires the researchers to answer the following questions:
What are the gaps in existing knowledge that the study seeks to fill?
What kind of information is needed to fill those gaps?
How will the study collect that information?
How does one ensure that the information collected in the research is the kind needed to fill
the gaps and answer the initial inquiry?
Investigation
Before proceeding, it is necessary to define the terms that will be used in this chapter, and to
differentiate them from one another.
A method is a technique which the researcher uses to gather and generate data about the
subjects of their study.
A methodology is the section of the research paper which explains why the researcher
chose to use particular methods. The methodology also includes descriptions of any and
all theoretical and/or ideological concepts informing and influencing the course of the
study, and the researcher’s rationale behind adhering to these concepts.
Gathering and Generating DAta
Ask the students if they had conducted
an interview in the past.
A research design is a plan which structures a study to ensure that the data collected and
generated will contain the information needed to answer the initial inquiry as fully and
clearly as possible.
Ask them what the topic of the
interview is, who their
interviewee/s is/are, and what
their purpose was in conducting it.
MAIN METHODS USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
As the qualitative approach to research focuses less on “hard,” numerical data and more on
abstract information, the methods used to collect and generate data for qualitative research
should be designed to be descriptive, observational, conceptual, and analytical. Some of the most
commonly used data collection methods in qualitative research are individual interviews, group
interviews, observations, and surveys.
Individual interviews are like conversations which are designed to elicit the information
that the researcher needs. However, unlike casual, everyday conversations, interviews must be
conducted as rigorously, systematically, and transparently as possible to ensure the reliability
and validity of the information obtained.
Have the students discuss and
compare method, methodology,
and research design.
Discuss the three terms further by
identifying their application in
the research study.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Group interviews are conducted with several participants simultaneously, and may be
more appropriate in some cases, such as when the study concerns a community issue or shared
experience.
Observations are conducted to document and analyze behavior and social phenomena as
they occur in their natural context, and may be useful in identifying, for example, discrepancies
between what people say (such as in interviews) and what they do.
Although surveys and questionnaires are more often used in quantitative research, they
may also be designed to be applicable to qualitative studies. Doing so requires that the questions
be structured to be open-ended, with few to no restrictions on the respondent’s answers—
resembling an interview but in written form.
COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS
As stated, the objective of a research design is to ensure that the data collection and
generation methods are geared towards gathering the specific information which will help
answer the initial inquiry as clearly and fully as possible. If the researcher does not design their
study carefully and appropriately, the data they gather may be extraneous or irrelevant to the
problem at hand, and they might not be able to adequately answer the research problem. As a
result, the study may prove weak or inconclusive.
It must be asserted, then, that there is no single best way to conduct research, nor is there a
universally applicable research design—only general approaches which the researcher will, to
varying extents, have to modify and adjust to best suit their study. The following are some of the
more common designs used in qualitative research.
Phenomenological Design
This design focuses on obtaining descriptions of the subjects’ or respondents’ lived
experiences either in writing or through interviews. The goal of this study is to analyze the
meaning behind these experiences for each subject, rather than generalizing to a greater
population. (Donalek, 2004)
Main Methods Used in Qualitative Research
Discuss the different data collection
methods in a qualitative research.
Provide examples for each method for
further context.
Have the students recall the
interview they had
previously conducted.
Ask them to describe the manner by
which they conducted the
interview and what preparation
they did before conducting it.
To wholly understand the subjects’ experiences, the researcher must set aside their own
feelings and expectations towards the study. Those feelings and expectations may hinder the
researcher from seeing the experience through the subjects’ perspectives. This process is called
bracketing.
Example: What are the experiences of a student who failed in his or her subject?
The researcher may have their own notions regarding this problem due to first-hand or
second-hand experience. During the data collection, the researcher must put aside all the
assumptions in order to identify the real essence of the answers of the participants.
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research
157
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 73
The following are characteristics of a phenomenological design:
Common Research Designs
Define research design and discuss its
purpose in research.
The researcher applies bracketing by focusing on the meaning of the perceived experience
or on the interpretation of the said data.
It uses unstructured or semi-structured data collection. When conducting an interview, the
researcher starts with an open-ended question followed by general probes.
It uses appropriate and systematic data analysis methods or adapts established and credible
processes to suit the study’s purposes.
The research process is transparent.
It uses the first person perspective. For example, the participant may say, “I am experiencing
sleepless nights….”
Have the students explain the
importance of proper
research designing.
Historical Design
Discuss each type of research design and
explain the focus of each one.
This design focuses on the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data or
evidence from the past to confirm or reject a hypothesis. Data for historical research may be
found in printed documents, such as official records, reports, archives, and even diaries; or in
non-textual artifacts, such as relics, maps, pictures, and audiovisual material.
Ask the students to discuss the range of
topics the types of research are
applicable to.
A historical study must be unobtrusive, meaning that the process of research must not
involve any interventions which will affect the results of the study. This also means that there is
no way to manipulate the factors of the study for different variables or contexts. On the other
hand, this non-invasive approach is well-suited for archival purposes, such that sources of
historical data may be stored accurately and consistently, and be accessed and used over and
over to study various research problems.
Have them recall their conducted
interview and ask them to classify
which research design would have
been applicable if they conducted a
study about it.
When material provides first-hand information, then it is considered as a primary source.
Examples are oral histories, written records, diaries, eyewitnesses’ accounts, pictures, videos,
and other physical evidence. The minutes of meetings can also be considered primary sources.
Secondary sources are materials containing second-hand information, such as when a person
reinterprets information from the original source, or commentary on and analyses of an original
document. When the minutes of historical meetings are summarized and transferred to a
different medium, they are now considered secondary sources.
Present sample studies for each type for
further context.
The researcher identifies the phenomenon not just in themes or categories.
It collects data in groups, such as in a focus-group interview.
The most valuable criterion for historical data sources is authenticity, and any source to be used for
historical research must undergo internal and external criticism. External criticism is based on the
analysis of the printed material; the ink and the type of paper used; the layout and physical appearance; as
well as its age and texture. Carbon dating is useful in determining the age of substances in objects such as
paper. Internal criticism involves establishing the authenticity and originality of the materials by looking
at the consistency of information. Motives and possible biases of the author must be considered in trying
to determine the accuracy of the materials.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Case Study Design
A case study is a comprehensive, in-depth examination of a specific individual, group of
people, or institution. It may be used to gain insights into an obscure or specific problem;
provide background data for broader studies; or explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural
processes. Some of the disadvantages of case studies are the problems of general application,
since the study focuses only on specific subjects; the difficulty of determining the adequacy of
data; the possibility of biases; and the expense entailed by the design.
A case study may be considered quantitative or qualitative research, depending on the
purpose of the study and the approach chosen by the researcher. This is also true to other types
of qualitative studies, for a case study to be considered qualitative, the researcher must be
interested in abstract ideas and concepts, such as the meaning of an experience to a subject,
rather than in generalizing results to other groups of people. Case studies are not used to test
hypotheses, but hypotheses may be generated from case studies (Younger, 1985).
The data from case studies is evaluated through content analysis. It involves the
examination of communication messages. Care must be exercised in selecting subjects for case
studies. The researcher should avoid choosing only those participants who are expected to
respond favorably or unfavorably to the instrument.
The following are characteristics of a case study:
Case studies are time-consuming and may be quite costly.
It needs in-depth analysis of single or multiple case/s.
It uses multiple sources of data such as documentation, interviews, observation, and
environmental detail.
It may result in descriptions of themes and assertions.
It clarifies cases and contexts.
It can select and develop issues.
Grounded Theory Design
Grounded theory is a systematic research approach developed by two sociologists, Barney
Glaser and Anselm Strauss, in which rigorous procedures (such as open coding—identifying,
naming, categorizing, and describing phenomena encountered in the study, as well as their
characteristics) are used to collect data, analyze that data, and formulate a theory on the matter
at hand. This theory can then be used to explain, provide a perspective on, or even predict
behavior in and of the particular context of the study’s subject.
The grounded theory method uses both an inductive and a deductive approach to theory development.
According to Field and Morse (1985), “constructs and concepts that are grounded in the data and
hypotheses are tested as they arise from the research.” In a deductive grounded theory, a theory is
formulated, then the collection of data follows. In an inductive approach,
74 • Practical Research 1
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research
159
collection of data is conducted first, and then through the analysis of these data, the synthesized
form is the theory itself. Leininger (1985) asserts that a pre-study of the literature search could
lead to “premature closure.” This means that the researcher would go into the research setting
expecting to find what is reported in the literature.
Review
The following are characteristics of a grounded theory design:
Purposeful sampling is used. The researcher looks for certain subjects who will be able to
shed new light on the phenomenon being studied. Diversity rather than similarity is
sought in the people that are sampled.
Have the students classify the
research design they will
be using in the study.
Data is gathered in naturalistic settings (field settings). Data collection primarily consists of
participant observation and interviews, and data are recorded through handwritten
notes and tape recordings.
Data collection and data analysis occur simultaneously. A process called constant
comparison is used, in which data gathered in the course of the study is constantly
compared to other data that had been gathered in previous studies.
Explain to them that they
should choose the
research design carefully
as it is not ideal to change
it in the middle of the
research study.
It presumes that it is possible to discover fundamental patterns in all social life. These
patterns are called basic social processes.
It is more concerned with the generation rather than the testing of hypotheses.
Theoretical sampling used is a part of analysis.
A core category grounded in the data is identified (a study may not be able to fully develop
an explanatory theory but may usefully inform by description and exploration).
Action Research Design
Ask the students to answer
the activity in an
intermediate paper.
Action research is a design which involves a cycle of identifying a problem regarding a
situation or process, developing a strategy for intervention (the ‘action’) with the purpose of
improving said situation or process, implementing said intervention, and observing and
analyzing the results until a sufficient level of understanding of (or valid solution to) the
problem is achieved. Generalizing the findings is not a goal of this study, as in the case of
quantitative research studies. In action research, the implementation of solutions occurs as an
actual part of the research process.
Have them share their
output to the class.
Participatory action research is a special kind of community-based action research in which there is
a collaboration between the respondents or participants and the researcher in all the steps of the study,
including the determination of the problem, identification of the research methods to use, analysis of data,
and deciding how the study results will be used. One can say that the participants and the researcher are
co-researchers throughout the entire research study.
Meta-Analysis Design
Planning the Research Design
This design is a systematic evaluation of multiple individual studies on a topic in order to
not only summarize the results, but also develop a new understanding of the research problem.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
This design may also be used to analyze discrepancies in the results of individual studies, and its own
results have a bigger potential for generalization to a greater population. However, due to its complexity,
studies following such a design may prove difficult, expensive, and time-consuming.
A good meta-analysis study is characterized by:
Have the students read the steps in
planning the research design and ask
them to answer the questions
presented in each number according
to their research proposal.
Discuss each step and provide a sample
section of a research paper for each
one for further context.
precisely defined objectives, variables, and outcomes;
well-developed reasoning for its selection of studies, including an assessment and
acknowledgement of any bias that may have influenced said selection;
a detailed description and analysis of the degree of heterogeneity in the sample; and
justification for the techniques used in the analysis of the sample.
Have the students discuss the stages in
planning the research design.
REVIEW
Classify the kind of research design that your proposed study is going to take. Then, write
a short essay on why you chose that research design and why it is the most appropriate
one for your research. Each student will share his or her work in class.
Ask them to explain how they will be
implementing these stages in their
research.
PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
Discuss the examples on pages 162-163
for further context.
Steps in Planning the Design
Establishing the purpose. Why do you want to address this research? What are its
expected benefits? Who will benefit from the research?
Methodological location. What methods and strategies do you intend to use?
Scoping. Revisit the scope and delimitation of your research. What will the study cover?
What will it not cover? What major and sub-variables will you focus on? These details
will significantly affect what kind of research design will best suit your study.
Nature of the data. Take a look at the research problem. What kind of data is needed to answer the
inquiry? What sorts of data are relevant and available? How should the data be handled? What
research methods will most likely generate the data needed? Does the study intend to focus on
specific, isolated subjects, or generalize to a greater population?
Will the study implement or avoid direct intervention in generating and collecting data?
Thinking ahead. How big will the data be? What is the intended result of the study? At this
stage, the researcher must be analytical and skeptical. Asking other researchers can help
in planning the design best suited to the study.
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research
161
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 75
Stages of the Project
Planning your research design will also entail delineating the stages of the study and setting
a pace for completion. A good rule of thumb is to schedule the different tasks well ahead of time,
in order to avoid unnecessary time constraints.
Conceptualizing stage. This includes the literature review and the critiquing of other
studies. A poorly or hastily conceptualized project may lead to hazy, inconclusive results.
Setting up a data management system. This should be planned meticulously. Failing to
systematize data collection can prove disastrous for a project.
Sampling and theoretical sampling. Unless you intend to implement convenience
sampling, you should not assume that your intended subjects are readily and
immediately available. Take the necessary time to locate your sample.
Collecting and generating data. All the preparations made thus far were done for this
stage of the study. This is where you will put your chosen methods to work. Depending
on the nature of the study, this may require fieldwork—entering a physical location or a
social space from which you will gather information. Take time to acclimatize to the field
in question, whether your study is observational or interventional in nature.
Analysis. In addition to the actual analysis of the data, you should also allow time for the
coding of data, recoding of exploratory categories, management and exploration of
category systems, and coding validation and reliability exploration.
Research Design Example 3:
This study utilized the qualitative type of study which according to Nieswiadomy (2004)
is a naturalistic method of inquiry of research, which deals with the issue of human
complexity by exploring it directly. In this type, the emphasis is on the complexity of
humans, their ability to shape and create their own experience, and the idea that truth is a
composite of reality. This study utilizes the case study method. Case study method involves
a comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual, group, or situation
over a period of time. It provides information on where to draw conclusion about the
impact of a significant event in a person’s life (Sanchez, 2002).
This design is fitted to this present study since the focus is on the psychological
processes of a group of students who failed on their academic performance in physics,
soliciting their personal views and perceptions relative to the queries given by a panel of
interviewers during the third quarter of the school year 2013-2014.
CH APTER SUMMARY
Time should be allotted for asking questions and incorporating the answers into the
analysis, and, above all, for writing, rewriting, revisiting the data, and verifying the conclusions.
Some of the more common qualitative research designs include: phenomenological design,
historical design, case study design, grounded theory design, action research design, and
meta-analysis design.
Research Design Example 1:
The phenomenological design examines human experiences through the eyes of the
subject/s and with the help of a process called bracketing.
A researcher wants to explore the impact of social media on first-time voters and their choice of
candidates in the 2016 Philippine national elections. Due to the nature of the study, the researcher
decides to employ a combination of phenomenological and case study designs, using one-on-one
interviews with first-time voters from ten different colleges and universities.
Research Design Example 2:
A researcher notes that a number of studies have been conducted on the long, storied career of a
beloved president of her alma mater, under whose term that school became one of the top
educational institutions in the Philippines. However, despite focusing on the same general topic—the
factors that made this president’s career so successful, including progressive educational reforms
implemented during his term—these studies have somewhat inconsistent conclusions. The
researcher then decides to conduct a meta-analysis of all these previous studies in an attempt to gain
The historical design concerns the identification, evaluation, and synthesis of data from
the past to confirm or reject a hypothesis.
The case study design is an in-depth examination of an individual, group of people, or
entity, and usually does not intend to generalize its conclusions to greater populations.
The grounded theory design involves a rigorous, systematic collection of rich data and
formulating a theory based on that data.
Action research seeks to improve practice through the implementation of interventional
actions and study the effects of those actions.
There are five steps in planning the design: establishing the purpose, methodological
location, scoping, nature of the data, and thinking ahead.
The stages of the project are as follows: conceptualizing stage, setting up and managing a
data management system, sampling and theoretical sampling, collecting and generating
data, and analysis.
a better perspective of the bigger picture.
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
CHECK-UP
AssessMent Activities
check-Up
Ask the students to exchange their books
for correction.
Encircle the letter of the best answer:
1. Which of the following is NOT a qualitative research method?
a. interviews
c. focus group discussions
b. observations
d. surveys with numerical questions
Which of the following is included in the methodology of a study?
the chosen research methods
theoretical concepts used in the study
explanations for the methods and concepts
all of the above
Which of the following statements is true concerning historical research?
Internal criticism should be considered before external criticism.
External criticism should be considered before internal criticism.
Both internal and external criticism should be considered simultaneously.
Either internal criticism or external criticism is enough; there is no need to conduct both.
Case studies may concern an in-depth examination of ____________.
a. individuals
c. groups of peoples
b. institutions
d. all of the above
Consider this title: “The Lived Experience of Surviving a Tornado.” Which of the following
designs did the researcher most likely use?
a. ethnographic
c. historical
b. phenomenological
d. grounded theory
The review of related literature is _______________.
never conducted prior to the beginning of the study
sometimes conducted prior to the beginning of the study
always conducted prior to the beginning of the study
always dependent upon the researcher to decide
76 • Practical research 1
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
163
Which type of qualitative research approach would be most appropriate to study the practice
of actively changing or modifying teaching techniques in order to improve students’
learning experience?
a. action research
c. phenomenological study
b. grounded theory
d. historical study
Gabriel, a senior high school student wanted to find out the performance of the previous two officers of
the student body council. He was involved in what type of qualitative research?
a. action research
c. historical study
b. meta-analysis
d. grounded theory
Application
Ask the students to exchange their
books for correction.
The Metro Manila Development Authority is set to review the traffic management scheme being
implemented in the metropolis. Several studies have been conducted in the past, but these produced
inconsistent results. Which design should the MMDA use for its new study?
a. action research design
c. historical design
b. meta-analysis design
d. case study design
The qualitative research entitled, “The Experiences of Students Engaged in Bullying: Basis for
the Program of Prevention,” is a type of ___________.
a. case study
c. grounded-theory study
b. action research
d. historical study
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research
165
APPLI CAT I ON
Select the correct answer from the choices in the box and write it on the spaces provided.
phenomenology
internal criticism
bracketing
meta-analysis
historical
grounded theory
oral reports
case study
primary sources
external criticism
action research
deductive
inductive
secondary
qualitative
The basis of data in historical study
Setting aside one’s own feelings and/or experiences and seeing the
experiences of the participants through their eyes
The type of paper, watermarks, and ink of documents are analyzed.
Examples of these are recorded interviews, minutes of meeting, and
autobiographies.
Collection of rich data which gives birth to a theory
This design examines and compares several similar individual
studies to develop a new more comprehensive understanding of
the research problem.
A theory is formulated first before data is collected.
This design examines human experiences.
Ensuring the content of a document is reliable.
An in-depth examination of UNICEF
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 77
Name :
reseArch Activity 8
Ask the students to fill in all the
sections with the required
information.
Allow them to go to the library to
research on relevant resource
materials and utilize the
computers for research purposes.
Give additional guidelines in identifying
the most applicable research design
and methodology for their research
study.
Date :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 8
RESEARCH DESIGN
Answer the following based from the discussions. Refer to your proposed research study
for the other questions.
Proposed study:_____________________________________________________
Based on what you have learned, which research design is most applicable to your research
project? Explain how and why it is so. If you would like to use a design not listed in this
chapter, please indicate so.
Begin composing the methodology of your proposed study by providing the required
information below.
Definition of specific method(s) to be used:
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
8 by detaching it from the book.
Reference:
nOte:
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research
Definition and description of theoretical concepts to be used:
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final research
paper will be based on their outputs.
Rationale for choosing this specific methodology:
78 • Practical research 1
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
167
CHAPTER
14
Sampling for Research
Objectives
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
differentiate the
various methods of
sampling and
formulate the criteria for
choosing the
participants
of their respective
studies.
OPENING ACTIVITY
At the end of this chapter, the students
will be able to
Pretend that you are cooking a meal for your family. You are
preparing your specialty dishes—pork adobo and sinigang na
bangus—and, of course, steamed white rice to complete the
meal. You are almost finished, but you want to check if
differentiate the various methods of
sampling and
everything tastes good and has been cooked just the way your
family likes it. What will you do?
formulate the criteria for choosing the
participants of their respective
studies.
Of course, you do not need to eat everything to find out how the dishes taste. But how much
do you need to eat to find out whether or not the dishes are as desired?
The rice and even the adobo are more or less homogenous. What about the sinigang and its
multiple ingredients? How do you check if it is well done and tasty?
How do you think this activity is related to research?
Sampling for Research
169
OPENING ACTIVITY
Ask the students to analyze the two pictures.
Have them answer the guide questions.
Ask the students to share their output to the class.
Refer to the sample answers provided below.
A single serving of the dish is sufficient to find out if the dish passes your personal criteria.
One has to taste a sample or piece of the different ingredients in the dish to check if they are well
done.
The single serving of the dish represents the sample group to be used in the study that is chosen as
an applicable representative of the entire population. On the other hand, having to check the
individual ingredients of the dish represent the selection of suitable individual subjects to
ensure the quality of the sample group.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 79
INVESTIGATION
SAMPLING IN RESEARCH
Sampling is a process through which a researcher selects a portion or segment from the population at
It is important for the researcher to use an acceptable sample size to ensure that their study
will be accurate. Generally, the larger the sample, the more reliable the results of the study will
be. Hence, it is advisable to have a sample large enough to yield reliable results, yet small
enough to be manageable within the constraints of the study.
Factors to Consider in Determining the Sample Size
the center of the researcher’s study. The population is a group of persons or objects that possess some
Homogeneity of the population. The higher the degree of homogeneity of the population,
the smaller the sample size that can be utilized.
common characteristics that are of interest to the researcher, and about which the researcher seeks to
learn more. There are two groups of population: the target population and the accessible population. The
Degree of precision desired by the researcher. The larger the sample size, the higher the
precision or accuracy of the results will be.
target population is composed of the entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to
generalize the findings of the study, while the accessible population is a portion of the population to
Types of sampling procedure. Probability sampling uses smaller sample sizes than nonprobability sampling.
which the researcher has reasonable access. For example, in a study about the common difficulties
encountered by senior high school students in their first semester of school year 2016-2017, the target
population may be all senior high school students in Metro Manila. However, the researcher may have
access only to the students of a specific school—these students comprise the accessible population.
Various Approaches to Determining the Sample Size
Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution
of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990).
Researchers commonly select samples for study rather than entire populations due to
constraints in budget, time, and manpower. A good sample should be representative of the
population, such that the characteristics of the population—especially those pertinent to the
study—are reflected in the sample with a fair amount of accuracy.
When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve as the
sample size. This is called universal sampling.
Slovin’s formula is used to compute for sample size (Sevilla, 2003)
n=
N
The individual participants in the study are often referred to as subjects or respondents. The
subjects are individuals or entities which serve as the focus of the study. Respondents are
individuals or groups of people who actively serve as sources of information during data
collection. The subjects of a study may also be its respondents, but there also times that these
are two groups of different individuals or entities. Subjects and respondents may also be
referred to as elements—particularly if said elements are objects, rather than people.
1 + Ne2
where: n – a sample size
N – population size
e – desired margin of error
Example: The population total is 8,000 with a desired 2% margin of error
Take for example a study focused on the behavior of the students who belong to broken
families. The students who belong to these families are the subjects of the study, which may also
be the respondents the researcher seeks to interview directly. If the researcher interviews or
surveys the classmates of these students, the students remain the subjects, and the classmates
then become the respondents.
n=
N
1 + Ne2
8,000
+ 8,000 (0.02)2
8,000
+ 8,000 (0.0004)2
A statistic is a number describing a property of a sample, whereas a parameter is a number
describing a property of a population. A statistic can be used to estimate the parameter in what
is called a statistical inference. For example: a researcher, examining all marriages in the
Philippines in the year 2016, wants to find a particular parameter—the mean age of all the men
in those marriages. From a sample of 1,000 subjects, she obtains a sample mean of 31 years.
This figure is a statistic. Using this figure, she concludes that the mean age of Filipino men who
married in 2016 is likely to be close to 31, as well.
8,000
+ 3.2
8,000
4.2
= 1,905
Sampling for Research
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
investigAtiOn
According to Gay (1976), the following are the acceptable sizes for different types of
research:
Descriptive research – 10% to 20% may be required
Comparative research – 15 subjects or groups
By using Calmorin’s formula, the problem is solved as follows:
sAMpling in reseArch
Ss =
Define sampling and describe its
purpose in the research.
where: Ss – sample size
N – population size
V – standard value (2.58) of 1% level of probability with 99% reliability
Se – sampling error
p – the largest possible proportion
Ask the students to describe
situations where sampling can
be applied.
Example: Getting statistic from a parameter of 800
Ss =
Ask the students to define and
compare target population from
accessible population.
Define and compare subject and
respondent.
NV + [ Ss2 + (1 – p) ]
NSe + [ V2 + p(1 – p) ]
=
800 (2.58) + [ (0.01)2 + (1-0.50) ]
Define population and identify its two
types.
Present examples for the two types of
population and let the students
classify which type of population
is being referred to.
NV + [ Ss2 + (1 – p) ]
NSe + [ V2 + p(1 – p) ]
=
800 (0.01) + [ (2.58)2 + 0.5(1-0.50) ]
2064 + (0.0001) (0.5)
=
8 + 6.66 (0.5)(0.5)
2064.00005
8 + 1.665
= 214
Table 14.1 – Computed Sample Sizes Using the Calmorin’s Formula
N
n
N
N
N
n
N
n
150
122
400
182
650
205
900
218
200
141
450
188
700
208
950
220
250
155
500
194
750
211
1,000
221
300
166
550
198
800
214
2,000
238
350
175
600
202
850
216
3,000
244
Legend:
N – population
n – sample
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
80 • Practical research 1
171
Types and Subtypes of Sampling
In the book, Nursing Research: Principles and Methods, Polit and Beck (2004) list the
different types and subtypes of sampling:
Probability sampling is a type of sampling in which all the members of an entire
population have a chance of being selected. This is also called scientific sampling.
Simple random sampling is a method of choosing samples in which all the members of the
population are given an equal chance of being selected. It is an unbiased way of selection, as
samples are drawn by chance. There are various ways of obtaining samples through simple
random sampling (Treece & Treece, 1986). These include the roulette wheel, fishbowl
method, and the use of a table of random numbers.
Provide further context by presenting
sample instances and have the
students them identify which of
the elements described is the
subject and the respondent.
Define and compare statistic and
parameter.
The fishbowl method observes the following steps:
The sampling frame, or a list of all the subjects or elements in the population in
question, should be prepared.
All the names of the subjects or elements should be written down on strips of paper
(one name per strip of paper).
The strips of paper with the listed names are then placed in a bowl or container.
Samples can be drawn as desired.
A more systematic procedure for randomly selecting samples is the use of a
table of random numbers (see Figure 14.2). This table is a list of numbers that
have been generated in such a manner that there is no order or sequencing of
numbers. This table can be generated by a computer. These random numbers
can have any number of digits and are dependent on the size of the population.
Using a table of random numbers entails the following steps:
Provide further context by
presenting sample instances
that demonstrate how
statistical inference works.
A number should be assigned to each element of the accessible population.
Factors to Consider in
The table of random numbers should be entered at an arbitrary or random
starting point. This can be done by closing one’s eyes and using a pen to
point at a number.
Determining the Sample Size
A systematic movement should be followed for going up or down, left or right, or
diagonally. The direction is not important but should be decided before
starting the process. This direction shall continue until the total sample is
selected.
Discuss further how each factor
applies to the sampling process.
Continue to select numbers until the desired sample is reached.
Sampling for Research
Table 14.2 – Table of Random Numbers
21
82
71
59
89
22
96
78
97
12
76
93
64
79
28
20
60
70
34
51
93
58
36
93
90
68
63
19
21
91
18
32
36
27
71
58
80
58
67
50
66
25
20
31
62
17
25
07
94
18
02
29
30
15
92
55
06
25
09
26
38
11
01
47
93
42
47
73
25
84
82
04
23
08
88
37
24
51
98
05
94
58
85
86
71
37
92
27
20
58
29
64
13
05
24
85
48
37
37
66
33
23
13
82
54
62
11
29
17
37
01
57
73
53
97
34
19
75
62
16
81
10
55
36
36
92
33
43
20
08
10
50
18
85
27
Ask the students to define and
discuss each factor.
173
Present samples that provide further
context to the application of each
factor.
Various Approaches in
Determining the Sample Size
Discuss each approach and explain
how they apply in the sampling
process.
Present examples for each one to
provide further context in its
application.
For Slovin’s and Calmorin’s Formula,
highlight their use in the sampling
process by providing simple case
problems.
Source: Foundations of Nursing Research, 4th ed., R. Nieswiadomy, 2004
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 81
In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into different strata, and
then the sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational qualifications are some
possible criteria used to divide a population into strata.
Example:
A researcher will study the common effects of smoking on high school
students. The researcher decides to select equal numbers of students from the
freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior levels.
Cluster sampling is used in large-scale studies, where the population is geographically spread
out. Sampling procedures may be difficult and time-consuming.
Example:
A researcher wants to interview 100 teachers across the country. It will be
difficult and expensive on their part to have respondents in 100 different cities or
provinces. Cluster sampling is helpful for the researcher who randomly selects
the regions (first cluster), then selects the schools (second cluster), and then the
number of teachers.
Systematic sampling is a method of selecting every nth element of a population, e.g.,
every fifth, eighth, ninth, or eleventh element until the desired sample size is
reached.
Non-probability sampling. It is a process of selecting respondents in which not all
members of the entire population are given a chance of being selected as samples. There
are cases that certain segments of a population are given priority over others, such as
when a researcher does not intend to generalize to a larger population. This is also
called non-scientific sampling, and is commonly used in qualitative research.
Convenience sampling. It is also called accidental or incidental sampling.
This is commonly done to ensure the inclusion of a particular segment of the
population.
Example:
A researcher wants to survey the employees of a company regarding their
thoughts on the company’s new policies. The researcher intends to have
representatives from all departments in his sample, but one department is so
small that doing random sampling might result in that department not being
represented. The researcher then sets a quota of respondents from that
department to ensure their inclusion in the sample.
Purposive sampling involves handpicking subjects, usually to suit very specific
intentions. This is also called judgmental sampling.
Example:
In a study about honor students, the researcher uses a list of honor students
and chooses the necessary number of respondents, to the exclusion of all other
students.
In selecting the sample of a study, the following elements must be properly discussed: the
total population and its parameters; the sample and its statistics; the sampling method with
references to support it; an explanation and discussion of the sampling method; an explanation
of how the sampling was done; an enumeration of the qualifying criteria; and the profiles of the
subjects and/or respondents.
Respondents and Sampling Procedure Example 1 :
Example:
A researcher intends to study the elementary students of a particular school,
and has determined the desired sample size. Due to the study’s constraints, the
elementary pupils who are present at the time of the researcher’s visit to the
school will be chosen as respondents.
Sampling for Research
Quota sampling is somewhat similar to stratified sampling, in that the population is
divided into strata, and the researcher deliberately sets specific proportions in the
sample, whether or not the resulting proportion is reflective of the total population.
175
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis
for the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program (Cristobal,
2003)
There were two groups of respondents of this study, as shown in Table 1: the school
managers and their corresponding secondary teachers.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Table 1
Population of the Study
School Name
Principal
Head Teachers
Secondary
Teachers
Total
Bataan National High School
1
5
24
30
B. Camacho High School
1
5
11
17
Biotechnic School of
Fisheries
1
3
20
24
Hermosa High School
1
3
7
11
Let the students discuss the different
subtypes of the two main types.
Limay High School
1
5
11
17
Luakan High School
1
3
8
12
1
4
9
14
Explain and demonstrate how each
subtype is conducted.
Mariveles-Cabcaben High
School
Mariveles-Poblacion High
School
1
4
10
15
P. Roman High School
1
8
7
16
9
40
107
156
Types and Subtypes of Sampling
Define and compare probability and
non-probability sampling.
TOTAL
Present sample cases for further
context.
The school managers included the 9 secondary school principals and 40 head teachers
of the public high schools in the division of Bataan.
Present and discuss the examples on
pages 176-178.
The secondary school teachers included 107 teachers who are teaching in the public high
schools in the division under the school managers mentioned above handling the
Teknolohiya, Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan subjects. The four major areas of the
subject are agriculture and fishery, home economics, industrial arts, and entrepreneurship.
Respondents and Sampling Procedure Example 2:
Management by Culture of Kapampangan School Managers
in Selected Universities and Colleges (De la Cruz, 2002)
Two universities and six colleges in Pampanga were considered in the study. These schools include
the Holy Angel University, University of the Assumption, AMA Computer College (Angeles City),
Systems Plus Computer College, STI Computer College, Republic Central Colleges, Philippine State
College of Aeronautics, and Pampanga Agricultural College. The main respondents in this study
included the college deans, assistant college deans, and area chairpersons of the eight educational
institutions. For in-depth probe, 10% of the college faculty of each university or college was chosen
using the simple random fish bowl technique.
Sampling for Research
177
Respondents and Sampling Procedure Example 3 :
CH APTER SUMMARY
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School
Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija (Valenton, 2009)
The number of sample respondents from each school was determined using the
proportional allocation-based size and the following formula:
ni = number of student respondents for each school
= desired number of respondents
Ni = total number of second year students in each school
= total number of second year students in the congressional district
A population is the complete set of persons, entities, or objects that possess some
common characteristics that are of interest to the researcher and are the focus of the study.
Populations are classified into target populations and accessible populations.
The sample number was equivalent to 30% of the second year population in the selected
high schools of Congressional District 2, Nueva Ecija (Table 1). Lottery method was used to
arrive at 438 student respondents. The total population of second year students was 1,462.
Complete enumeration was used in determining the English teacher respondents (51) from
first to fourth year in the secondary schools (Table 1).
Table 1. Population of the Schools and the Sample Student and Teacher Respondents
School
English
Teachers
Second Year
Population
Students
Sample
Talugtog National High School
6
208
62
Digdig National High School
5
176
53
Pantabangan National High School
8
171
51
Llanera National High School
6
148
44
Tondod National High School
6
148
44
Canaan East national High School
4
138
41
A. Bonifacio National High School
4
130
39
Bicos National High School
4
129
39
San Isidro National High School
4
122
37
Capintalan National High School
4
92
28
51
1,462
438
TOTAL
The individual participants in a study are referred to as subjects, respondents, or
elements. Subjects are those who are the focus of the study, and may or may not be
the sources of the data. Respondents are sources of data, but may or may not be
subjects themselves. Elements are objects, entities, or non-human subjects.
A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a population.
A statistic is a numeric characteristic of a sample.
A sample is a subset of the entire population and serves as respondents of the study
The factors in determining sample size are homogeneity of the population, degree of
precision, and the types of sampling procedure.
The types and subtypes of sampling include probability sampling, where all the
elements of the population are given equal chances to be included in the sampling,
and Non-probability sampling, where not all elements of the population are given
with equal chances to be part of the sampling.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Sampling for Research
CHECK-UP
Match column A with column B. Write the letter of the correct answer corresponding to
the statements on the blank before each number.
A
1. A group of entrepreneurs is asked to fill out a
survey.
B
a.
2. A sampling method where all members of
the population are given equal chances to be b. subjects included in the
sample.
3. The mean age of the population is 35.
4. The respondents had, on average, spent
Php 2,000 on clothes in the last month.
5. Individuals who are the focus of the study,
but do not serve as data sources
6. This number of elements generally forms an
adequate sample.
7. A sampling method which uses every nth
element of the population.
8. Every person who enters the gate is included
in the sample.
AssessMent Activities
statistic
c. respondents
d.
probability
e.
quota
f.
systematic
g.
simple random
h.
parameter
check-Up
Ask the students to exchange their books
for correction.
9. Names are put into a bowl, and the
researcher draws them at random to i. 30 generate a sample.
10. The researcher made sure to include
15 honor students in his sample of 100 j. convenience students.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 83
179
ApplicAtiOn
APPLI CAT I ON
Answer the following questions.
Ask the students to exchange their books
for correction. Refer to the sample
answers below. Ask them to share their
output to the class afterwards.
1. What is the importance of describing the participants of the study in a research?
2. What is the difference between a subject and a respondent?
Presenting a description of the
participants of the study sets a
definite limitation to the research,
gives a general idea of the
applicability of the results, and
improves the study’s overall validity.
A subject is the focus of the study while the
respondent is the source of data. A
subject can also be a respondent if he
or she is also a direct source of data for
the research.
3. Why does the sample need to be representative of the population?
4.
Why do researchers draw samples instead of examining entire
populations?
A sample has to be a proper
representative of the entire
population for reasons of feasibility
of the processes and accuracy of the
results.
While it is more accurate to include huge
portions or even the entire
population as the subjects of the
study, this may prove impractical
because of the costs entailed in doing
so. Using a representative sample
provides realistic costs, improves
accuracy of results, and simplifies
the process of monitoring and
controlling the subjects.
Sampling for Research
Name :
181
Date :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 9
PARTICIPANTS OF THE STUDY
Answer the following questions based on the discussions. Use of additional references is
encouraged.
1. Describe the population of your study and its pertinent characteristics.
reseArch Activity 9
Ask the students to fill in all the
sections with the required
information.
2. How big will your sample be? How did you arrive at this sample size?
Allow them to go to the library to
research on relevant resource
materials and utilize the
computers for research purposes.
84 • Practical research 1
Sampling for Research
183
3. What sampling method will you use? Explain why you chose this method.
Give additional guidelines
identifying and verifying their
sample for their research.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
4. How will you draw your sample? State your steps in doing this.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
9 by detaching it from the book.
nOte:
5. What are the qualifying criteria for the selection of your sample?
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final
research paper will be based on
their outputs.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 85
CHAPTER
15
Data Collection
objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students
will be able to
OBJECTIVES
differentiate the various types of data
gathering methods and their
tools and instruments and
differentiate the
various types of
data-gathering
methods and
their tools and
instruments and
choose or design their own data-gathering
methods and instruments.
OPENING ACTIVITY
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
Name the following devices and indicate how you think
they can be used in research. Then, answer the guide
questions that follow.
choose or design their
own data-gathering
methods and
instruments.
1.
2.
opening activity
Ask the students to analyze the
pictures provided.
Have them identify their functions in a
research study.
3.
4.
5.
Let them answer the guide questions.
Ask them to share their answers to the
class.
Data Collection
Refer to the sample answers below.
Camera – This is used to capture
pictures of important events in
the gathering of data.
Recorder – This is used to collect voice
recording of the subject in an
interview, for instance.
Laptop – This is used in researching
relevant information and for
encoding the collected data.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Why is it necessary to use the right method or instrument for a particular task?
2. Do you think devices and tools always work to the benefit of the user? Why or why not?
3. Do you agree that not all instruments or tools are physical objects? Why or why not?
4. In a research study, why do you think there is a need for the use of specific research tools?
5. What can happen if a researcher’s methods and instruments are not prepared meticulously?
86 • Practical Research 1
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
185
Pen and paper – This is used to make a written record of important data and transactions, usually in
events that are continuous and do not provide ample time to set up recording devices.
Video camera – This is used to capture videos of actual events that are sources of information for the
research.
Guide Question Sample Answers
Using the appropriate method and instrument for a particular task in research provides costeffectiveness and accuracy of results.
Using the right tools and devices will always benefit the user because it facilitates the entire research
process and produces more accurate answers.
Yes, not all instruments and tools are physical objects. The techniques used in doing some processes are
also considered tools since the latter contribute to their completion.
The use of specific research tools in research ensures the validity and accuracy of the results.
There will be a higher margin of error and the validity and reliability of the results can become
questionable.
INVESTIGATION
investigation
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEIR INSTRUMENTS
An exciting part of research is personally meeting the subjects or respondents of the study
and reading their responses through the data-gathering instruments. The task of the researcher
is to devise a way to examine and analyze the variables of interest so that the answers to the
research problem can be derived. The decisions on what tools and instruments to use and how
they are implemented are very critical issues that determine the validity and reliability of the
findings.
MOST FREQUENTLY USED DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Individual Interviews
Interviews are conversations that are designed to obtain specific kinds of information. The
skill of the interviewer is necessary to enable the interviewee to express his or her thoughts clearly. Life
histories are also needed in this area. These are narrative self-disclosures about the
individual’s life experiences. The interviewer must guide the respondents to narrate the
accounts in sequence.
Data obtained from an interview may be recorded on audiotapes or videotapes with the
permission of the respondent. This is because some researchers believe that recording
responses by hand jeopardizes rapport, reduces the amount of eye contact, and may disrupt the
pace and flow of the interview.
Types of interview
Unstructured. The researcher must be skilled in steering the course of the interview. The
interviewer must be knowledgeable on the subject or topic of concern. This can be in the
form of normal conversations or a freewheeling exchange of ideas.
Research Methods and Their Instruments
Ask the students to describe the
research methods and
instruments they are planning to
use in their research.
Have them explain why they chose
those research methods.
Discuss the importance of choosing the
appropriate methods and
instruments in a research study.
Structured. The conduct of questioning follows a particular progression and has a welldefined content. The interviewer does not ask questions that are not part of the
questionnaire but he or she asks the interviewee to clarify his or her answers.
Semi-structured. There is a specific set of questions, but there are also additional probes
that may come in the form of follow-up questions that are not included in the list of
original questions. Through this process, the researcher can gather additional data from
a respondent that may add depth and significance to the findings.
The instrument often used in this method is the interview schedule. Although interviews
are often dynamic, and it is very difficult to get different interviews with different people to
follow exactly the same flow. Researchers can use interview schedules to ensure that the
interview stays on track, and even to give their interview the desired amount of structure.
Data Collection
187
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 87
Sample Schedule for Individual Interview :
most frequently used data
collection methods
Individual Interviews And Group Interviews
Define interview and discuss its
purpose in the research study.
Have the students discuss the
different types of interview.
Ask the students to recall the interview
they had conducted in the past and
have them classify which type of
interview they did.
The Research and Teacher Learning Study (Kennedy, 2001)
Topic: Views about Teaching
Before we start, could you just remind me again of the following?
– What grade you currently teach?
– Have you always taught at this level?
– Where is your school?
– How long have you been teaching?
– What was your major field of study in college?
First, try to think about the best teacher you know of. This could be someone you actually
had as a teacher or someone you know about as a colleague or have observed
somewhere?
Why do you think this person is such a good teacher? [If
nothing is said about the teacher’s practice]
What kinds of things does he or she do in the classroom? [If
nothing is said about student work]
What kinds of things do the students do? What is the atmosphere like in his or her
classroom?
Are there particular things (he, she) is especially good at helping students learn?
Why?
Are there particular types of students (he, she) is especially successful with? Why?
Now I’d like you to tell me about your own teaching.
Present and discuss the examples on
pages 188-189.
What is your favorite subject to teach and why? In your mind, what is this subject
about?
What is your least favorite subject to teach and why? In your mind, what is the
subject about?
Discuss group interview and the
processes involved in conducting it.
I’d like you to think back over the last two or three weeks and recall a particular lesson
that you were especially pleased with.
Ask the students to compare
individual interview with
group interview.
Discuss the two types of group
interview and compare them
according to their application.
Observation
Ask the students to discuss observation
and explain what kinds of
information can be obtained using
this approach.
Let them identify how a proper
investigatory observation should be
conducted and what the different
dimensions of an observation are.
Discuss the observation checklist and
its function in the observation
process.
Present and discuss the sample
observation checklist on pages 191193 to provide further context on
how observation works.
What happened that day that made you satisfied with the lesson?
If I have been observing your class that day, what would I have seen? (If nothing is
said about the teacher’s role) What would I have seen you doing?
[If nothing is said about the students]
What would I have seen your students doing?
What do you think the value of this lesson was for the students?
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Now try to recall an event that you were especially disappointed with. What happened
that day that disappointed you?
If I had been observing your class that day, what would I have seen? [If
nothing is said about the teacher’s role]
What would I have seen you doing? [If nothing is said about the students]
What would I have seen your students doing?
What do you think the students learned compared to what you had hoped they
would learn?
Suppose you were in the middle of a lesson in (your favorite subject) and a student said,
“This is boring. Why do we have to learn this?”
How would you respond and why?
Now, imagine that at the beginning of the year, your principal calls each teacher in to
learn what their goals are for the school year.
What would you tell the principal your goals would be for (your most favorite
subject)?
What would you tell the principal your goals would be for (your least favorite
subject)?
Now I would like you to imagine that you are teaching seventh or eighth grade and the
students in your class are writing reports. One of your students, Jessica, hands you this
report:
[Hands interviewee Jessica’s report]
What do you think Jessica understands and does not understand about writing
reports?
How would you respond to Jessica? Why?
Now here is a copy of some math homework from Bill.
[Hands interviewee Bill’s math paper]
What do you think Bill understand and does not understand about subtraction?
How would you respond to Bill? Why?
(Then, a closing section in which the teacher is given some articles to read in preparation for
the next interview)
88 • Practical Research 1
Data Collection
189
REVIEW
Divide the class into four groups. Each group will think of a scenario between partners (e.g.,
guidance counselor to parent; teacher to student; principal to teacher; barangay captain to
barangay tanod;and nurse to patient) in which one is interviewing the other about a topic
Review
pertinent to their situation. Each group will be given time to prepare. The presentations
will be critiqued by the teacher.
Divide the class into four
groups.
Group Interviews
Group interviews are interviews conducted with several respondents simultaneously— ideally six to
ten people. This method may be used when a certain effect is desired, or if a topic calls for it. For example, if
the study seeks to examine a communal experience like commuting to school or work, rather than a
personal experience, then engaging respondents via group interview may yield better results. Researchers
conducting group interviews often use instruments called topic guides, which resemble interview
schedules, but are less restrictive in structure to allow the respondents a more free and dynamic exchange
of ideas. It is not uncommon to have two researchers moderating a group interview—one to facilitate the
discussion, and the other to take notes, handle logistics, and the like. With permission from all the
respondents, a group interview may also be documented via a video or audio recording device.
Group interviews can be classified into two types:
Focus groups – Participants in a focus group are selected by the researcher according to
specific sampling criteria, e.g., licensed dermatologists who have been practicing for at
least ten years; current college students majoring in English who are vying for honors.
Natural groups – The participants belong to a group that exists independently of the study,
e.g., all members of the marketing department of a certain company; members of a local
sports team.
Observation
Ask the students to prepare
their presentation for 10
minutes.
Provide the student some
additional guidelines
when choosing their roles.
Refer to the rubrics
below in judging
the performances.
This method enables the researcher to conduct research in an immersive manner, collecting data on
natural phenomena or behavior as it occurs. The instrument often used in conjunction with this method is
called an observation checklist or observation guide. Observation checklists are quantitative in nature,
and make use of ratings or numerical rankings; observation guides are more qualitative, and allow for
more general, descriptive documentation.
Observation must be done in a quiet, inconspicuous, and unobtrusive manner to get realistic data. It
can be used to gather information such as the characteristics and conditions of individuals, verbal
communication, non-verbal communication and activities, and environmental conditions. The following
dimensions should be taken into consideration: the focus of observation:
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
CRITERIA
4
3
2
3 concepts were
displayed.
1
Content
More than 5
concepts were
displayed.
4 concepts were
displayed.
Less than 3
concepts were
displayed.
Creativity
75% - 100%
creative
50% - 74% creative 25% - 49% creative 1% - 24% creative
Coordination
0 to 1 instance of
discoordination
2 to 3 instances of
discoordination
4 to 5 instances of
discoordination
More than 5
instances of
discoordination
Participants
75% - 100%
participated
50% - 74%
participated
25% - 49%
participated
1% - 24%
participated
Props
More than 5 props
were displayed
appropriately.
4 props were
displayed
appropriately.
3 props were
displayed
appropriately.
Less than 3 props
were displayed
appropriately.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 89
concealment, the condition wherein the subject of observation has no knowledge of that he or
she is being observed; duration; and the method of recording the observations.
II. Instructional Competencies
1. Mastery of the subject matter
5
4
3
2
1
0
2. Clarity of tasks and learning objectives
5
4
3
2
1
0
3. Organization of presentation of the lesson
5
4
3
2
1
0
4. Relating the topic to other fields
5
4
3
2
1
0
5. Provocation of critical thinking ability
5
4
3
2
1
0
6. Ability to motivate students
5
4
3
2
1
0
7. Skills in asking questions
5
4
3
2
1
0
4 – Above Average (AA); (3.4-4.1) – when the indicator is 61% to 80% observed
8. Skills in using teaching aids
5
4
3
2
1
0
3 – Average (A); (2.6-3.3) – when the indicator is 41% to 60% observed
9. Ability to answer queries
5
4
3
2
1
0
2 – Below Average (BA) (1.8-2.5) – when the indicator is 21% to 40% observed
10. Maximization of time
5
4
3
2
1
0
11. Variety of methods and strategies in TLP
5
4
3
2
1
0
12. Application of the principles of the TLP
5
4
3
2
1
0
Example of an Observation Checklist:
FACULTY EVALUATION FORM
NAME:
SUBJECT:
TIME/DAYS:
INSTRUCTION: Please rate the instructor/professor based on the scale below by encircling
the number that corresponds to your rating.
5 – Superior (S); (4.2-5) – when the indicator is 81% to 100% observed
1 – Poor (P); (1-1.7) – when the indicator is 1% to 20% observed
0 – Not Observed (NO) – when the indicator is not observed
Teacher’s Personality
III. Classroom Management
1. Level of grooming/modest dressing/uniform
2. Level of composure
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0
3. Level of articulation
5
4
3
2
1
0
4. Modulation of voice
5
4
3
2
1
0
5. Level of communication
5
4
3
2
1
0
6. Level of enthusiasm
5
4
3
2
1
0
7. Dedication in teaching
5
4
3
2
1
0
8. Fluency in the use of medium of teaching
5
4
3
2
1
0
9. Respectful of students
5
4
3
2
1
0
10. Role modeling of institutions’ values
5
4
3
2
1
0
Data Collection
Discuss the two types of observation.
Present sample observation scenarios
and have the students identify
which type of observation it is.
Ask the students to identify and
discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of observation.
Explain the different guidelines on
properly conducting observation.
191
1. Course requirements implementation
5
4
3
2
1
0
2. Clarity of grading system
5
4
3
2
1
0
3. Application of rules and regulations
5
4
3
2
1
0
4. Presence of routines
5
4
3
2
1
0
5. Clarity of procedures
5
4
3
2
1
0
6. Presence of positive atmosphere
5
4
3
2
1
0
7. Checking of assigned tasks
5
4
3
2
1
0
8. Notation of orderliness and sanitation
5
4
3
2
1
0
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
IV. Student’s Behavior
1. Wearing of prescribed uniforms
5
4
3
2
1
0
2. Level of participation
5
4
3
2
1
0
3. Level of attention
5
4
3
2
1
0
4. Level of enthusiasm
5
4
3
2
1
0
5. Rapport with each other
5
4
3
2
1
0
6. Level of freedom and acceptance
5
4
3
2
1
0
7. Level of intelligence
5
4
3
2
1
0
V. Total
CRITERIA
WM
CRITERIA
Teacher’s Personality
Classroom Management
Instructional
Competencies
Student’s Behavior
WM
AWM
VD
Legend: WM – Weighted Mean (Add all scores/Number of indicators)
AWM – Average of WM
VD – Verbal Description
VI. REMARKS
90 • Practical Research 1
Data Collection
193
There are two types of observation:
Structured. The researcher devices a checklist as a data collection tool wherein expected
behaviors of interest have been specified. The researcher just records the frequency of
the occurrences of the behavior.
Review
Unstructured. This is performed by the researcher as he or she tries to explain events
without any preconceived ideas about what will be observed. The researcher observes
things as they happen.
Divide the class according to
the four directions:
North, East, West, and
South.
Advantages of Observation
It is the most direct measure of behavior.
It provides direct information.
It is easy to complete and is efficient.
It can be used in natural or experimental settings.
Disadvantages of Observation
Have the class arrange
themselves in lines
according to their
assigned direction.
It may require training.
It is susceptible to bias.
Observer’s presence may create an artificial situation.
It can potentially overlook meaningful aspects.
It is open to misinterpretation.
It is difficult to analyze.
Improving your Observation Skills (Revenaugh, 2010: Cox, 2015)
Let them observe the school
surroundings according to
their direction.
Look at everyday life in a clear manner. Empty yourself of preoccupied thoughts.
Be curious. As you look for some objects try to focus and look at every side of it, the color,
the shape, what makes it up and other details.
Be inquisitive. Always try to ask people questions.
Be open to new experiences. Develop a positive attitude towards experiencing new things.
Facilitate the observation by
providing the distance
limit and preventing the
disruption it may cause to
the school activities of
other classes.
Know your own behavior attitudes and personal skills and how they impact others. Go on
research. Surf the net. Read more.
Be willing to seek the inputs of others. Be humble enough to receive criticisms, this will
open your mind to new avenues and perceptions.
Be open to new ideas. Listen to someone. Attend meetings and convocations.
Practice good listening skills.
Set aside personal biases
Be comfortable with ambiguity.
Have them answer the table
provided in the book.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Ask each group to
consolidate their output
and share it to the class.
REVIEW
Mechanics:
Divide the class into four groups. To do this, each student will count off by saying North,
South, East, West. Then, group yourselves according to your direction.
Instruct the other groups to cross
out the observations that are
the same with those of the
other groups.
Each group will form a single line with each student holding the shoulders of his or her
classmate in front of him or her.
Each group will move to an area of the school in the direction corresponding to their
group’s name and explore it for five minutes. The objective is to observe the
surroundings very keenly using all their senses.
After the walk, each group will consolidate their observations in the table below.
Using sight
Using hearing
Using smelling
Using touch
Using taste
Ask the students to submit their
assessed papers for
evaluation and to identify
the winning group.
Each group will present its output in the class.
The whole class will synthesize the outputs by crossing out the commonalities of the
observation.
The group with many uncrossed observation is considered the most observant group.
Survey or Questionnaires
Surveys or Questionnaires
Surveys, also known as questionnaires, are perhaps the most commonly used instrument
in research—particularly in quantitative research. It is a list of planned, written questions about
a particular topic, with spaces provided for the response to each question, intended to be
answered by a number of persons. This means that questionnaires are both a method and an
instrument. It is relatively inexpensive, easy to administer, potentially more consistent than the
other methods, assures confidentiality, and minimizes biases based on question-phrasing
modes. However, it also has its own disadvantages: respondents may interpret the questions
differently, and may answer them in ways the researcher did not intend. There is also the strong
possibility that some respondents will choose not to fill out or return their questionnaires.
Ask the students to define survey.
Discuss how a survey or questionnaire is
properly conducted.
The questionnaire can be structured or unstructured. It is structured if possible answers
are provided and respondents just have to select from them. It is unstructured if the questions
are open-ended—no options are provided and the respondents are free to answer however they
wish. Structured questionnaires are generally used for quantitative research, while unstructured
questionnaires are more suited to qualitative research.
Data Collection
195
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 91
Types of Questions
Characteristics of a Good Data-collection Instrument
1. Yes or No type. Items are answerable by a yes or a no.
It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed data. According to Shelley (1984), the length
of a questionnaire must be two to four pages and the maximum time of answering is ten
minutes. Shelley added that a desirable length of each question is less than 20 words.
Example: Do call center agents have
the right to refuse calls?
( ) Yes ( ) No
Recognition type. Fixed alternative answers are already provided, the respondents simply
choose from among the given choices. It contains close-ended questions.
Example: Educational qualification
Elementary school graduate
It seeks information which cannot be obtained from other sources like documents available
at hand.
Questions must be arranged in sequence, from the simplest to the most complex.
College graduate
It should pass validity and reliability tests.
High school graduate
MA/PhD
It must be easily tabulated and interpreted.
Technical/Vocational school graduate
Others (pls. specify)
Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument
Completion type. The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the necessary
information. Questions are open-ended.
Example: As a teacher, after seeing a misbehavior done by a pupil, I will
.
Coding type. Numbers are assigned to names, choices, and other pertinent data. This entails
knowledge of statistics on the part of the researcher, as statistical formula application is
necessary to arrive at the findings.
Example: On a scale of one to ten, how will you rate your student’s communication skills?
Subjective type. The respondents are free to give their opinions about an issue of concern. Example:
Particularly for quantitative research, the data collected via the various instruments needs
to be managed in a measurable manner. The following scales are used in research instruments
to make respondents’ answers uniformly measurable:
Likert Scale. It is a common scaling technique which consists of several declarative
statements that express a viewpoint on a topic. The respondents are asked to indicate
how much they agree or disagree with the statements. The answers usually come in the
form of acronyms, e.g., SA for Strongly Disagree, A for Agree, D for Disagree, and SD for
Strongly Disagree.
Example: A Likert scale that measures attitudes towards the ban of cell phones in school
What can you say about teachers who are deeply committed to their work?
Researchers may choose to construct questionnaires consisting of a single type of question, or divide
their questionnaire into two or more short sections, each using a different type of question.
Wordings of Questions
a.
ITEMS
There would be difficulty in contacting my parents.
b.
I will be able to concentrate my time in listening
c.
to my teachers.
It would stop cell phone thefts in school.
SA
A
D
SD
SA
SA
A
A
D
D
SD
SD
Nieswiadomy (2014) provides the following guidelines in formulating questions:
Questions should be stated in an affirmative rather than in a negative manner.
Ambiguous questions, such as those which contain words like many, always, usually, and few
should be avoided.
Double negative questions, e.g., “Don’t you disagree with the idea that…?”, should also be
avoided.
Double-barreled questions, like when asking two questions in one, should not be practiced.
For example, “Do you want to become the class president and seek a position in the
student council?”
Semantic Differential Scale. The respondents are asked to rate concepts on a series of bipolar
adjectives. The advantages in using this are that it is flexible and easy to construct.
Example: Description of the School Librarian
Competent
Punctual
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1 Incompetent
1 Not punctual
Pleasant
5
4
3
2
1 Unpleasant
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Define structured and unstructured
questionnaires and describe what kinds
of questions are involved in each type.
Ask the students to discuss the different
types of questions and have them
provide examples for each one.
Ask the students which question types
belong to which questionnaire type.
Wording of Questions
Discuss the different guidelines in
formulating questions.
Present examples showing one improperly
worded question for each guideline and
have the students revise it.
Discuss the general importance of asking
properly-worded questions.
92 • Practical Research 1
Data Collection
The following items should be discussed on the formulation of the instrument of the study;
the type of instrument used; the conceptual definition of the instrument with corresponding
references; the rationale or reasons why the researcher decided to use the instrument; and the
description of the essential parts of the instrument.
Data-gathering Instrument Example 1:
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for
the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2003)
The data gathered to answer the specific questions were drawn by sets of
questionnaires, documents like the Performance Appraisal for Secondary Teachers (PAST),
division reports, and other school records.
The questionnaires used were composed of two sets. The first set was for the school
managers that were composed of three parts. The first part was to find out the personal
profile of the school managers which included age, working experience as managers,
educational attainment, work values, home atmosphere, home management styles, level of
religiosity, hobbies, human virtues, health condition, and involvement in civic and religious
organization. The second set assessed the awards received by the teachers and students in
the national, regional, and district level.
Part 3 assessed the intrapersonal competency of school principals, which is sub-divided into six
major variables. These are locus of control, Machiavellianism, self-esteem, self-monitoring, risk-taking,
and type “A” personality. These variables were based from the book of Stephen Robbins (1996)
entitled Organizational Behaviors. The standardized tests presented in the book was improved to fit in
the Philippine culture and with the addition of some items in several related literatures, the assessment
checklist was completed then validated. Each variable has a minimum of ten indicators. The responses
used were the following:
5 = Completely True (81% to 100% True)
4 = Generally True (61% to 80% True)
3 = Moderately True (41% to 60% True)
2 = Partly True (21% to 40% True)
1 = Not at all True (0% to 20% True)
Thus, when a respondent indicated his response as “5”, this would mean that a particular
statement is observed to be commonly practiced 81% to 100% or believed all the time by the
school manager. Whereas, a response of “1” would mean that a particular statement has
never been observed to be practiced by the school manager, or it is 0% to 20% true to the
school manager.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
197
Part B of the third part assessed the interpersonal competency of the school managers
which is composed of 5 variables: role in management; learning and training; understanding
and motivating teachers; and positive attitudes and problem solving techniques. These
variables were based from the book of Ernesto Appodaca (1997) entitled, Human Relations
for Supervisors. The guide questions presented in the book with the addition of other items
from other sources were the basis of the items in the checklist; it was then improved and
validated. This was composed of 60 items, 10 items per variable. The same responses in the
assessment of intrapersonal competency were used.
Thus, when the respondent indicated his response as “5”, this would mean that a
particular statement is 80% to 100% observed to be commonly practiced by the school
managers. Whereas, a response of “1” would mean that a particular statement is 0% to 20%
unobserved to be practiced by the school managers.
The researcher employed the rating scale which has the following descriptions or verbal
interpretation:
Value
Scale
Verbal Interpretation
5
4.20 – 5.00
Very Great extent
4
3.40 – 4.19
Great Extent
3
2.60 – 3.39
Moderate Extent
2
1.80 – 2.59
Low Extent
1
1.00 – 1.79
No Extent
Data-gathering Instrument Example 3:
A parallel questionnaire was designed for the secondary school teachers.
Management by Culture of Kapampangan School Managers
in Selected Universities and Colleges (dela Cruz, 2002)
Data-gathering Instrument Example 2:
Extent of Participation of Nursing Students in Infection Control Practices at the Neo-Natal
Intensive Care Unit (NICU): Basis for Enhanced RLE Supervisory Program (Quiazon, 2007)
The study used a questionnaire as the primary research instrument. Padua (2001) defined
a questionnaire as a list of planned, written questions related to a particular topic, with space
provided for the responses to each questions. In the same manner, the questionnaire is
commonly used in normative survey and in the measurement of attitudes and opinions
(Good, 1991). In other words, the questionnaire is the best instrument that can supply the
necessary information to complete a research study as it is commonly used in behavioral
research or social research (Calderon & Gonzales, 2005).
Two sets of questionnaires were prepared: one for the student respondents and another
for the clinical instructors. The student’s questionnaire included the respondent’s profile
namely: age, gender, civil status, and types of hospital assigned. The second part deals with
infection control practices in the NICU. The CI’s questionnaire was similar with that of the
student-respondents except that this did not contain the questions on the profile of the
student-respondents.
Data Collection
The study called for the development and use of instruments to measure the application
of Management by Culture. These instruments are the following:
Personal Data Sheet. This includes the personal attributes of the respondents and other
relevant information vital to the study. Specifically it includes the following variables:
age, sex, civil status, highest educational attainment, managerial position &
experiences and duration of stay in Pampanga.
Questionnaire
Managerial Practices. To determine the responses of the respondents, a five-point
scale was used from greater extent, great extent, less extent, lesser extent, and
does not practice.
Kapampangan Managerial Traits. This includes the top ten desirable and ten
undesirable managerial traits.
Interview Schedule. This method was used to check (to verify or to refute) the accuracy
of the impression the researcher gained through observations.
199
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Characteristics of a Good DAta
Data-gathering Instrument Example 4:
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School
Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija (Valenton, 2009)
The main instrument in data-gathering is the survey questionnaire for the students and
for the teachers. The student questionnaire was divided into three parts, namely, sociodemographic characteristics, home factors, and school factors.
The first part (A) of the students’ questionnaire was designed to elicit information on
students’ age, sex parents’ highest educational attainment, parents’ occupation, monthly
family income, extra-curricular activities, favorite subject, ambition in life, and study habits.
The second part (B) was intended to inquire about their home factors in terms of availability
of reading materials, language and dialect spoken, and exposure to media and technology.
Finally, the last part (C) gathered data on school factors about the exact count of the school’s
instructional and non-instructional resources. This was verified from the school’s property
custodian’s records.
On the other hand, the teachers’ questionnaire was divided into three parts, namely
professional competencies, teaching methods, and school facilities. The first part comprised a
checklist and questions regarding teacher’s age, sex, highest degree earned in a field of
specialization, present position, length of teaching experience, and English-related seminar/
in-service trainings attended for the last 3 years. The second part was an evaluation checklist
concerning their perceptions on the frequency and effectiveness of teaching methods and
approaches they use in teaching English. This was rated in a five-point scale where 5 is always
used and very effective and 1 is never used and very ineffective.
Secondary data like the NAT results, average English grades, and inventory of school
resources and facilities were obtained with permission from official records at the school
office.
Collection Instrument
Enumerate the different characteristics of a
good data collection instrument.
Have the students explain the
importance of following each one.
Provide additional characteristics for
further context.
Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument
Ask the students to discuss and
compare the Likert scale and
the Semantic Differential Scale.
Discuss how the two scales are applied
and in which scenarios they are
applicable.
Present and discuss the examples on pages
198-201 and relate them to the other
concepts discussed in the chapter.
Data Collection 201
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 93
CH APTER SUMMARY
APPLICATION
The most frequently used data collection methods are: individual interviews, group
interviews, observations, and questionnaires.
Think of one person that you always wanted to interview on a certain subject. Write
below at least 10 questions that you want to ask them. Remember to apply the rules for
the proper wording of a question.
Individual interviews are conversations designed to obtain specific information.
Interview schedules are the tools used for interviewing. Interviews can be structured,
semi-structured, or unstructured.
Interviewee:
Group interviews are discussions among several respondents simultaneously. Topic
guides are used to facilitate group interviews and keep them on track while giving
respondents room to discuss.
1.
Observation is an immersive method of collecting information or data on natural
phenomena or behavior as it occurs. Observation guides or checklists are
instruments used to facilitate observations.
2.
Surveys or questionnaires are the most commonly used instrument in research, and are
made of a list of planned written questions or statements of a particular topic. They are
both a method and an instrument, and can be structured or unstructured.
3.
4.
CHECK-UP
5.
Complete the table by providing the required information.
Data Collection Method
Tool Used
6.
Other Important Information
(Write at least two)
7.
Individual interview
8.
Group interview
9.
Observation
10.
Questionnaire
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Data Collection
Name :
Date :
4. What rating scale will you use? Discuss it in detail.
RESEARCH ACTIVITY I0
DATA COLLECTION
Answer the following questions thoroughly. The use of additional references is encouraged.
What methods and instruments will you use to gather data to answer your research problem?
Describe them. Remember to cite your references.
Formulate a question that centers on one of your study variables or sub-variables. Cite at least
five indicators for your chosen variable or sub-variable.
2. Why did you choose these methods and instruments?
What are the parts of your methods and instruments? Include the major variables and subvariables.
94 • Practical research 1
Data Collection
205
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
203
assessment activities
Check-up
Ask the students to exchange their books for correction. Refer to the sample answers provided below.
Data Collection Method
Tool Used
Other Important Information
Individual interview
Interview
schedule
Life histories are needed in this area; Interview
schedule can be structured, semi-structured or
unstructured.
Group interview
Topic guides
It resembles interview schedule but allows respondents
a free and more dynamic exchange of ideas; Group
interviews can involve focus groups or natural groups.
Observation
Observation
guides
It allows for a more general, descriptive
documentation; Observation must be done in a quiet
and inconspicuous manner.
Survey
Questionnaire
It can be structured or unstructured. An unstructured
questionnaire is more appropriate in qualitative
research.
Application
Ask the students to think of the person they have always wanted to interview.
Instruct them to write 10 questions they would like to ask to that person.
Remind them to follow the guidelines for the proper wording of interview questions.
Ask the students to share their work to the class.
Research Activity 10
Ask the students to fill in all the sections with the required information.
Allow them to go to the library to research on relevant resource materials and utilize the computers for
research purposes.
Give additional guidelines identifying the appropriate methods and instruments for gathering data for
their research.
Provide one-on-one student consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the accomplished Research Activity 10 by detaching it from the book.
NOTE:
You have the option to let this classroom activity be a take-home assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for additional research materials.
Carefully check the students’ research activities because the final research paper will be based on
their outputs.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 95
CHAPTER
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students
will be able to
differentiate validity from reliability
and
establish the validity and reliability of
an instrument.
opening activity
Ask the students to read and analyze the
selection.
Have them answer the guide
questions.
16
Validity and Reliability
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
OPENING ACTIVITY
Read the vignette below. Then, answer the following
guide questions.
The Vignette
differentiate
validity from
reliability and
establish the
validity and
reliability of
an instrument.
A Christmas party on December 15 was scheduled
for the Grade 11 students of Saint Maura Academy. One
of the highlights of the said celebration is the Christmas
class dance contest. The four sections of the grade level
prepared for the contest. As early as December 1, the
students started planning their dance steps, costume,
props, and schedule for the practices. The parents of
the students also assisted in designing and making their
costumes and props. The class advisers supervised the
practice of the students after class hours.
During the contest proper, the friends of the PE teacher serve as panel of judges. The
presentations were exemplary and the section of Cathriona became the crowd’s favorite due
to the polished execution of the dance steps, and synchronization of the costume and the
props. However, another group which performed rather poorly became the winner.
Because of this, the section of Cathriona and the other sections wanted to know the
bases for the judging and raised their concerns to the Vice Principal for Students’ Activities.
After conducting an investigation, it turned out no judging criteria were set and no judging
sheets were used.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What are the facts of the story?
A dance contest is the highlight event of the Christmas
party on December 15 of Saint Maura Academy.
Ask the students to share their
output to the class.
Validity and Reliability
investigation
Validity
Ask the students to define validity
and have them explain its
importance in research.
Have them relate validity with real life
situations.
Discuss validity further by explaining its
significance and purpose in
conducting research.
2. How did the students prepare for the event?
The students prepared for the contests by planning early their
dance steps, costumes, props, and schedule for the practices.
3. What was the overall quality of the presentations witnessed by the class?
The overall quality of the presentations witnessed by
the class was exemplary.
4. Were the students satisfied with the result of the contest? Why?
The students were not satisfied with the result of the contest because the
section Cathriona which performed really well and was pegged for winning
the first place lost to another group which performed rather poorly.
5. What do you think are the things that must be done to avoid said concern?
To avoid the said concern, a valid criteria and judging sheet
must be used for the contest.
INVESTIGATION
Some qualitative studies combine quantitative aspects in its research methods, e.g., sampling and
analysis of quantitative elements. In this highly technological age, studies seek to create new knowledge
and lean more towards technical and scientific research topics rather than philosophical and descriptive
ones. In doing so, research topics that have a qualitative theme utilize quantitative methods in establishing
the credibility of its results. This is why evaluating the validity and reliability of the instrument to be used
is also essential in a qualitative study.
VALIDITY
Validity refers to the quality of the instrument of being functional only within its specific
purpose. That is, an instrument is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. Since the
instruments of the study are used by the researcher in the methodology to obtain the data, the
96 • Practical Research 1
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
207
validity of each one should be established beforehand. This is to ensure the credibility of the
findings, and the correctness and accuracy of the following data analysis. For instance, when a
study investigates the common causes of absences, the content of the instrument must focus on
these variables and indicators. Similarly, when a researcher formulates a problem about the
behavior of the students during school assemblies, the instrument must consist of the indicators
or measures of the behavior of students during such times.
Types of Validity
In Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice, Kubiszyn and
Borich (2007) enumerate the different types of validity.
Face validity. Also known as logical validity, it involves an analysis of whether the
instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment. Just by
looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it has face validity. It includes the
font size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and other necessary details that will not
distract respondents from answering the questionnaire.
Content validity. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions to see
whether they are able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with high
content validity has to meet the objectives of the research. This type of validity is not
measured by a numerical index, but instead relies on logical judgment as to whether the
test measures its intended subject.
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to an analysis by a group
of experts who have theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject. Three to five
experts would suffice. The experts assess the items of the questionnaire and determine
if the items measure the variables being studied. Then, the experts’ criticisms will be
considered in the revision of the instrument.
Construct validity. This type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with its theoretical
construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular measure relates
to other measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically-derived
hypothesis. Therefore, the process of construct validation is theory-laden. Factor
analysis, a relevant technique to construct validity, is a refined statistical procedure that
is used to analyze the interrelationships of behavior data.
Criterion-related validity or equivalent test. This type of validity is an expression of how
scores from the test are correlated with an external criterion. There are two types of this
validity.
Concurrent validity. It deals with measures that can be administered and validated at
the same time. It is determined by administering both the new test and the
established test to a group of respondents, then finding the correlation between the
two sets of the scores. Validity is established with an accepted and availed second
test that measures what the researcher is trying to measure.
209
Validity and Reliability
Example:
The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test is used to determine the
IQ of nursing students. A researcher published a design for a short screening test that
measures the same. The scores on the Standard-Binet V and the short screening test are
compared to assess the relationship between scores.
Predictive validity. It refers to how well the test predicts the future behavior of the
examinees. This is particularly useful in aptitude tests, which are tests to predict
how well test-takers will perform in some future setting.
Have the students discuss the
different types of validity.
Ask them what concepts are involved in
each one and have them explain
how each one applies in research
studies.
Reliability
Have the students define reliability and
compare it with validity.
Ask the students if validity and
reliability can be evident in a
single instrument at the same
time.
Discuss the significance and purpose of
establishing the reliability of a
research instrument.
Let the students discuss the methods used
in establishing research and how they
are conducted.
Discuss further the two methods by
explaining their applicability with
certain topics.
Have the students discuss the other
criteria used for assessing validity
and reliability.
It is advised that when a drafted questionnaire is to be subjected for validation, a rating
sheet of the acceptability of the indicators must be provided for the experts to mark and give his
judgment. The markings and comments of the experts that validated the proposed
questionnaire will be the basis of the revision of the proposed instrument or questionnaire.
Directions: Please assess the attached questionnaire and rate the acceptability of the
indicators used by checking the appropriate column.
INDICATORS
HA
A
LA
NA
HA
A
LA
NA
Common causes of students’ tardiness
Family
Parents are too busy working.
The student is left alone in the house.
No curfew imposed in the use of the computer
and gadgets.
INDICATORS
Environment
There is dearth of vehicles in the area
Heavy traffic
Ongoing road construction
Legend: HA (Highly Acceptable); A (Acceptable); LA (Less Acceptable); NA (Not Acceptable)
Comments:
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 97
RELIABILITY
OTHER CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated trials. A
reliable instrument can also be used to verify the credibility of the subject if the latter yield the
same results in several tests. However, this is only true if the instrument used is valid. It is
important to note that, while a valid instrument is always reliable, a reliable instrument is not
always necessarily valid. This is most especially true when the subjects are human, who are
governed by judgment and prone to error. Nevertheless, testing the reliability of an instrument is
very crucial in research studies that deal with a lot of samples.
There are also other forms of criteria that can used in assessing the literature (Polit & Beck,
2004):
For example, Jaycee, who is monitoring her weight, uses a weighing scale. She weighed
herself in the morning, afternoon, and the evening and recorded the results afterwards. Her
recorded weights are 65 lbs, 68 lbs, and 70 lbs respectively. The weighing scale can be
considered reliable since the deviation of the results is small and negligible.
Methods in Establishing Reliability
Test-retest or stability. In this method, the same test is given to a group of respondents twice.
The scores in the first test are correlated with the scores in the second test. When there is a
high correlation index, it means that there is also a high reliability of the test. Some of the
problems here are the observations that some subjects may be able to recall certain items
given during the first administration of the test, and that the scores may differ because the
students have adapted to the test.
Specificity. The instrument should be able to identify a non-case correctly, i.e., to screen out
those without the conditions correctly.
Comprehensibility. Subjects and researchers should be able to comprehend the behavior
required for accurate and valid measurements.
Precision. The instrument should discriminate among people who exhibit varying degrees
of an attribute as precisely as possible.
Speed. The researcher should not rush the measuring process so that he or she can obtain
reliable measurements.
Range. The instrument should be capable of detecting the smallest expected value of the
variable to the largest, in order to obtain meaningful measurements.
Linearity. The researcher normally strives to construct measures that are equally accurate
and sensitive over the entire range of values.
Reactivity. The instrument should, as much as possible, avoid affecting the attribute being
measured.
The following are examples of establishing the validity and reliability of an instrument:
Carmines and Zeller (1979), in their book Reliability and Validity Assessment, list the
weaknesses identified in using the test-retest method:
Example 1:
Even if the test-retest correlation can be computed and established, its interpretation is
not necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest correlation may not indicate that
the reliability of the test is low but rather signify instead that the underlying
theoretical framework has changed. The longer the time interval between
measurements, the more likely that the concept has changed.
Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not done logically and
that phenomenon can induce change in itself.
Overestimation due to memory is another weakness in using the test-retest method. The person’s
mental recollection of his or her responses which he or she gives during the first measurement
is quite likely to influence the responses which he or she gives during the second
measurement. Memory effects may influence reliability estimates.
Internal consistency. If the test in question is designed to measure a single basic concept, it is
reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item right is likely to be right in
another similar item. In other words, items should to be correlated with each other and the
test ought to be internally consistent.
Validity and Reliability
Sensitivity. The instrument should be able to identify a case correctly, i.e., to screen or
diagnose a condition correctly.
211
Example 2:
Staff Nurses’ Roles on the Accuracy of Specimen Collection in Selected Government and
Private Hospitals in Bulacan: Relations to Their Work Performance (Reyes, 2007)
The instrument underwent validation. It was pre-tested at Dr. Gloria D. Lacson General
Hospital in San Leonardo, Nueva Ecija, which is not included in the study.
A group of seven staff nurses, and two nurse supervisors were requested to answer the
questionnaires, upon approval of the permit addressed to the hospital director. Results were
checked and analyzed. After 15 days, the corrected questionnaire was administered to the
same respondents. A reliability coefficient of 80% and above indicated that the instrument is
already valid, reliable, and ready to use.
Example 3:
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for the
Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2003)
The researcher collected information from different literatures like books, journals, and
unpublished materials like theses and dissertations. The variables that were considered were
numerous, so with the advice of colleagues in the field and experts, the variables used to
measure the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies were selected.
The first draft of questionnaires had 140 items. This first draft was submitted to the
advisers, master teachers, and a head teacher. With their comments, corrections, and
suggestions, the items were simplified. The second draft was then showed to the advisers.
The advisers suggested additional variables for measuring school effectiveness. Thus,
variables like work values, home atmosphere, home management styles, level of religiosity,
human virtues, hobbies, health condition, and involvement to civic and religious
organizations were included and then permitted for face and content validation.
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School
Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija (Valenton, 2009)
Data gathering employed two sets of survey questionnaires for the students and for the
teachers. This was developed by the researcher of the approval of the advisory committee.
Pre-testing was done to improve the survey-questionnaires for the students of Doña Juana
Chico National High School and for the teachers of Rizal National High School. They did not
serve as respondents of the study.
The results of the pre-test were analyzed to ensure clarity and to determine whether they
could yield data needed in the study. The pre-test results showed a Cronbach’s Alpha
Reliability Coefficient of 0.923, indicating a good reliability of the instrument. As a rule,
Cronbach Alpha must be at least 0.80 to be considered reliable.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
To establish the reliability of the instrument, the questionnaires were administered to 4
school managers, 3 master teachers, and 15 TEPP teachers and the re-administration was
done after two weeks. This is shown in Table 2 in the next page. The reliability coefficient was
computed using the Pearson-Product Moment of Correlation. The r xy was 0.75 and showed
high relationship. This means that there is a high relationship between the two tests scores,
therefore, the instrument used is very reliable. Downie and Heath (1974) state that there are
various conditions, which affect the technique, limiting its effectiveness. The length of time
between the administrations of the test is important in determining the size of reliability
coefficient. In general, the longer the time between two administrations of the test, the
lower the correlation is. If the period between the administrations is very short, as the
second test immediately following the first, individuals may remember their answers and put
the same responses down the second time without making a new effort to react to the test
item. Such behavior tends to make the reliability coefficient artificially high. When the period
between testing is short, memory may be an important factor affecting the results. As the
period increases in length, learning, maturation, and many other variables may enter the
situation to lower the correlation coefficient. The coefficient of reliability was obtained by
test and re-test methods computing the Pearson-product moment coefficient of correlation.
The total-item correlation was computed for the construct validity and internal consistency of the
instrument. The cut-off point of confidence of the item used was 0.05 and 0.0001. (Note: This is just a
part of the original validation of instrument in the original manuscript.)
Table 2. Correlation of the First and Second Tests Showing the Test Reliability
Cases
First Test
Second Test
1
3.15
3.10
2
3.05
3.00
3
3.38
3.43
4
3.28
3.16
5
3.94
3.85
6
3.40
3.60
clear instruction.” These comments and suggestions to improve the questionnaire were integrated to
7
3.90
4.30
revise and polish the questionnaires. Besides the comments and suggestions, the evaluators rated each
8
1.95
2.05
9
2.72
2.83
for uniformity. Each variable was given 10 indicators, thus, the 140-item questionnaire was narrowed
10
3.45
3.30
down to 110 items. The level of appropriateness was computed and it showed that all of the variables
11
3.78
3.80
A group of experts was chosen to scrutinize and evaluate the instrument. The following comments
were recorded: “Has very long instrument; is very exhaustive; remove “most,” “always,” and
“enough;” avoid duplication, there’s a need of rephrasing; and observe uniform format and make a
item in accordance with the item appropriateness: 3 for “Very Appropriate”, 2 for “Appropriate,” and 1
for “Not Appropriate.” The items that were rated “Not Appropriate” were removed from the list and
were rated “Very Appropriate” and it has a grand mean of 2.59 and equivalence of “Very Appropriate.”
The content validation took place from September 16, 2002 to September 30, 2002.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
98 • Practical Research 1
Validity and Reliability 213
Cases
First Test
Second Test
12
4.04
4.01
13
4.49
4.45
14
3.04
2.95
15
3.50
3.34
16
3.95
3.93
17
3.75
3.93
18
2.97
2.79
19
3.43
3.17
20
3.74
3.57
21
2.86
3.30
22
2.79
4.45
23
3.90
3.85
24
3.78
4.63
25
3.40
3.31
26
3.26
2.97
Reliability Coefficient
0.75
CH APTER SUMMARY
Validity refers to the quality of the instrument of being functional only within its specific
purpose.
The types of validity are face validity, content validity, construct validity, and criterionrelated validity.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated trials.
The methods in testing reliability are test-retest or stability test and internal consistency
test.
The other criteria used to assess validity and reliability are sensitivity, specificity,
comprehensibility, precision, speed, range, linearity, and reactivity.
Validity and Reliability
215
CHECK-UP
Choose the correct answer from the box and write the letter of your answer on the space
provided.
A. Concurrent validity
B. Specificity
F. Construct validity
G. Range
C.
H. Face validity
Concurrent validity
D. Linearity
I.
Reliability
E.
J.
Content validity
Precision
1. It is also known as the logical validity.
Predictive validity
AssessMent Activities
check-Up
Ask the students to exchange their books
for correction.
It refers to how well a test can predict future behaviors.
It refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated trials.
It refers to quality of an instrument of being equally accurate and sensitive over the
entire range of values.
Instruments having this kind of validity are able to elicit the necessary information.
It refers to how well an instrument can identify a non-case correctly.
It refers to the capability of an instrument to detect the smallest expected value to the
largest.
This kind of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with its theoretical
construct.
It refers to the capability of the instrument to precisely discriminate among people
who exhibit varying degrees of an attribute.
This kind of validity deals with measures that can be measured and validated at the
same time.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 99
ApplicAtiOn
Ask the students to read the sample
description of a research instrument.
Have them answer the guide
questions.
Have them write their essay in a one
whole intermediate pad.
Refer to the sample answers to the
guide questions below in the
assessment of the students’ papers.
The instrument used in the sample
study was an interview
schedule.
APPLICATION
Read the description of a sample research topic below. Then, write an essay about the
reliability and validity of the instruments in the study. Use the questions below as a guide
in writing your piece.
Sample Study:
Knight, Worosz, and Todd (2007), in their research paper entitled “Serving Food
Safety: Consumer Perceptions of Food Safety at Restaurants,” they sought to study
the perceptions of consumers regarding food safety at restaurants as compared
to those of the other food system actors such as farmers, food processors and
manufacturers, and grocery stores and supermarkets. The data collection approach
used in the study was through interviews with 1,014 randomly selected US adults.
The goal of the study is to gain a better understanding of the consumer perceptions
towards food safety, and highlight the importance of creating and adopting food
safety practices.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Based on the sample study, what instrument was used to gather the data?
How important was it to establish the validity and reliability of the study, considering the
subjects of the research were chosen randomly?
Establishing reliability and validity
ensures that correct and
accurate answers are still
obtained even though the
subjects are chosen randomly.
In establishing the validity, the
interview schedule must be read
and commented by at least three
experts.
Survey questionnaires can also be
used because of the sample
size.
Validity and Reliability
What methods do you think can be used to assess the validity and reliability of the instrument
used in the study?
Besides an interview, what other valid and reliable instruments can be used to collect the data?
Why do you think so?
100 • Practical research 1
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
217
Name :
Date :
reseArch Activity 11
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 11
ESTABLISHING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT
Ask the students to fill in all the
sections with the required
information.
Answer the following questions thoroughly. The use of additional references is encouraged.
1. How will you establish the validity of your instrument? Describe the process step by step.
Allow them to go to the library to
research on relevant resource
materials and utilize the
computers for research purposes.
Give additional guidelines in assessing
the validity and reliability of the
instrument they will be using for
their research.
2. What kind/s of validity will you use as criteria for your instrument? Justify your answer.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
11 by detaching it from the book.
nOte:
Validity and Reliability
3. How will you determine the reliability of your instrument? Describe the process step by step.
219
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final
research paper will be based on
their outputs.
4. Do you think your instrument is valid and reliable? Justify your answer.
CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 101
UNIT
4
ANALYZING THE
MEANING OF THE
DATA AND
DRAWING
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER
17
Drawing Patterns
and Themes
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students
will be able to
infer patterns and themes from the
gathered data and
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter, the students
will be able to
OPENING ACTIVITY
Read the selection and answer the following guide questions.
infer patterns and
themes from the
gathered data and
relate patterns to
relevant literatures.
Ask the students to read the
selection.
Have them answer the guide
questions.
Ask the students to share their
output to the class.
In literature, an archetype is a typical character, an
action, or a situation that seems to represent such universal
patterns of human nature.
An archetype, also known as universal symbol, may be a
character, a theme, a symbol, or even a setting. Many
literary critics are of the opinion that archetypes, which have
a common and recurring representation in a particular
human culture or entire human race, shape the structure
and function of a literary work.
relate patterns to relevant literatures.
opening activity
THE ARCHETYPE
Defining the Archetype
Carl Jung, a Swiss psychologist, argued that the root of an archetype is in the “collective
unconscious” of mankind. The phrase “collective unconscious” refers to experiences shared
by a race or culture. This includes love, religion, death, birth, life, struggle, and survival.
These experiences exist in the subconscious of every individual and are recreated in literary
works or in other forms of art.
Archetypes in Characters
The Hero: He or she is a character who predominantly exhibits goodness and struggles
against evil in order to restore harmony and justice to society, e.g., Beowulf, Hercules,
and D’artagnan from “The Three Musketeers.”
The Mother Figure: Such a character may be represented as a fairy mother who guides and directs a
child, Mother Earth who contacts people and offers spiritual and emotional nourishment, and a
stepmother who treats their stepchildren roughly, e.g., Galadriel from
The Lord of the Rings, Glinda from the Wizard of Oz, and the stepmother in Cinderella.
The Innocent Youth: He or she is inexperienced with many weaknesses and seeks safety with
others, but others like him or her because of the trust he or she shows in other people.
Usually, the innocent youth experiences a coming of age in the later parts of the
narratives. Examples include Pip in Dickens’ Great Expectations, Nicholas in Dickens’
Nicholas Nickelby, and Joseph from Fielding’s Joseph Andrews.
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
The Mentor: His or her task is to protect the main character. It is through the wise advice
and training of a mentor that the main character achieves success in the world, e.g.,
Gandalf in The Lords of the Rings, Parson Adams in Fielding’s Joseph Andrews, and Senex
in L’Engle’s A Wind in the Door.
Doppelganger: It is a duplicate or shadow of a character that represents the evil side of his personality.
Examples are in popular literary works such as Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein,
Poe’s William Wilson, and Stevenson’s Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
The Scapegoat: A character that takes the blame for everything bad that happens, e.g.,
Snowball in Orwell’s Animal Farm.
The Villain: A character whose main function is to go to any extent to oppose the hero or
one whom the hero must annihilate in order to bring justice, e.g., Shere Khan from
Kipling’s The Jungle Book stories, and Long John Silver from Stevenson’s Treasure Island.
Function of the Archetype
The use of archetypical characters and situations gives a literary work a universal
acceptance, as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural
context. By using common archetypes, the writers impart realism to their works, as the
situations and characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.
Source: Archetype by Literary Devices, n.d.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What is an archetype?
2. What is the function of an archetype in a story?
Did you recognize the archetypes in the characters mentioned in the selection? Cite one
character and explain his or her archetype.
104 • Practical Research 1
Drawing Patterns and Themes
223
Did recognizing the archetype help you understand the story of a movie or a book better? Why
do you think so?
investigation
How can you relate the character archetypes in movies and books to the patterns and themes
drawn in research data?
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Have the students define qualitative
data analysis.
INVESTIGATION
Ask the students to explain what
processes are involved in
analyzing qualitative data.
ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA
Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and interpretation of
patterns and themes in textual data and determines how these patterns and themes help answer
the research questions at hand.
Explain the overall purpose of
qualitative data analysis in
the research study.
The National Science Foundation (1997) describes qualitative analysis as “unguided by
universal rules; has a fluid process that is greatly dependent on the evaluator and to the context
of the study; and adaptable to progressing studies and data.”
This section will provide a loosely structured guide for the steps one should take when
analyzing qualitative data. It is important to note that qualitative data analysis is an ongoing,
fluid, and cyclical process that happens throughout the data collection and evaluation stage of
the project and carries over to the data entry and analysis stages. Although the steps listed
below are somewhat sequential, they do not always happen in isolation from each other.
Data Analysis Process
DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS
Discuss the different processes
involved in the qualitative
analysis process.
As mentioned, qualitative analysis is an ongoing and cyclical process. However, it is
important to note that while the earlier contents of the research paper is systematic (e.g., the
review of the related literature and studies), this process of qualitative data analysis is rather
fluid. Methods happen simultaneously as they are immediately necessary.
Let the students explain the “getting to
know the data” part of analysis
process.
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
The processes involved in the qualitative analysis are as follows:
Getting to know the data. This is done by reading and re-reading the text. The taped
recordings should be played and listened to several times. Impressions should be
written down. These impressions may be utilized in another time. The purpose of this
process is to asses the quality of the data before the analysis.
Focusing the analysis. This can be done using two approaches:
Have the students compare focusing the
analysis by topic, time period, or
event with focusing it by case,
individual, or group.
Focus by question or topic, time period, or event. This is usually done in open-ended
questions. This can be done by looking at how all individuals or groups responded to
each question or topic, or for a given time period or event; organizing the data by
question to look across all respondents and their answers to identify consistencies
and differences; consolidating all data from questions; applying the same approach
to particular topics, time periods, or events of interest; and exploring the
connections and relationships between questions.
Focus by case, individual, or group. A case can be a single family; an individual can be
a first-timer or teen participant; and a group can be categorized by ages.
Coding. This is the process of categorizing the data. This process reduces the data into
smaller groupings so that they are more manageable. This will help the researcher
analyze the relationships between categories and patterns of interaction. Codes can be
developed using predefined ones and those that emerge from the data.
Predefined codes refer to codes that are formulated by the researcher based his or her
knowledge through the reviewed literatures.
Emergent codes refer to codes that become apparent as one reviews the data.
Example:
Question: What do you need to continue your learning about evaluation?
Answers
1. More advance data analysis
Coding
Trg
2. More time and information on all concepts
T, R
3. Just start doing it
P
4. Another workshop
Trg
5. Assessment feedback on the benefits of evaluation
Fdbk
6. How to measure long range planning
Trg
7. Do it
P
8. Needs additional training
Trg
9. Practice makes perfect
P
10. Time to do actual problems
T
Sample Coding Scheme
Drawing Patterns and Themes
225
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 105
Entering and organizing the data. This can be done manually by using a piece of paper or
through computers. Upon deciding the use of a word processing program, such as
Microsoft Word, the recording will be easier to accomplish.
The following tips can simplify the recording process.
Kapampangan Practices
N
5. Mayasikasu/biasing tanggap bisita (hospitality)
3
6. Biasang makiramdam karing problema at pisasabyan (empathy)
2
Table 17.2. Sample Key Point Coding
A file for each interview, observation site, or focus group should be created.
Within each file, the data should be organized by question, time intervals, or topic
(depending on which method makes the most sense).
The process of entering qualitative data can be very tedious and time-consuming,
thus, an effective plan must be created by the researcher beforehand. Once the data are
entered in the finalized format, the researcher should always review the data.
Example:
Using data from a study, sample coding and tallying tables are given below (See Tables
17.1 and 17.2). These show what an organized data may look like in the actual research paper.
However, the tables only serve an examples and organized data can contain more details to
provide more clarity to the information that they represent.
Table 17.1. Sample Coding and Tallying of Kapampangan Traits and
Practices of Principals (Canlas 2013)
ID
Key Points from the Transcript
Code
Pa1
Achieved present school-based management level because
of my teachers
Collaboration
Pa2
Pa3
What fuels the school-based management is teamwork.
Achieved uncommon results because of a common goal in
mind
Teamwork
Shared vision
Pa4
Started with target setting and roadmapping and the target
set by the school
Target setting
Pa5
Doing one’s best to properly document our activities,
programs and achievements
Proper
documentation
Pa6
Not confronting the person involved in the problem when I
am “emotional by charged”
Stress tolerance
Kapampangan Traits
n
1. Matatag kasalpantayan/Makadios (faith in God)
13
Pa7
Praying and reading Bible verses before confronting the
person
Importance of prayer
and reflection
2. Masaya at positiong panlalawe/mapamatula (happy and with sense of
humor)
12
Pa8
Talking to their department head to know the background
of the person and the situation
Gathering data
3. Mayap makipagobra/tututu king obra (committed)
10
Pa9
4. Atin metung salita/mapagkatiwalaan (honest)
9
Talking to the person with one goal in mind: to make this
person understand the situation
Conflict management
skills
5. Relihiyoso/mapangadi (religious/prayerful)
8
Pa10
6. Mapanutu at mapanyaup (appreciative/supportive)
7
Listening the person and reflecting whether I contributed
to the problem and tried to find ways to correct them
Listening and
reflection
7. Diretsu o matulid at biasang desisyon (decisiveness)
5
8. Matiaga/mapagtimpi (patience/peace loving)
4
Kapampangan Practices
N
1. Maayap makyabe anting katubale (strong family)
9
2. Biasang makyabe/makibage (interpersonal relation)
8
3. Mapamye/mapandake lalo na para king kagiwan at pamangan (generosity)
6
4. Pante panlalawe/alang kikilingan (fairness)
4
Cleaning the data. This is a process of checking data for errors. The “dirty” data when not
eliminated can negatively influence the results of the study.
There are three common ways of cleaning qualitative data (Washington County, 1996):
Spot-checking. This technique involves comparing the raw data to the electronically
entered data to check for data entry and coding errors. For qualitative data, one
should use this approach to check whether the participants’ words were transcribed
accurately and attributed to the right individual.
If no error is found in the first round of spot-checking, the researcher should
check a random set of the raw data. If an error is found, and it is clear that it is not an
isolated incident, the researcher needs to go over the raw data to ensure that all data
are recorded correctly.
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Drawing Patterns and Themes
Eye-balling. This technique involves reviewing the data for errors that may have
resulted from a data entry or coding oversight.
Have the students define coding and its
function in research, and ask them
to describe the two types of codes.
Discuss how entering and organizing the
data can be conducted in research.
Ask the students what tool they prefer
in recording and organizing their
data and why they prefer that tool.
For example, with the question, “Did you participate in the summer program?”
Participants can only respond to this question with a “Yes” or “No.” “No” is assigned a
value of 0, while “Yes” responses are assigned a value of 1. Therefore, any number
other than 0 or 1 in the same column as the said question on the sample spreadsheet
would be an obvious error.
If the researcher finds such errors, he or she needs to go back to the original raw
data survey and enter that participant’s answer correctly.
Logic check. This technique involves a careful review of the electronically entered data
to make sure that the answers to the different questions “make sense.”
Example:
If the participant on the sample spreadsheet indicated that they did not attend
the summer program in question 5, it would be illogical for this participant to have
provided a satisfaction rating in their response to the question. The only logical
response for this participant would or “not applicable.”
As with the other types of errors, if the researcher finds one, he or she needs to
go back to the original raw data and enter the correct data instead.
Nevertheless, the best practice is to apply all three approaches so that the
researcher is sure that all possible errors were eliminated. To do this, one should
always refer back to the research questions. Then, he or she can evaluate the
research himself or herself or refer to the expertise of other individuals for a
thorough understanding of the program.
Identifying meaningful patterns and themes. This is the core process of qualitative data
analysis.
There are two primary ways to do perform this:
Content analysis. This is carried out by coding the data for certain words or content by
going through all the text and label words, phrases, and sections of the text; or
devising a matrix to group for categories of the texts when listening to a recorded
interview; identifying their patterns (ideas, concepts, behaviors, interactions,
incidents, terminologies, or phrases used); and interpreting their meanings.
106 • Practical Research 1
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
227
Table 17.3. Sample Display of Recurrent Themes from
Significant Experiences of Principals (Canlas 2013)
Questions
What makes a quality educational
program?
Thematic analysis. This is a process of analyzing the data by grouping them according
to themes. Themes either evolve directly from the research questions or preset, or
naturally emerge from the resulting data.
Categories
The initial list of categories may change as one works with the data. This is an
iterative process. One may adjust the definition of the categories, or identify new
categories to accommodate data that do not fit the existing labels. Main categories
can be broken into subcategories and then re-sorted into smaller, more defined
categories. This allows for greater discrimination and differentiation.
Staff (Stf), relevance (Rel), participation (Part),
timeliness (Time), and content (Con)
What is the benefit of a youth-mentoring Benefits to youth (Y), mentors (M), family
program?
(Fam), and community (COMM)
What do you need to continue your
learning about evaluation?
Practice (P), additional training (Trg), time (T),
resources (R), feedback (Fdbk), mentor (M),
and Uncertain (U)
Example 1:
Table 17.4. Sample Thematic Analysis (Canlas 2013)
The University of Surrey provides the following guidelines in doing content analysis:
The transcript should be copied and read through. This is made by writing brief
notes on the margin.
Categories
Benefits to Youth (Y)
Benefits to Mentor (M)
Growth Level (M-GL)
The notes made in the margins should be reviewed. Then, the different types of
information found therein should be listed.
Each item in the list should be categorized in a way that offers a description of what it
is about.
Whether or not the categories can be linked in any way should be identified. They
should be listed as major and minor categories or themes.
Sub-categories
School Performance (Y-SP)
Friendship (Y-F)
Self-concept (Y-SC)
Role Modeling (Y-RM)
Promotion (M-P)
Behavioral Traits (M-BT)
Closeness Level (F-CL)
Benefits to Family (F)
The various major and minor categories or themes should be compared and
contrasted.
Level of Satisfaction F-LS)
Quality Time (F-QT)
If there is more than one transcript, the first five stages should be repeated for each
transcript.
Example 2: Kapampangan Qualities and Practices (Canlas, 2013)
When finished applying the steps above with all of the transcripts, all of the categories
or themes should be collected, examined in detail, and evaluated to ensure that
each one is appropriate and relevant.
They love their language.
Once all the transcript data are categorized into minor and major categories or themes,
they should be reviewed in order to ensure that the information is properly
categorized.
They are excellent cooks.
All of the categories should be reviewed and it should be ascertained whether some
categories can be merged or if some need to be sub-categorized.
They have a carefree nature and a
durable disposition.
They are proud of their race.
Kapampangan Qualities
They are deeply religious.
The original transcripts should be returned and it should be ensured that all
necessary information have been categorized.
Drawing Patterns and Themes
229
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
The relatives of a woman in labor
create loud noise for an easy delivery.
The baptismal clothes of a baby
serve as a house decoration.
A man does the pamamanhikan
as a sign of respect to the parents of the girl
Explain the purpose of cleaning the
data in research.
Kapampangan Practices
A grandiose meal is held during the
1st death anniversary of a loved one.
Some men perform physical penitence
to show their religious devotion.
The above diagrams are examples of data display. After identifying themes or content
patterns, the data should be assembled, organized, and compressed into a display that
facilitates conclusion drawing. The display can be a graphic, table or matrix, or textual
display.
As the data are organized, the patterns, connections and methods used, both within
and between categories, will be noted. This can be done by capturing the similarities or
differences of the responses of the participants within a category by assembling all the
data pertaining to a category. From the smaller categories, a larger category comprising
sub-categories can be formed.
In identifying the more important categories, the researcher can count the number
of times a particular theme comes up or the number of unique respondents who refer to
the same themes. This can reveal general patterns.
Discuss the common ways used in
cleaning qualitative data and
their application.
Have the students explain the
purpose of identifying patterns
and themes in a research.
Discuss the two primary ways of
identifying patterns and themes
and how they are applied.
Also, the researcher can discover two or more themes that may occur together
consistently in the data. Thus, when one sees one theme, there is always the other. For
example, youth with separated parents consistently list friendship as a result of
mentoring. This suggests a cause-effect relationship.
Interpretating the data. After identifying and analyzing, coding and organizing a
presentation, and identifying the themes and patterns, the next step is to interpret the
results. In this process, the results are synthesized into a coherent whole. Meaning and
significance are attached to the analysis of data. The themes and patterns serve to
explain the findings. The implications of the study are highlighted in this section as a
preface for the final parts of the research paper which are the summary of the findings,
conclusion, and recommendations.
The following are the steps in interpreting research findings:
Points or important findings should be listed.
The lessons learned and new things should be noted.
Drawing Patterns and Themes
231
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 107
Quotes or descriptive examples given by the participants should be included.
The newfound knowledge from other settings, programs, or reviewed literatures should
be applied.
The following are the levels of interpretation as considered in organizing the discussion
of the results (Ducut & Pangilinan, 2006):
Level 1. Data collected are compared and contrasted and any unexpected results may be
included. Comments on certain shortcomings of the study may be made but they
should not overly emphasize the flaws.
Level 2. The internal validity of the results, as well as their consistency or reliability, is explained.
The causes or factors that may have influenced the results are described.
Level 3. The external validity of the results, that is, their generality or applicability of
external condition is explained.
Level 4. The data are related to theoretical research or with reviewed literature.
Example:
Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development
of Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas 2013)
The participants shared meaningful experiences on Kapampangan
qualities and practices. They narrated experiences and views this way:
“Siguruing pagiging matapang da ring Kapampangan. Kasi kailangan
bilang metung a principal ali kakatakot king pamaghayu at biasa kung
manalakaran. Saka ing pagiging mayabang da ring Kapampangan. Kuanan ke
ita king positibong paaaralan. Pota kasing magmayabang. Kumaen ke ita kang
kapanindiganan. Patse kasing magmayabang ka atin kang abilaidad, atin kang
kapanindigan. Patse kasing magmayabang ku, ing malilyari king eskwela ku
balamu madidinan lang self-esteem ding kakung maestro at estudyante.” (I
think the Kapampangans are courageous. As a principal, you should not be
afraid of change and you must stand for what is right. They are also boastful
but I take it on a positive way because when I boast, it means you excel on
something. I boast on the achievements of our school and that adds to the
self-esteem of my teachers and students.) – Principal A
“Very kampampangan ya ing kekaming principal. Malugad yang tanggap
bisita. Maulaga mu rin kaya ding selebrasyun da ring pamilya lalo na potang
atin kepalyaran. Manintun yang oras para apuntalan nala ding pamilya (nung
mesakit o kematen la) nung ali na la man apuntalan she makes it a point na
munta la ding department heads at maestro. (Our principal is very
Kapampangan. She is very hospitable. She gives importance to celebrations.
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Ask the students to describe the data
interpretation process based on
their research.
Discuss the steps involved in and the
levels of data interpretation.
When something bad happens to the member of a family of our co-teacher,
she looks for time to go to the family. When she can’t do it, she makes it a
point that our teachers will go there.) – Teacher A
“Atin yang kababan lub, makiramdam kareng kalupang tau at tatanggap
ya mu naman kamalyan. Ali ya tatakut talakad king ustu, matapang ya ali king
pisikal nune king pamanalakaran king namu ing tutu at ustu.” (She is humble,
knows how to listen, and accepts her mistakes. She is not afraid to stand for
what is right. She is not only brave but has the fortitude to fight for what is
true and right.) – Teacher B
“Mapamaralan ya pu ing kekaming prinsipal. Ali ya kabud manaya na nanu
ibie na ning Division o Central Office. Gagamitan na ing kagiwan o gelingan na
para nung nanu man ing kakulangan apatupad na la pamurin ding programa
ning eskwela. Marispetu ya naman pu karing manungkulan at kareng
makatuang maestro.” (Our principal is very resourceful. She does not only
wait for what DepEd provides but she also uses her talent to look for ways
on how to implement the programs in our school. She is very respectful of
authorities and also of the senior teachers.) – Teacher C
“Malugud, maganaka, at marispetu ya karing para nang tau. Eya maimut
king pamandake kabiasnan lalu’t kailangan king panyulung ning kabiasnan.
Tapat king keying katungkulan bilang talaturung atin a mayap o parasan. E na
pibuburian ing kamulangan at kapanakawan king obrang sinumpan.” (She is
well-loved, kind and respected by other people. She shares what she knows
especially in developing the teachers. She is very honest and commits
herself to what is good.) – Teacher D
“Selfless service to the in-school youth, Magsilbi Tamu! Another technique
I used in school management as a Kapamangan school leader is whenever I go
to other places, I make sure that I have simple pasalubong, usually food.
Madalas din potang atin okasyon king bale, kabukasan magdala ku pamangan.
Agyang king miting mi sigurado mung atin pamangan agyang nanu mu. Kayari
ning miting, eating katuki. Potang mamangan kayo abe-abe, mipapamye nung
nanu ing atin pakiramdam mu, metung kayu mung pamilya at makakayanita
king pagobran potang a establish mu ing family atmosphere kareng maestra
mu.” (When there is an occasion at home, the following day, I bring food. I
think it is effective, it makes you closer to one another. I want to establish
not only a professional but also a personal relationship with the teachers.
Because when you eat together and share what you have, you establish a
family atmosphere. Even when we have our meeting, I make sure that we
eat together even if they are just simple snacks.) – Principal E
Drawing Patterns and Themes
“Metung pa siguru ma’am itang pamanalakaran ku king ustu at tutu kasi
ikit da itang tapang kung arapan itang karapatan at dapat kung ilaban. Siguru
daya ng kapampangan ita, “dayang asu” ada pero king pamanungkulan ing
tapang ita iya pin ing katapangan king pamanalakaran king ustu. Basta balu ku
atyu ku king ustu ali katatakut.” (As a principal, I’m not afraid to stand and
fight for what is right. I think being brave runs in the blood of
Kapampangans. When you know what is right, never be afraid!) – Principal F
The aforementioned experiences imply that there are Kapampangan qualities
and practices that principals value. They believed that Kapampangans are brave
when it comes to fighting for what is true or right, dedicated to their work, fair, just,
respectful, and honest. Though these qualities are generic, the participants
considered them as dominant qualities of Kapampangan principals. Such qualities
helped a lot in becoming an effective leader. These Kapampangan traits manifested
by the principals were also present in Sicat (2003). He described the Kapampangan
Guidelines for Analysis Process
identity as courageous yet considerate and humble. The famous Kapampangan
educator, Alejandro Turla Quiboloy, was known for his courage to fight for what is
right. Dr. Vidal Tan the 8th president of the University of the Philippines, also a
Discuss the guidelines in the overall
analysis process.
Have the students answer the guide
questions based on their research.
Ask the students to explain the
importance of having guide
questions to follow in the middle
of the analysis process.
Kapampangan, was described as a man with a sense of fairness and a keen mind.
Former DepEd Secretary Andrew Gonzales, who is a Kapampangan, possessed
commitment and integrity and led the department by example. The qualities
possessed by Kapampangan school administrators were also manifested by
principals as narrated in the experiences of the participants.
GUIDELINES FOR THE ANALYSIS PROCESS
As the researcher moves between and within the steps of analysis, it is important to always
keep some guide questions in mind that will help one reflect on the study’s purpose, research
questions, and potential.
What patterns or common themes emerged around specific items in the data? How do these
patters helped shed light on the broader study question/s?
Is there any deviation from these patterns? If there is, what factors could explain these
atypical responses?
What interesting stories emerged from the data? How can these stories help shed light on
the broader study question?
Do any of the patterns or common themes suggest that additional data needs to be
collected? Do any of the study questions need to be revised?
108 • Practical Research 1
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
233
Do the patterns support the findings of other corresponding qualitative analyses that have
been conducted?
fOrmat Of the Data analysis
FORMAT OF THE DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSIONS
In writing this part of the research paper, it is differently titled by various educational
institutions. Some of these are “Results and Discussions,” “Presentation and Discussion,” and
“Analysis of Findings”. The presentation, discussion, and analysis are usually included in Chapter
IV of the paper. However, in an APA style of writing, the chapter includes the results and
discussion.
Major Elements
Presentation of the data. This showcases the data for easy understanding of the reader.
They can be displayed using tables, diagrams, or other figures for easy comprehension.
Analysis. In this part, the knowledge and logical understanding of the researcher is
required. The important data are given enough attention as it will be the basis of the
final results of the study.
prOcess, results, DiscussiOns
Discuss the general format of the data
analysis process, results, and
discussions when using an APA style.
Have the students discuss the major
elements of the section.
Interpretation. In this part, comprehensible statements are included after analyzing and
synthesizing the patterns and categories that are derived from the findings.
Discussion. After the analysis and interpretation of the data, the discussions and
explanations of the results are needed to give a more logical and empirical basis for the
conclusion. The transcripts and personal narration of events that serve as proof of the
themes and categories are mentioned in verbatim. In this part, the results of the
investigation are compared and contrasted with reviewed literature and studies.
CH APTER SUMMARY
Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and interpretation of
patterns and themes in textual data that answer the stated questions.
The following steps are involved in data analysis: getting to know the data; focusing on
the analysis; coding; entering and organizing the data; cleaning the data; identifying
meaningful patterns and themes; and interpreting the data.
The major elements of qualitative data analysis section are the presentation of the data,
analysis, interpretation, and discussion.
A researcher should keep in mind guide questions in moving from one step of the
qualitative data analysis to another.
Drawing Patterns and Themes
APPLICATION
235
assessment activities
Read the transcript and then write the objective codes. Then, analyze the data and write
your interpretation on the space provided.
Interviewer: How are you adjusting to your current schedule?
Interviewee: Yun na lang ang ginagawa ko: differ my strategies. Mahirap 8 to 8 magdiscuss.
Interviewer: Giving you a new schedule, what will happen?
Interviewee: Nakakapagod talaga!
Interviewer: What are your other needs?
Interviewee: Needs sources sa mga materials kasi kulang ako sa mga books.
Interviewer: Ibig sabihin we have no textbooks in the library?
Interviewee: Limited lang ang mga editions, at nauunahan pa ng mga students.We don’t
really have enough in the library. We must have foreign authors because we
are using no books.
Interviewer: Why do you feel that we lack resources?
Interviewee: Yes, ganun pa rin, kulang ang mga naiibigay. Sabi ko sa kanila we have limited
resources for you to discover additional information as you look for books in
the library. Ganun ginagawa nila kahit sa Internet. Walang madalas sa library.
Interviewer: Besides these, what other needs do you have?
Interviewee: Others? Wala kasi simple lang ako.Hindi ganon kapasyonista. Di ako nagfacial.
Ganun ako kahit dun sa previous job ko. Siguro what must happen are more
confidence, lack of preparation in the school. In the small things? Chalk siguro.
There are instances na walang chalk eh kaya di ako makapagsulat sa board.
Sometimes, I go to the other room to look for chalks.
applicatiOn
Ask two students to read the
interview transcript.
Let the class listen to and analyze the
conversation carefully.
Have the students write their
interpretation of the conversation.
Ask the students to share their
output to the class.
Interviewer: How about professional needs?
Interviewee: Trainings and seminars to attend especially in communication, mostly about
dealing with students.
Interpretation:
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 109
Name :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 12
ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA
research activity 12
Ask the students to fill in all the
sections with the required
information.
Allow them to go to the library to
research on relevant resource
materials and utilize the
computers for research purposes.
Give additional guidelines in
analyzing and interpreting the
data they have obtained for
their research.
Date :
Provide the required information below. Refer to your proposed research study.
Proposed research:
Conduct an interview using the questions you posted in Research Activity 12 to start coding,
and identifying themes and categories.
Write examples of transcript derived from the interview:
Question:
Interviewee 1:
Interviewee 2:
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
12 by detaching it from the book.
Interviewee 3:
nOte:
Drawing Patterns and Themes
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final research
paper will be based on their output.
4. Based from the transcripts, what code (predefined or emergent) can be formulated?
5. What themes did you identify?
6. What categories emerged from the analysis?
What level of interpretation will you apply to your findings? Provide a sample opening
paragraph below.
110 • Practical research 1
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
237
CHAPTER
The Formulation of the
18
Summary of Findings,
Conclusion, and
Recommendations
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter,
the students will be able to
discuss the ways of
formulating the summary
of findings, conclusion,
and recommendations
and
OPENING ACTIVITY
Recall a story from a movie or a book where the
protagonist is conflicted with a moral dilemma in the
ending. Write a summary of the story and then provide
your own version of its conclusion. Refer to the questions
below as a guide in your writing.
formulate the summary of
findings, conclusion, and
recommendations of
your research paper.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student
will be able to
discuss the ways of formulating the
summary of findings, conclusion,
and recommendations and
formulate the summary of findings,
conclusion, and recommendations
of the research paper.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
What is the story about? Write a summary of it.
How did the story end?
Do you think the ending and the choice of the protagonist justifies the earlier events of the
story? Why or why not?
The Formulation of the Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations 239
Opening activity
Ask the students if they agree with how the movie story ended and if they want to improve or change it
and how.
Have them write their own version of the ending.
Let the students answer the guide questions and use it as a guide in writing their essay.
Have the students write the essay about their recollection in a one whole intermediate paper.
Ask the students to share their output to the class.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 111
If you were the protagonist, how would you have chosen to end the story? What would you have
done in his or her place?
investigation
INVESTIGATION
Concluding the Research Paper
Ask the students to define the word
“conclusion” based on their output in
the Opening Activity.
Have them explain the purpose of the
conclusion in a research paper.
Discuss the objectives resolved in the
conclusion section of the research
paper.
Ask the students to identify the sections
of the conclusion section.
CONCLUDING THE RESEARCH PAPER
Similar to the opening activity, a research paper eventually comes to its end point where all
the ideas presented in the earlier parts culminate and rationalize the findings of the study. This
last section is a very crucial part of the research paper because it binds all the concepts
presented in the paper to point out which direction the research is ultimately headed.
However, no new information should be presented in this part of the research paper.
According to Berry (2000), the concluding part should be a nod to the opening part. In his book
The Research Project: How to Write It, he stated that “the formal aim of the paper should be
stated in the opening paragraph; the conclusion should return to the opening and examine the
original purpose in the light of the data assembled. It is a prime error to present conclusions
that are not directly related to the evidence previously presented.”
In this part, the following are resolved in the research paper:
The main points of the study are restated and summarized.
The researcher’s questions are validated by the findings.
A deeper meaning of the research is conveyed.
A need for further investigation on the topic is highlighted.
A solution to the problem is recommended.
The concluding part is comprised of the summary of findings, conclusion, and
recommendations.
Summary of Findings
This section serves as a brief restatement of the components of the research paper. This
section includes summarized statements for the overall purpose and objective of the study, the
type of research used, the nature and size of the sample, the locale of the study, the main and
sub-problems, and the major findings of the research. However, the restatements should be
straightforward but still meaningful.
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
It should also state the findings from which the conclusion will be derived. While these
should be written in a concise manner, the clarity of thought should be considered. To do so, the
statements should be written in a way that the questions under the statement of the problem
are expressed first followed by the findings that would answer it.
Summary of Findings Example 1:
Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development of
Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013)
In summary, the participants believed that the principals of the three divisions
exhibited six prevailing leadership styles as viewed by their teacher and themselves:
being strategic leaders in facilitating the school improvement process; (2) being instructional
leaders in managing the processes of teaching and learning and managing human resource and
professional development; (3) being external leaders in designing structures and process that
result in community engagement, support and ownership;
being managerial leaders responsible for various administration tasks of running the
school and seeing that the facilities and resources meet educational needs; (5) being
ethical or moral leaders in demonstrating conduct to the highest standard through
personal actions and interpersonal relationships; and (6) being cultural leaders
possessing positive Kapampangan traits and observing and valuing Kapampangan
practices that helped them become effective leaders of their schools.
Summary of Findings Example 2:
The Level of Performance of Instructors: Basis for the Formulation of an
Academic Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2015)
Looking at the qualitative descriptions of the students to the instructors in terms
of strengths, the instructors are strong in mastery of the subject matter; explain the
lessons; give enough examples; are good teachers; and have humor. This denotes
that the students are satisfied with the knowledge and inputs of their instructors as
they give enough examples. The theories and principles being discussed are
thoroughly understood by them. These strengths should be sustained if not
continuously enhanced.
For the areas of improvement, the students said that their instructors should
further improve the following: speaking in low volume; tardiness in class; lacking of
instructional materials; speaking in a fast pace; lacking interaction; repetitive
instructional methods; poor time management; boring classes; poor classroom
management; and unclear grading system. Labeling these comments, it could be
112 • Practical Research 1
The Formulation of the Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations
241
inferred that instructors need more improvement in their instruction and classroom
management. This only affirms the indicators and variables that need further
improvement to establish quality of instruction. This is very important because
though instructors have a high knowledge of their subject matter, how to impart
them also needs care and consideration.
Summary of Findings,
Conclusions, Recommendations
Ask the students to define each section
of the concluding part of the paper.
Conclusions
Essentially, the conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings of each problem.
These insights answer the questions presented at the beginning of the research paper. However,
the conclusion to be drawn should not come from the indirect implications of the study. It
should be limited within the information actually yielded by the conducted investigations.
Have them describe the purpose of each
section in a research paper.
The conclusion is simply stated and must be devoid of any elaborate discussion of the
findings. Each item in the conclusion is a precise statement directly answering the stated
problems. This section should be stated in a way that reader will in no way doubt the
correctness of the entire research study.
Discuss how these sections should be
written, what their contents are,
and what their scope is.
Conclusion Example 1:
Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development
of Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013)
Present the examples of each section on
pages 241-244 and point out and
discuss how the sample sections are
written.
The framework suggests a requirement for school leaders to develop a
portfolio of leadership styles. Principals need to be able to carry out holistic
leadership, head, heart, hands, and feet aspects or styles of leadership and adapt
their approaches to the specific context. This framework reminds principals of the
need to maintain balance in dealing with their multi-faceted life.
Conclusion Example 2:
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers:
Basis for a Human Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2003)
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn.
Intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies are highly related to each other. The home
management styles, hobbies, involvement to civic and cultural organizations, self-esteem, selfmonitor, and intrapersonal competency are positively but negligibly related to school
effectiveness, while age, educational attainment, training, home
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
atmosphere, locus of control, risk-taker, and all the other specific variables of
interpersonal competency are negatively and lowly related to school effectiveness.
Human virtues and machiavellianism are positively slightly related to school
effectiveness while administrative experience is negatively slightly related to school
effectiveness. The factors of school effectiveness are human relation skills,
professionalism, and management capability. The proposed human relation
intervention program is strongly agreed to be implemented.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, recommendations serve as practical
suggestions for future research in similar fields. They are envisioned to further improve the
pertinent variables that were the subject of the investigation undertaken.
Recommendations are expressed in clear and concise terms. They are relevant to the
research problems and are feasible for implementation. The general recommendations may also
be stated giving suggested measures to concerned agencies, institutions, or to the government
that may lead towards the betterment of society in general.
The researcher’s final recommendation is addressed to other researchers who may want to
pursue similar studies. Moreover, suggested topics of interest or variables are given. In the case
that the qualitative study is conducted to propose an intervention program, the
recommendation will be the adaption of said program.
Recommendations Example 1:
Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development
of Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013)
Since this study is limited to a specific context and sampled a small number of
principals, it is recommended that a similar study be conducted in different contexts
that would explore and elaborate the role of culture in managing successful schools.
It is also recommended that a research-based, competency-linked, and a 360-degree
evaluation or triangulation process for Kapampangan principals be developed for
evaluation of performance and basis in changing of high quality professional learning
programs.
The Formulation of the Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations
243
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 113
Recommendations Example 2:
The Level of Performance of Instructors: Basis for the Formulation of an
Academic Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2015)
With the abovementioned conclusion, an academic program to further develop
the performance of instructors in the different departments of the Saint Paul School
of Business and Law is hereby recommended.
to investigate whether they are likely to overcome the apparent disinterest of
Americans, particularly the youth, in foreign news. Besides testing those news outlets
for one week, we explored the coverage and financing of these outlets, and we are
communicating with their editors and writers to best understand how and why they
publish as they do. We will evaluate them, following a rubric, and categorize them based
on their usefulness and effectiveness.
Source: Sample Abstracts by University of Montana n.d.
Summary of Findings:
Objective of the study:
CH APTER SUMMARY
Nature and size of the sample:
The last section of the research paper includes the summary of findings, conclusion, and
recommendations.
Locale of the study:
The summary of findings serves as a brief restatement of the components of the
research paper.
Main problem:
The conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings of each problem which
answer the questions presented at the beginning of the research paper.
The recommendations are identified essentially to serve as practical suggestions for
future research among similar fields.
Conclusion (Imagine a plausible result of the study and write a sample conclusion for it.)
CHECK-UP
Read the text below and provide the required information.
International Headlines 3.0: Exploring Youth-Centered
Innovation in Global News Delivery
3.
Recommendations (Base your answer on your
written conclusion.)
Traditional news media must innovate to maintain their ability to inform contemporary
audiences. This research project analyzes innovative news outlets that have the potential to draw
young audiences to follow global current events. On February 8, 2011, a Pew Research Center Poll
found that 52 percent of Americans reported having heard little or nothing about the antigovernment protests in Egypt. Egyptians had been protesting for nearly two weeks when this poll
was conducted. The lack of knowledge about the protests was not a result of scarce media
attention. In the United States, most mainstream TV news sources (CNN, FOX, MSNBC, ABC) ran
headline stories on the protests. Sparked by an assignment in International Reporting J450 class,
we selected 20 innovative news outlets
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
The Formulation of the Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations
assessment activities
checK-up
Have the students read the sample abstract of a research on pages 244-245.
Ask them to fill in the required information on the summary of findings, conclusion, and summary of the
sample abstract on page 245.
Ask the students to share their output to the class.
Refer to the sample answers below.
Summary of Findings
The objective of the study is to determine how traditional news media can innovate to
maintain their ability to inform contemporary audiences.
The sample involves 20 news outlets that are considered consistently practicing innovation in
delivering news.
United States of America
The main problem is how to overcome the apparent disinterest of Americans, particularly the
youth, in foreign news.
114 • Practical research 1
245
Conclusion
The study has found that while the traditional media outlets are pushing with innovative ideas in
delivering news, there is only much that a print media can do. Considering that information-sharing
is now greatly technology-driven, most people prefer reading their news in a more accessible
electronic format on portable or handheld gadgets such as laptops, smartphones, tablets, etc., over
the traditional forms of media. Thus, to further the innovation in news delivery, these traditional
media outlets should also consider utilizing contemporary forms of media.
Recommendations
This study has only focused on identifying the reason behind the disinterest of the people in
reading foreign news. Its results have shown that people now prefer using more handheld
technologies in reading their news. However, news in an electronic form requires an entirely
different understanding of how news delivery should be made as compared with the traditional
media. That is, future studies should focus on audience reach, news format and layout, search
engine traffic, and interactivity between the news writer and the readers, among others, as
considerations in news delivery.
research activity 13
Ask the students to fill in all the
sections with the required
information.
Name :
Date :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 13
CONCLUDING THE RESEARCH PAPER
Provide the required information below. Refer to your proposed research study.
Proposed research:
Write the Summary of Findings section of your research paper below.
Allow them to go to the library to
research on relevant resource
materials and utilize the
computers for research purposes.
Give additional guidelines in writing
summary of findings, conclusions, and
recommendations of their research.
Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity
13 by detaching it from the book.
3. Write the Conclusion section of your research paper below.
nOte:
4. Write the Recommendations section of your research paper below.
You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
additional research materials.
Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final research
paper will be based on their output.
The Formulation of the Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations 247
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 115