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Biology Notes: Classification, Cells, and Evolution
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Biology TopicI claasficatione characteristics of organisms - characteristics of Living organisms Movement : action Bespiration by Sensitivity : ability : Wutrixion : the : detect stimali sense or inareaase i n s i zea n d alry permanent Reproduction Excretion to tsat procasses from the remowal taking in o f more make prganisms materials for of intersal the im causing in molecules mutrient chemical reac tions t h a tb re a k a l ow n : Groawth : o r p a r to t a n orgamism organism an a amangeof p o s i t i o n o r plaae living axternal or mass by a n i m a re a s e i n of kind tme same of calls to release energy epwiromment and to a e l l mumber aen or for metabolism appropriate maice size or responses botm oragan ismm and tosis materials , tme wa ste products o fmetaabolism substances in exaess . aevelopment energas , growth and that reproauce Elassification A s Es . species It is defineh is classifia a Binomiaul systamm : Animalia s hordata singdom , onylam a as into group of by groaps organisms the can tmat features to proauce fertile offsBring theysnare scientic mammalin ' lass ' ☆ rimates oraer ' Homibiaae Faminy 3 sapiens Homo Genus Form : Genus gpecifia > Bicnotomouskeys s usea to idemtityan organism by series ofwestions ayout their π < √ * metabolism " Ewery life - sustaining cmemical reactions in of an species orgamism aelns featura . Homosapiens - is ( capitalsower 3 spesies > E☆ neneral marme Hhemars made up of two parts Evolutionary Relationsmip - classification types : Morphologuy Ethe overall fo r r m and sbape o ft h e organism d Apatomay s tme detailed body structure DNA sequence - lead can to wromg elassificatiom dissectiony Ccomparing t h eb a s esequenceso ft m o species - similarity, on alosety on related ) Features of orgamisms Tnef i ve kingdoms : Animal , 1 . - - - . plant , Fungi , protoctist , prokaryote Animals 2 theyare Eells feeal nave on Anirbal . malticell ular mucleus organic , - but mot s wal Eel substanses Kingdom plkunts made , cnloroplasts by otmer livinag - things - theyaremulticellaul a r c e l l s hontain nucleus ,cenmlose feed caln and walls cnloroplasts pmofosyntmesis by pnylum E vertebrafe ) Enordante VERTEBBATES Tnese are animgalst n at n a re abackbome Fish Reptiles Bray . - scalyskin l ay eggs om dry land Cold - blooaed . . cold Ex gnake , arocoaila . - AmBmibians bod ies on for Gil ' s Rubbarry- shelled aggs Ex scales . braatming moist blooaed grouper , goidfism Birdg Feathergand wings Fur . war m 2 . Aaluts Live bloolea Eendothermia 3 legsamd a wings , xforelimbs . Hewe . Ex . Swan , wrars young warm . . Frog ears , mammaray Can dotmermia 3 placenta a cow mfrom ik on bloodea Externoal Ex on , Toad bair or Feed water - bloodel . larwael i ve i m Mammals Bealas a n d lay eggs with nard smells skin colal EX - slirmy lay eggs in mursan glands lanch wanter Amimal . kingdom , Artbropod pnylum ( Invartebrate ? IW WERTEBRATES tnese Aracmniaus . cEepmalothoras and abdoman ) 4 pairs . of jointha . legs - more than s . gaqkbonas witmout Insects 4 pairs of jointed legs . , pairs of 3 agills . antennae smider . Erab . jointel legs Eacmsegoment pairs of wings Bair pair of andannae pasirs of 2 I Ex 3 Fungi . ( Ey Mushrowm , yeast ) . - calns 4 protoctisf EE 4 Amoeba 5 nave - mucieianal pnotosynthesis s . - - prokaryote( often mave wallscxcelllose) parasiti propbytic o r nutritions - grean algae 3 ursise l alan Een wall Escellmlose ) * saprophytic * bu f call Ex . Bncterian , blua rommeleusor - Bair at least one joimted legs of antennae E ☆ Eentipeae Butterfly . . - I . of - . mutticellular - mamaysegmants . ( neaad , thorax ablomem ) throughs E☆ myriapods part body 3 - Exoskeleton Breathe nDastennae Gx amimals arustaceams part boady a . are parasitic : ' and aytoplasm mitocmonarian feed live on on deaal otmer or decaying material organisim - anicellular sawe mualeus , some s some may . lusmoaium ) butsome multicellular nosthy nawe c a l n wansand Bmotosyn thesise and some aploroplansts feed on organic substances plant . - - kingdom save wo leawes not - Fernsc x pheslum ) caned tronds proauce flomer kingdom s pDant . , tlo warinas keprodalce byflo wers and seeasa reproausedinsiade be am divided sporas on tme of unaersiae fropas geeas owarcy the growps tme into by plantsEx Bmylum ? - - reproduce but - momocotyledons and Distinctios between monocotylealons dicoty ledoms and dicotyledons 13 Flowerg momocetayledon : petals in Dicotyledon - petals i n multiple 3 of multiple of 4 or 5 ] leawes 2 monocotyledon: paranlel l e a f weins Dicotyleadon : rexiculatedt . - veing viruses not s Bo - leaf Has * living tming mot carry genetic out the saven materian aknA Reticaulated all or lite processes DuAJ insiale a , but take brotein intercommected an dfor m over a most cel ' s soat a n wen - l i ke me tawork mexayolic patmwaty Topic 2 organisation of organisms cellstructure piants Animals Bo not mavea Bo not s - . Eel - cellulose a e l l contain . Store carbomydrates Hare mervrous to Able - - - - septains mitocmondrian : place in the permament the oanly i n plants centains * protein syntnesis : * cellulose : BDlymer : grees centaips process of in controls mhicm insialef r o m outside carbonydrates store - ponot bave starch as or suarose nerwwasEooraination tmeir functiors activities the of guaose ; site of many anemical reactions ; aomtrols wnicm sumstance c e n e n t e r o r leawa protein synthesis and ; cals with their nigh rates af metabolism nave sas E salts suagars . cls molecuias make many of therm apd vica wersa funation cmiorophaylI pigments andt h eanaymas wmicn cell inter mal c e l l stranathmre gives t h e c a n ex f r asuppor to f alefininag cell the ,s i t e o f respiration aerobic : racuole w a l l s made o u to f ceclalose - mater , dissolwedsoutes ] ; sepportsin aytopiasms : made o fcenalos amloroplast : membrane distinat a blace material genetic sustance[ of site to EAnimall l amtJ callsand botm im the structalresfound wa l n aen witn muceus glycogen as from move Ribosome : Found - ca wall a soordination structuresfound wucieus cell cellscontain bnotosymtmesise x cell membrane : geparates - membrane amloroplasts cytopcasm g e l - l i ke - a distinat ae pucre n sw i t n cellscontain dissolwed Brot ein in for water 3 : its smape pnotosyntnesis used for storage ; supports the snape of the cell Baateria a e l l s L E ☆ . - - - - microscopic ac fobaacillus , L single - cellead organisoas cel wall ( made o fpeptidoglycams , c e l l mambrane , aytoplasm , wo mucceus plasomias , bas but circular a prasent ( sman rings No mitocmondria , cnloroplasts - Tney might nave Iaentifying cell - - - - pmeumococcus ) mitocmondriaa 4f amd chromosome BowA ] - otmer flagellam Esingular floating DiNA af contaim ribosomes extra in tne cytoplasmm gemes mem brame ) o r flage " mm apural ) - s lomg. thin , wnis- i ke tails t h a t aow strwatures .tounathroagnoutt h e cytoplasm withim the caytoplasm o r attaeaned t oEndopl asmic Endopbasmicmetiaanlum . loDks rouagm unaler migner mangnificatios , mibosomes vesicies : . Ean presamt free be sean under a meticulwm bicrosaope smal circular strauc tures i o nt h e castoplasm anem to move ? Organisationofcells . hivide t o belp owr body groaw colls pred to waaw cells a re Broaused alivision trom of and ropair existing Eens speEialised calls - - Enarancteristias to Have aewelomed Tnay ssecialiseby undergoing alifferentiation - c e l n developimgs paarticular funetions per form it 's struc ture amal a maracteristic ciliated c a l l specialised . Wame celis ciliatea - cell movement Fanction ' animal in of i o nt h et r a q n e a a n d broncni muaes : extensions o f t h e aytoplasm Adaptantion mowe - bair - n i kestructueres Cailias whichbeat for m to throat the to mucus warwe E e l l Name Eell IWerwe : Adastatiom . longso Axon Functiom . is cell Tramsport of Alaptation : Sparm Ean with to run granames from fattysuaa th a Adaptation : boay to insulatinag tme aen Eaos marts other with tospeeas up tme impuise Raalblood Eell oaygen sbape haemogosin - to increased sur face transport baygan a re a - afficiant of diffusion oxygen cel spermaels cremetic material in mead for fertilisation Acrosome c o n t a i n s aligestive enaymes s mitoEhoarian : , barxs of cemmmnicate can Reproalectiom Functiom : Iwame aifferent it that so nukdevas -increaese arean f o r haemoglobivg No : end dise Biconcave contains Name impalses nerwes covered blowa Rea : that extemsions Has Name of conduction Function : is pacikear - release in a aontains nalf bap oidl bualeas 0t h a ta n sperm anergy t o r i t smobilituy of pane t r a t e a n egy can hx anromosomes s it ' tail ☆ Eayaycell Fumctiom : Eagg cell Reproduction Adaptation : lots of Haploiae cytoplasorw i t h mntrientsfo rtme pacsenes c e a l memsrane containsgenetic ayroawtho ft h e early ambryo puciaus Enaanagesa f t e rfertilisation - n oo t h a rspar mc a n enter . ssecialised cens i n - plants . Root : Name mair stbsorptiom Function : Aaraptation and water of mineran ions . Root h a i r i n a re u s e s sur face a re a Thin Boot bair Eeln Eell wacis water - tbrougn moves swil from absorption -oaximam a of water and ions wickoy noanlaropzasts xylem vessels wame xyiam : FunEtion : wessels of conauction A dastation : no Tmica : masoomy ll a continaous - tozlowpassage caped substance of tme slant Eolumn ot watar plant ; support of rumning throuagts it water higmin - able to support the plant sallisade mesopnyl c e l 」 ce ll : hotosyntmesis Adauptantiom :a o u m n containg . witn tme walls to mocytoplasm wals Balisade Fenction turough t o pa n a l bottoms Beaael - Name water Levels - rnany cmorplasts organisation of cels smaped - maxiomise an for abs orp tion of maxiomum sunligut : f i t Eroupso f c e l u s v organs s bragay systeons . : maave from ot of manny in lager oraganison similar different Growps as pmotosynthesis Basictanctional anad strustarealunits i n : Tissmes . in the tissues Drgans witb struc ture a living orayamism workinag together to perform the s a m e func tioon workiongtogethert oper tor m speaifisfametions relapecd fanctions , working together to per form body functions nagnification formal a Magnification = Imaages i z s: Ac t wal size lopic 3 Biffusion movement into e out of energy coming from move molecules . down graaient concentration a producing t h e i r brownian m o t i o n - . resut asa of kinetic energy region o f i t s lower concentratiorm concantration t oa ragion o f i t s nigner movemento fmozeaales from a cells random ameir movement Diffarsion i n cels cean i s surrounaed s Thay Biffasion orgamism restrictingt h ef re e movement o f orecules - membrame permeable livinag heips a a e n membrane by Bartiallay are anowing , obtain to to area volume ratio : bigager The [ Ex Root . Distanse : Tne CE 4 smaller the Temperatare . migber the Tme moecules t oc ro ss : cell cen molecules temseratere or , , products , and usually based Earry out water is Disso veat asan substances - Digested food - Toxic - can metabolic in can be morecales maxerials Ensure solwent be tme easily ) to trave l , tme faster the rate is tuey bave removed the faster moleculas move , as more energy . Tmis reactions sitwantioms around nappen in the tms fa s te r m ove m e n t across i tw i l l occur : body the bodky cel ' s cparto f ytoplasm ) osmosis A l l Eells a re surroundeal awater aan move in ind out by e l l membrame E = partiallyper meable membremey ot cal 1 s by osmosis ter v atrs reerkg . etens 「L 다 . results diffasion transported trom ato w nt h erate walls fonowing c a nb e moveh ' struc tmere is ,t h e s m a l e ri t s sur fase areat ovo u m eratio , slowinag nradient: tme greater t h e differencei n concentration important sice respiration water . om diffusion vini mave waste the a e l n l membrame , thareforefa s t e rr a te of aagainst concentrat ion aistanse a hair Bood capillariesa n d alveolus . some requiraments , remove Factorsthatinfluence Sur face only ' 이 " more collisions Osmosis in plamts& Amimals wafer moves when Cell ) gattinag into rigid a o cel Osmosis nall stops too plant aells in oa furgor mnam entering pressure - . . . Dsmosis animan in Animal calls * cranated : strengtu for mambrane againstt h e c e n wa u l 에 plamt the ; prevents Eell frorm moves into tme bursting water tme E e l l of t m e Eal 1 s, , increasing t h e furgor pressare ; making t n e m flacaid plasmolyseah ' Flaccia moves water out callg Animal c e l l s i n - and alilutes o l u t i o n :waterm ove s o n t mowes im water support Eencentratead soution : p l a n tcalls in . provide Ee l 1 g plant in bigger , pushingthe c e l l wasule gets cel 1 the , wilts i f n o f, the plant s Tme plant and tirm in a gnrivelea wp aconcantrated solution diluted solution : crenated : , noael wal absence tocreate of turgor cell wall pressure - burst - plasmolused become turgial - ransport ctive Movemento fparticles througn a s Ex using amergas , respiration mptake of aglnaose mptake of ions Earrier . I proteins are in the villi since . . cariar substance particies are small intestine of the being towerconcentraation t oa moved against the region o fhigaar conEantrantion concentration gradient by root b a i r c e l n s ambedded in the saubstancecombines witncarier 1 3 from a e l membrane froma re g i o n o f transports veleaseal substanses into ceal ael protein molaaules mambrane to pick up speaific moecule in the cell membrame bay using energyE ro mrespirationt o g i vet n e mt h eKimetic emergy Topic 4 Biological chemicals & most of the Tney Hyarogen ife in molecules a l l c o n t a i scarbom Eanyon living organisms , Molecules , Hydroayen oxygen Earbonydraate are Earbon , oxygen , carbom 더 o sugars [ Ex . oxygen , wnan tawo g l u c o s e morecuresTo i ntogetmer wmen lats of glucose " " monosacchariae ) [l ucose , maltose glycogen , fommeal [ Bisachavide ) "s starcm Eellulose , formed ( polysacbariaes ) is Fat ☆ most of them a r em a d e a p o f t r i g Basic upit : 3 tatty lyceriaes bonaed acias glycero ? l to tats ) , liseuia [ atroom temparature solid o , yarogen mitrogem Earbonydrates long enaims o f simple ψ lipiods proteins ana , organis m o l e c u l e s at tamperatasre room Eails ) prote ing lomg cnains Tnay all of amimo 시 ' ㅐ An tmere - basic t h m a same Eontain about are but struc fure 2D amimo 'ik group aciahs for varies each on 은 H 식 - acias : - Ci ‰ R amino acid with B group Food Tests Realacimeg sugan staram proxein × A @d . Hhata t ② . Ada Iodine . sAald Bimret ' ssolutior n o Aadas etmano 이 Bemedict ' s Negative positive Experiment soution Erean . to briclk red . Ds - n o c i n awa t h r bantm Eoraer solution Bluh × . a . mix witm Eolan distillea Add BCPIPsolutiom Aald food sample BlaEs . orange cloudy emulsion . . usa selution Blme aye disappears - brown Blme oEolorless water witamina . - Blue concentrantions wielets purple . Linias of o Blue DiNAstructure moleaulrt n a tontains Double Indiviau an . A units mucd eotiane Bnosphate twe Helix : stranas DnA of wouna are arouna callea the growts . _ α Beoxyribose bugar development of a l l organisms other each nucleotiaes Al muEseotiales Eentain Bases o n e a c h stranal M BRA and : a nstrand Df instrustions for 」 BaEkbone ot the the saame Bair up 3 A alarays pair ap witm s E always panir T Base [ A T ε or ε) . . cap mithG pbospbateancd with eacn otmen - deoxgribose sugar torming deuble but nelix differ in base opic b Enzymes Enaymes Bivlogical Eatalysts s wecessary not tor cmangea 1 ased m aa & up ot speed that the in up the of rate 」 Enzyma wnen Enaymes asteps 1 - I - 3 - * of the Enzymes wmen an proaucts substrate : ancyme is o proau at . Lock and complementary smape as emayme aml are they action substrates enay me the into moves leave of ave specifis to complamentary & u b st r a tebotmn ave specific sad s substrate prosdusts a rate that can sustain one partiaular sabstratk life sbape then is key to releasea the substrate from tna sebstrate mode l Action Emayme site at proteins ☆ ) reac tion speeds reastion . Active anemical a reaction manintain onganisms s a l l iving active s i te: mo mosacaleasy tme shape c l o c k sumstrante and key hypothesiss enzyma s u b st r a tecompliex fit lenger : vapdomly c o l l i d e with reseased to bat that mova a amcyrose aget Eamplamentary substrate is , enzyme - s u b st r a tecomplaxforms unchanged broken down or joined togetmer is the reaction Temperature Enaymes & Enzymes temperatures Hign s wo r l kfastest Banaturation : tmair at Increase 」 In in temperatamre - D c , anaymes fit tmay i n creages Eales mavem o reemergy → . - i n mam a n boady m i l l breaet h e bondst h a t h o i dt h e emayme smbstraatescanmot Benatauration i s irreversigle os mole temperatare loptimmm the tme into active canmot regaim activity of m o r ec o n i s i o n faster more in . . less saubstratas low activity succe' sfolcenisioms cellisions t s of w i l l oses its smapa reastion prochuats lass lkinetia energy temperature Temperature tembernture ㄴ suacessful rate oBtimmm W Increase temperatmres it adom o tg e t denatured , but s l o weal dowrs , Lomar and smabe tme : Fewer togetmer site 7 : 3. ε anaymes → 3 : , s ak inetic enerayy Active All site ontimum above being anzymes leformed are s Elenaturead mumber of succasstul Callizions alecreasas . Enaymes & 매 optimam 드t , ol 매i s t o o cnangisg moving plH f o r mosta ft h e encymes to o migp o rt o o low the active fa r amay site s trom are n - 2 , some acidis condition .t h e bonadsye t re e n a m i n o acids c a nb e aes no lomger fit optimom b l l with sabstrate cause s redncing s tbe troyed rafe of activity aenateration Bepenals emayme on wornas wmera in tme tne boaly ) moving away trom graauael loss of aptimam ac tive s i te sbeaeme s U At : extremeH Enzymes , wo are activity completely danatureas By activity lestroyed opic 6 plant Nutrition pmotosynthesis . The procass by wnicm p l an tsmamufacturecarbomyarates trom Green ) piants make oxygen Energy is released is required from gluaose a t tme same and aiasiae materians using energy trom liaght water tione process soytaine al this in carbom raw by anloropnyn trapping light ☆ chloropmyll : Gmean , - Transfars use& The - pigments refleatsgreen lignt tound in ameroplastswitmis plantc e l l s lignt omly into ' plantsare storage of carbonydrates carbonydrates produced duringpnotosugn tmesiscan conwertea in to s t a rc n for tGlucose comertedto - - * mectar plants can used in be used in suap ways : storage somwertedt oc a l u l o s e t o buicad - - green erergy Een walls respiration suarese f o rtransport i o s t h e pmloeroy to attrast convert Borimantors carbonydrates lipies for amino acids energy sourca in seeas into wmen sompined wixh mitrogen and mineral ions Minerals in prants cnlbropmsh s They magnesiom contains are crusial in plant amal nitrate ions gronth s photosyntmesis root m a i r c e l l s s o i )by blastsn avet oo t a i stmese m i n e r a nj o n s f ro mt h e * mineral : naturaly accaring Eauation of chemical Ecoz - t oH 2D inorgania substanca 7 coH 2 b 6 igntanergy i s convartead into + pnotosynthesis EDs amamical Energy in bonas the holding the atoms in gwcose moiecules cimiting Factors : something prasent in the enviramment in sucs smort that supply mater i s paeaed im s m a l a m o u n tss oi t i s m e t consiaeread it restricts lite cimiting esa processes fastor Temberature . . ) reaation wnen . Lignt nigmer t h e temperatare, thefa ste r Tne is controlled by t h e r a t ea f reaectiom enaymes to denature , the plant receives enaymes st a r t rate deareases intemsity . Tne Ata e ) more light certaim some otmar a point , increasing faatar is , light limiting tme faster intensity tne rate tme stops rate of increasing photosyntmesis the rate of Bnotosynthesis caryon aoxide c o naentratiom amem o recapbon dioxide i spresent , the fa s t a r t h ereac tion c a n o c c a r Tmis t re n d w i n ) . ceaf Ex . u n t i l s o m eomer continme camperature , lignt fac tor limit tme rate intansitay structure pathway o f carbon arioxiae from 7 Atmosymera Leaf struscfure , Aalaptations fon pmotosognthesis Air spaces , leaf me atmospneret o Enloroplasts by diffausion : mesophy cens s amoropmyll Topic Human Nutrition Diets & Deficiemcy . Bal anEesBiet : consists o fa l s , Fowa groups carbonyarates ; proteins lipias , : and maintaim : Bietarny tigre maintain apal of energy ; a : vitamin ; I 3 , Breaa , potatoes fism groportions Butter . storage: Fraits and vegetables ama vagetablas for intestine Emamical raactions busk … … Fruits for to □ il … Busn food ; vegatables take place : to , juicermilk graaims … requirements : Part of boay to gums , and makes u p skin , hair , cenagam 1 the Helss meat nealth : minerals vitamin repair ; Healtb : proviales ; Weedead water i the anch energy Insalatiom vitamins , Uvitasins source Gvowth mineras grous i n t h e c o re c t tood of : are absors Eakium 3 bones ; strong bomesand fruits , stranwberrias citrus dairy roducts teeth aggs , ) … Beficiency : saarny … N Deficiency : Ricket calkium , Iron : 」 Beficienay weeaea for strong bones a n d teeth. invonwed i n blooad naemogiobin Red weedead t o maeke meat , , grean cotting : milk , aneese … vegetables : ostroporosis . dietary warying Age more : Activity - meeas of amergy and scurvuy - , o Ricket be b ritamin can be for growtm Activitas , on enerayy seeded for for faster suppor t t m egrowtm oft h e cnilaren musale contrastion and cal respimation aeveoping Eoetas , Ealkianmand i ro n neearead t obuildbones . teatha n a d blood aeficianay E , axnamstion : Anemia treatea symptoons , reqmired on anergy a n d c a l c i u p s neeaed s witamin symptoms cam protein energymeededto pregpancy : r Breastfeeding : a on levels : indivialuars IB y oral bleeding ,tootn oss vitamin E … supplememts deficiency : Bone ☆ ain treated or , spontaneous intrasvenous by ,lack o f consurming bone growtm fooas , soft omtaining and weata bones cacium a n d vitamin D o r vitamion □ supplements Digestive system sAlimentary aanal : t h e passage along - 1 . stacessory Bigestive ostages of tood Ingestion the 4 . . Assinmilantion 5 6 . Egastion Functions - uf of taking substasaas movement passing mouth , stomacm ont Moutm I galivary and arinlk ) of digasted toodmorecures i o n t o of foed mot bas That a n a n d s mecmanisal -Tu b etmat of site smal , tne montn . commects tme contractions fooa smaller → will pieaas b a l bus the mouth to take place a protrasa digestiom io i n s a l i va s t a r t to diges tiom cnarning mecnanical . First saction Food timismes sligntly . - bringdigested alkaline Absorotion istestine of anad cong - ) inarease - water linea the is < in an used increasea s sur tace digesting staran area to ve l u m e ratio i m t om a e l to s a the tomgue s o i t c a m b e swalloumed easily stomacm tme besm foed ahowrn bolus astions ? enaymes proteinss digesting fo r proteases 8 ply n by epaymas in mere t enzymes pancreatia a 7 - Flieum aigestea fooa molecules sur face amsorbea takes plase willi witm proanses t h re e typers s are mouth area in tha tor absorption coson fseces i s sto re d i n t h e re s t u m a n d memoved - blood Buoaamum secona s e a t i o n . encyme moleaules faeces as , of food molecules solmbla FHydrocmloria asiol i s present t o k i r baaterin t Broviae optimmm p l l s m av l l i n te st i n e actions nels censo f t h e boahy wmeretheas digestion t a ke s p l ace Tee tmcnow s i te o fc n e m i a a n Banareas bladaher , organs s musate - r nto digestea Iaebsoryed been Amylaseenzymes : through throught h e i n t e s t i n e wa l l i n t ot h e Food i s snapeas intoa Desopnasgus boay the into fo o aintosmaller bieaes w i t h o u tcmemical ananaget ot h e ) Larage intestines ) , s m a l lfo o d moresales anasi o n s Digastive tme [ food breakdomn o ftarge , insol mble n o l e c u l e s movemant of stomach ' - break down Digestion Absorption body EEs structures t h a t fo o ddpes n o t passes tnrough( E y . L i ve r , panecreas , gall strncturas ' . mecmamical Bigestion reakdowm o f 3 anarmical w n i cmfoed passesthrought h e of digestive tnromgm the an u s 3 enagme camy lase , protease lipase , u st h e py a l ka l i n e thuid i n t o t h e cuodemumt or a i s e - ceming trom stomaab during cneumical higestion proaluces b i l et o emuisify Liver - Amino akiads n a t u s e al Blanlder Gall Types of tbey ) n usea are 3 tybes Imcisors - c m i s e l - of struature snaaped a juices s the sur face a re a broken do wy quiskny ? for bitiongama cuttisg , bitiong and helalimg ridges larger , flats a r fa c e sw i t h e premolarsa n d molars- - reease i n t oduodemaum increase to -pointeat o r tearing csanines . food cnem salival aigestivs teeth of produ c eu r e a ( aleamination ) human teeth to to exposure digestions manke protains b ro ke n dowm t o to to bile stores - s meamanical fats at eages the torcmewing grindinay tootm Enaumel . protects aemtige tme Bentine comtainsn e r ve s trom t m e p u l b . - . blood comtains Pulb : saum : . and and suppuy nerwes pink t i ss u l covering t h e t o o t hr e e t cament : root af toe towtm Tootm Decay deaay some bacteria 3 plaqae Tarfser Tne . t 3 . . 4 . in acias to ro s gutt remove eagas of teetm plaque feed on lefted dissolve t h e emamel Brusming treth Fluorine tootmpaste visits tsybaecterian stickyf i l m w i t hsaliva Cplaque )t h a tcoatste e t h the amount caused both a easy peducing Regul care to tme ar disease gum and is arDand Basteria 1 an d Tooth of , anl mowever can gums sugar sanal reacming sugarpreavants to if become it ane tme gum Emardenea ) i t cannot akids strengthams dentist q u i ake rt h a n enamel decuos enaml ensures * cargedropletsi n t os m a n l l e r Break any amopsats signs be removed of gum by brusning g u m disease .to o t h desay ? buyrespiring Cahissolve dentime regularny sremoves p l a a n e a n dsugary to can a l l awbac feriat o workt h e i r way i n t oroots laausing for m tooth tar tar alisease or tooth deEay : softer 3 3 tooth o's and infection . Tme stomach Tna ) stomaccn liminag com t rae tt o contains muscies bmysicalky sameecea n dm i xt h e to e a w i t h k noanas curming ) aigestive smices Bile cells 2 ' 1 . 2 . in main the liver roces of produce bile : a u ka l i m et omeatranlisethe myaroamoric at is It breaks bladarer b i l e wniami s t n e nstored i n ga acid alown large drop o f E a t s i m t o smaller ones larager sur tuse a v e a a l l ows lipaset oamemically ) from Eomes wnich stornacn the Eemulsification ) . brealcdown tphe libid ionto gyeeros anad tatty acials faster Absorption movement ef adigestedmoneaulesf ro mt m e digestive systam to tme awater i sb o t h absorbed i n b o t h s m a l l s large intestine ,b u t 8o% blood Eglucose an d amimo acidss nappen , in s m a l l intestime , Iymph cfattay acids and glyceool ? Enzymes Digestion in Amylases . Broaduceal moutn in ana tma pamereas s t a rc n i m t om a l t o s e s Bigest hs Than diagests maltase maltose i n t oglucose o n t h e membrameso f enithelium liniong .broteases Broausea , pepsin ( stomacn 3 s Frypsin [ aluodemum) pamareas and Break nown proteins - aminoacias into brealks proteins istro peptides breaks imto peptides aminoecids Lipases - - - stom aen in proalkea bapereas in Bigestlipichs acials fatty in to and gryce이 Hydrochloris acid stomacn This 3 pepsin ana bacteria plH lDw t i u i al i s nyaroamloric acia tme kills s gastric juices several broduces of s one nas oaw very gires the denatures asid an slHfo r enaynes enaymesi m basterian Eells optiomum B t h Adaptations of thesma I l e a r m i s vary ) Increase mnicrovili s faster ] rums away maintainimag s fur tmer cell fast absorotion sur face imarease a re a trick metwomla smaln ot blowa capillaries tmat tramsport ghucose amd ar nino intestine honcentration gradient througn centre from anas sabsorption a from maintaiming glaycerol ) with a re a wisli ona adifEasiom amay Lacteal efficient rs we l n supplies acias a surtaae tme on wa l lo f will o f villi nigmytoladear sur facev i t hmillioms l o n g and n a s tme Intestine the small comcentration intestime gradiant of in the the vilnus lympm to transport fatty akids and of sma ll intestine Topic 8 transport in plants xylem& phloem xylam wessels tramsport - anad water minerals from the roots to the stemss leaves wascu a r Bamale pmoem vessels transpor ttooad materials [ saucrese ☆ylem . walis water wa i n s cells : thsickened witm celled extensioons absors water betwee n water enters consiaered . bigmin of apiaermis minarailsfrom and buy osmasis E difference Inareases tne surtace Inareases the raete 3 to roots ( stems of dead t n oce n strengthen the comtents ) tubes - sapport the plant cells Hair Root ] leawes Funation nocress sinagle ana aminoaciass from the in cells in tke root soil water petential ) area the absorption of water cosmosisJ and mineral ions cactive transport3 l akenby Pathoway . Dsmosis water awatert opassi n t ot o o th a i rc e l l s causes 3re o tc o r t e s 3aylem wa s s e l s 2i e a f mesopmy Eells Franssination . wa n te r trawels a p slaom sroots 3 Adaptatioms s - of ☆ yl 9 m aepositeal in the - - - that has baem to mep i twithstandt h a prassaure all wans is enese Ee ln s b e c o m e nocdowalost * i n ayles onmly movement - water lost aue transpiratioon to af water the at takes ecauses of c e l blace in sylem c a l i sto of the masopaylls e n s and diffusioptbrougn of orgamarpes ama cytoplasm ) one dirac tion the water movement lies cumlike and join to form pmloem ? Transpprantion : mina ral tramsporting surfases : strengthems the plant cighis Funations o f tme . l o sso f wa t e r vapour from p l a n t learesby Evaperetion Transpiratioan - replace to ieaves prowide water to proviae water fon keeping the lkaves ions keep cens targid o ft h e plant u s sepportt h est r u c t u re pmotosymtmasis cool cconwersiom of waxer s wa te r vapoer uses neat energy 3 a centinmous tuabe stomata . Transena Streameras iratiocted t o can moves - water - Transpiration Ls - threngm proauces a n a l te rmolecules ansion the a are tension Effects of on tme comesives o wa te ri Ratee f transpiration o n a ncontinuous tramspirationstream aaylamvesselsin = water wa te r i nte aylem by tha s leaf 3 d ro e t leawas pulled dep ☆ morecuiles a re puned u pfaster Temperaturee wind speed & Humidity - wilting watar * Boto metar E a n b e u s e d t o investigatet e e r a t eo f tramspiraation evaporate d of s aells : strepgtm the of water awailaple lant a ren o t t u l l the cen wals in of cannot soil wasten support the plant collapse s . Franslocation sel mble ] of products transporteal throwagm pmotosynthesis . pnloemsom aale segars ( sucrose ) ut hiriosg c e l l s a re joimeasw i t h moles i nt h e end s Easy ot flow ana aminoacias sieve blates , calls ) walns aels - substancas sink m translocatiom : transport of sucrose anal aminoacids in the pncoam , from regios of proahwction to region of storaage luse W sompse many goes - paring im winter, aln airac tien may transport trom spurae other to parts 30 respiration Exceptions buring agroamth period ,storage orgams tme pyant grom , l e ave s * AEtar = sourca = sourca roots , = , growing p a r ts sink = sink caen ba continued - absence of leaves Topic 9 . Transport - cirEulatory system sstemo f Animals . in blood vessels w i t hapump an d valvest o a n s a reo n e - way flow blood of mammal Figh circu l atorysagstem i n mamon circulatoray Fisn in systerm al ☆ Figm - chambered Two - heart anad and a Cgoing througn sing ) a circulatiom double circaelation Cgoing neart the once 7 Mamomal . - - Four cnambered heart Right side of tne neart receives the meaart receives of side Left . Aalvantages : Bloodtraweuing an deosygenated oxygenated blood tbrough and and blooal tme it pumps pumps it neart to to ' t h e m e a r t , pumpealagain w i t han return to lung Spalmomary travel cira ulation ) ciraurl ation ) Esystamic body the can t through t h e cung capilaries , losebressusre Blool trom t m e lungs towice , the fast preasvere cells in the pody could receive Os and glusose frequenthy ⇌ 、 : - - . - Heart Mamomalian . the ceft in Bloud diagram = prampeatowaralst h emeart i m va i n s and away is Two sides ot the neart meart is made of Tme rignti n o u rsEwiceversaa ☆ is separated by a tissue I blood meskce musale way supplied by strustures of tme meart weptriclas mave ceft vantricies - thicker have masche tmicker mall muscle wall : open to ventricles samilaersar , veft Heart : . wnem tme atrian contract Snutwnem wantricles Eontract fio wing baak into . the atria unly , the wal ' -veft . Riagnt Atriam s out of lett Atrium with migner tamo tup and blood urtaries of the neart out of tme Va i ve s i nit with open ventricuescontraat to skut wnen ventrickesre loas , sameece prevenfing blood bloed flowing back neart into the neart leff wentricce pressure dewxygenufed backwards blowau ar teriesa tt h eto nmen Rignt ventriale pumpsaroundt h eemtivebody withnigherpressure , but mixinag o f oaaggenated prevents blowd the vapves Founali n s Bicus ☆ i 와 meart the of Dump blond balsic tuanationo f Valves i s t o praventbloodf ro m tlo ming Tricuspid prevant bapnd tbiakmess They meed rignt thaen t aw D siaes of - . In terms of Arteries s The the separatas separatet h eat ria from vantricies iear t ary septam oaves Right Eoron The Atriorentricior . callead septum at ria tman arteries in rignt pumpst ot h e lungs bsowa Funstioning . Beoxygenated . onae - tme xokygen BloDl - blood The this is bxygen - ated flows into the sthrougn rignt atrivam Tmick slood antery EAmrougn punmonary into the tme blDod laft atrium [ throeghmt h e Bunmonary wain , nave cow I Atriovantricalar pressure vavwe or left tme i n to wousd of walls left the ventricle in t re takes capinaries place undar mign prassure 로 wentricie semilubaer to strongly contrast burst valve ? walve ) semilanar thnougmt h e capinarias p a stt h e a l v h o l i where g a seacnange to reterns blood the a n a d moves lungs the to and pash right sideo f t h e m e a r tsmoauld muscle 3 contraat B1D0 의 - cawa wena wentricces paussesthroeaghmt h e picuspiah It 0 body from the awp with blood .t m eheart pumpsanalpush t m eboeht ot m erigntvantricle cthroughtricuspia /Atrioventriaular trarels wnag Heart i s filled atriam oxygenated - blood of the Tnem a l l - of the pusm blooad a n a r o uond the body cthrougn the val ve aorta ? ∅ : - monitoring activity of the heart Heart Activitusc a nb e measured by usinga n EEEn Emeasuring Heart Raate Land Talke yoer pulse rate ' . - - This will pulse shaaw raths is af rest the t h at The Heart Rate so sufficient blood is s ot h at it waste After the that anl ows exercise , measured , apd meart pulse rate to tme proquct to be listaning to the remowea and to musciest o brovikle at beat a af walwes alosing osing stethosaope ) may talce several activity tnem with ooinastes to restimag r a te retcaur nt o morm al … anougn mutrients and obygan for increased respiration rate faster faster sounas measere t h e pulse r a t eewer y minute u n t i l i t rex u r n s t ot m e axeraises luringpuysical cworkimag Eontioues or minute ) per r a a te increases auring increases neart bpm abeats thena f t e r s o m e axarcises takem the in for a wnize emsuret b a e ta l l to exEess awaste products ere removed fram musale λ : . - - coronary Hear f The neart is made The blooal is supptied If a Arterias . . coronary become not of by artery ecaestic completely Boakea: Nartialy muscle Blocked : the Disease E☆ celust h a t meedt m e i r ow w nsupplso f bloedt o deliver oaggen coronary beaomes in partially that carbon biosiae ar teries or completecayblocked by awmiam caenmot acomodate cell . , g l u c o s e ando t h e rm a t r i e n ts f re m ove westeproducts area of the ploed meart Eatty they are adepogits Eaelned ' plaques ' Cmaimhuy formed nolestero ? forced to - leahong ana mo to Eoronary Heart . . . Disease longerc o n t r a c twmicmeads to heart attack to t h e cardrac musale c e h s whicm woucal reseltseverea m e s tpasirm caned ' angiman min creates restric tion D E bloadflominas wnen not be able to respire , Eans 3 RiSK FGCTOrS TOr EH 3 . Boor o stress s - - - - moresaturanteal fa t,ou cmDsesteren levels Biet Eating ' Hign blood smoking Genetic Age . Hormones produceal c a n i n a re a s e : : press ure Nicotine pre disposition : r Enender Aage , a anance ☆ . walls Tne . a coromary of fa t on bloakage in the brood heartdisease increause in Coronary browa torm ar taries cots on it . Tnis may bloakt h e blewd thoow pressure the Enance of yourself f CHB teadevelop : m a l e s a re more likay Redusimagtherislks - vessel on cmance , cause vessels t o b e m a p rowa r , Family with - - damagei o s causes Eigarettes in blood press pre cmancea f plaaanes . a EH ☆ ofEH3 Qheit smokinag piet : redace Exeraise in amiomal fa t s a n d moref r a i ts a n l vegetabces) megaularly : Dearease bhoul and pressure reasere Reduce in snoresterl levels stress a ^ ^ .31 ood vassels ostrteries - - - - : . Earry blood in Dsygemated blood asceptpulmonary artary 3 Tniak pressure m u a s cu l a r wans witn WarrDw speea mign lamem of flow - elastic fibras . . - is tast - Veins : ' carry blood i n owar pressure Deoxygepaated Thin contain lame rm flow - is slow Eabillaries sarry : within tissmes blood at 1 0 wo 「 pressare oxygenated and leDxygematad - walves of vain ) - wals Large ospeeal blood Cexcept pelmonary - o n e c e l ltmiEk Lealky twalls speea of Elow is slow Eirculation arounal the body Ar teries n a r row capillaries widen to to and them ar terioles vennles anal then to caBillaries weins * Arterioles a n d vemules conneatEapillaries to as they pass tmey move anway arteray and veim ans Adaptations of Blood vessels Arteries - - - - - . - - Elaastic Fibres . warrocw lumem : To bwithstandbign pressureand maintain To maintaim high the pressure as it recaits pressure veins Varge valves Lu mem : : As fhe pressure prevant backflotw of thiak and is low bhood a s i t i s under l o aw prassure Eapill arias ona Eeln realky waal wall a sped . . Easy plasma Eam afficientdiffusion ceak u ta n d of substaunses form tissuefauid surroundiong aens throu s e f te rt h e blood ElDw gh from the the respectivaly organ organs components of Blood Bloed plasma : plood red of comsists - blawd wnite Eells , Real bloodc a l l s - Biconcawe ab is asw i t h wnite blood platecets - : ∞ 탸 pransport celrs De fema Blood carbon caissolved ) reqairea boay against blood cotting alifferent muste n s , types nawe sligntls diffrrent stouctures and Eunations cels Bioxide in naemoglosia banty of Brepain s o mualecesbut containing big cells of Fragment the by infec tion C im respiration aerobic for food snutrients ) digested , tme , urear . mineralions of okynaemog lobin ) for m . normones and heat emergy bathogems clotting plake lets seab Large : Transport oxygen Involved , Blatelets and piasossa cells aosoureal liqaid straw tor m torrnatiep I t remains in scabs prevemts skin the wmere af entry nas cut punctureal or that microoraganisms ws k i nbas p l a c e u n t i l me been cae s e coald gromn unaver me atn it infection contimuech , significant blowa loss . : : Lagrmphoaytes & phagocytes blood wnite o - a re part ' boay s the of i m m a e n e system , defending againsti n fection by pethogenicmicroorgaamisms Bnagoaytes carray out Have sensitive Tney will They mave - - calls pnegocy tosis melti tnat sur face cel enagulf by engulfing the - can pathogens cobea neazees and digestimas Bathogens dateatchemicalsproauced by patmogenic and aligest tham and their granular aytoplasm witm digestive calls emzy mes ympnoaytes prodweca antiboaiest o destroy imey nave arge m e a l e m s , and pathogenia szear , non - cels and granular meatralise Eytoplasom the to xins reeasead bas pathogens Eomversiom o f Fibrimoge . the wnan A series skin of is [ ex brolsen awounds ) . o c c u r witmint h eaood reactions rthrombim - blateletsweh eas e cnemicals and - form The insolubhe an cot eventu aky mesm tmat driesamd devees paatmogen i s tme stop bleeding blasma fibrimogen solule intoae to Broteins sonvert into insolebze fibrim t h o e woundf ro mbactar i a s c a b t o proxect Disease & Immunity - Pathogensamd st cause ar rive to forming acet , Topic to . platelets Barriers a disease - casesing oraganissss a re paathogensa re bassed a nf ro m s o n e mostt o another a n d therefo ret h ediseasesthey c a u s e Birect contact : pathogen Inadirec tcontac t :Tne ( Air meahanical . . - cels . . pathoganccavest h e h o st and i scarried i n s o m e way t o anotmer uminfected wate r , Eontaminatea . . strancturet h a t mace of Hairs makes i t difficmstfo r in tre anemical b ar r i e rs: . ' psessed diractlyf ro m o n e h e stt o another bytroansfer o f body t h e i al s s u a n gkin : coversa m o st mose : : made i n stomacm aaid : . wnite blood bnageaytosis produainag body the : if sabstances producead hemmkus . - bar riers is various contains Calls - anorls enguls antiboshies : k n ow na s transnnissible it by sur face it to prewent ana digest Cluomp for Bathogens heals imme to get Bass the acil bods that trapt kill body . patmogens get bathegenic Eens reaaminag areas them and s o tbeay can ' t pathogems before trappea in wmicm i s stronag enovegm patmogens patmegenic cals or semen [ eg. Hw ? indiviceual into body the aliatevy patbogens to g e tbassthem p l a c e s i nt h e hy adroanloric , it as blood bites ? insec t diffiau ' t cut is , chizease of and can to kiscany tme boaly be they get removral pathogens the to reaEh that thay can replicate lungs further by have into cougming bran , tme body blowing tma mese aanegnt i n mucus 6food laerink irn celns togethar so theayEan ' t m ove easily cagglutination ) andreleasingEmemicals t h a tsignal Eomtrolling the spread of Bisease simplest wayto prewent diseasei st ostop pathogemsEros . AEtive mak - inag Tnere . . - * Ac tive Immunity amtibodies anal are spreading two Infection ways of dewerobing memory for Immune Active canns for response Eutare response to : Batmogams Wacimation imrmunify is slow aating BDlydefemce amanagas too amed proviales tonag -asting immunity infeatiom is known as Active Impvenity . - - - - - - - Antiagens & Antibodias Al cells mawe Tnese are proteinga n a l kpown c a s cymrsnoaytes other antigensand n a avet h e substances are abplituy specifia Tne antiboriesastt aaEmt ot h e antiagensa n acare Tmis meaens At the make timh , In smis sema ineinfection is now , ot sell membrane of c e l l s ana ecognise any that onove anange ube a made therea r ec e n st h a tneead few days . during wmien to be time an destroyed in dividual m a ny g e t sias specifia petmogen w i l tham m a kememer ycelns quiaktyi n greater quantitias a n d t h epatmogens a r e d e stroyed immmne the cell easily productiom antibohres specific t oantigens t a kea a can foreign are agghutination Ealmmping together , pnagoaytes t h a t antibedies may Ca 기 on t h e sur faeces cnemicals a n re re l e a s e d t h a t signal t o people beome pathogens tyme their compleman tarysnape t ot h e antigens o n a n esur face o f t h e patmoagemia whian a r ea batnogrmicE e n s E a n o n o t tme same antiboares cymphoaytestmathave made antibodiesfo r - that then - - to to re a d t h e antigens Thay Tn e i n i t i a l responseo f - trom projecting antigems wmrcm woulan ' t b e affec tivet o tme petoret h ey multiply lascination Yacqinations vacsines The an 1 Daw a dead proluce to Antiboariesattaram - Tnose - specific antered or for m of Eomplamentary the to amtigens providesprotection fo r t h e - os wnen disease " Hard Ismunituy numbrr ancreabes the the tor create quicklyresponed bercentage s b the - body s ' to defenae againsti n feation from cacesinsg pathogen , wnian response antigens memory c e l l s an actmal in fectiom immunity arge emougon - boost the preventing the spread of . and diseases antiboaves memoraycels wouwlal homg lasting - agaimst pathogenscamnotcagause ilIness but provoke a n immune ympbocytes - give proteetion of of the enxive bisease popalation Bopulation ; is few waccinated places " bropra nsmbar vasqinated of infactioms aecreasa , mass infaction fo r the pathogens to breed sontaims patmogensw i t h o u ttme meeal specific antiagens to be to be infaated introaluaead Pass ive . Fast s - s smort , Amtibodias 거 elps frem pass young to does mot boaly terom dafence airedaca Enom a n o t h e r indivichmans Antibodies The . actimg Immenity aff fignt intestions its make infant to motner owm breast milk : until immunitay becorme its antibodies or memory responsibhe cens cmolera Enoleran aausesdiarr noea loss of wateryfaeces can kad . cause . can o ⑬ loss heatm of sigmificant treatead be Brink with vibrio . to oral by smanl 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 6 . . aettach Tmey proalece and ions galt and sugar to water , i f i te n te rst h e somalyimxestime i t c a n Eare s e the imtestina arall a ntos ion Toxim stimulates Lower arater potential is - wate r mowes watery water basterian c a u s a s cholepa cholerar Bacterian . ②t renyaratiom theraupay armount Ingestedi n intectedtood s 1 amounts taeces the oaut c e l l liningt oresease cmloride ons of tre the lemen c e l l tro lramers L asarosisy to the lomen inmess Topic 11 - of Features cneseEraturesa l l ow - - - carge sur face Tnin walls Gopd ventilation . Area : Ensure with Gas the Allow amourt faster ahiffusion air surfaces Excmange maxiomus s oood ot aiffusion alistances Blood gases of remain supsly . to be ecbangeaacrosst h e tur facewithin smaisest amovent gasesacress tha maintain s Rouna 3 Tnin Enped The Brea thing s u r fe a a e 3 the a s 1 □ a5 time Ratio smort } . Exchange Gas - concentration sur face : walls cone anir 1 blooad ditfusion so gradients ocurs faaster Increased ssuratio cel tmiclk 3 supply system Ribs : Bomestrusturet h a tproteats Intercoastal muscie : muscle betweem internan . organs Eex lungs ] the wnicm ribs Dimpbragm : shaeto t aomnective tissme a n d muscle tme thorax wind bipe tmat of trachea : - Enanging the volumme connects the mowth its movement at the bottom of it con tro ) ama nose to tme lungs warynx : voice bos ; broduse sounds Bromamispls , bronaosuses 3 : laoge tubes ome bronanus air wmen brananing for her 은 pass off cacn the fracmea with lumg Bromchiolessp ) s , broncniole : Broncpisplites imto s m a l te r tabesEaired bromahioves anicu are comneatea alwhwl : Alveoli : Finy air s a c s h n e re g a s escmanage takes place 와 to Bifferences in Imspired & Expired Air . Inapired Expired hos air ygen Eanaled aok 6 carboon D Dioxide 0401‰ $% 78 % 38 % . Inareageal있 : becreased l a i p r a r tHoan ts water molacules Ex nalad air + os nitrogen : air contains n o re a t e r air - oxygers for ' increasea deareaisead constant Becreased : carbon Bioxide : Inareased ; respiring a e l l s3 by to oxygen aiffuses trom a l ve o ' n owitrogen :constamt than inside : Nitrogensannot b e of Imsiole Abe ribcage ) a re muscles push ribcageb a t can p u l l s o t h e yneead taro Tnaay saround t m e tracmea[ fanation - Tneir - IEtmey is to support anl airways keep them marem o tBresent tbe s i d e s woalas Ewnlapse s wmen , the inner air pressure drops □f ED 2 ) E = the Lungs nas lower retcarning to the exbireda i r is cwar mth concentration lungs of the bodies the ribeaage sats of musares cone t o ana bromani ) the cencentrantion 「 t museles rexarning to t h aa l ve o l i i n tet h e outsiale of ' bigm ( Internal & Extermal 3 sets can of diffuses i n t obloed → bhood our tare intercoasta ' blood cartillage rings . air than nas higher alveol ; xcarboon dioxiaefrom bloodto a l ve l ased s prodwsedfrom Intersoastal muscles os inmaled than released I condensatiom blooa carbon lipxide i s prodecedfrom respiving cans → cancentration Tnere femperatpre choudy a n a lwnitehprasenae water vampoer : Inareased;water ewaporates fromt h em o i st lining of . mignar respiraxion variables : oxygen i s removead from blool alvewl s - ain are Indicator . Limeruter time awafer woweld t a r n measons nas dering celular cungs i s warmed byc o re body heat in s . prodced 」 . ☆ nnalkd t % innalation ? open inwards duringbreacthing pull up and vice versay bodyht above ) air in Diamphragrm - - muscie of Tnin smeet I t is respomsible for controllingventilatios contracts It . d s air pressare tme in lungs/Boyle s laws s on air pressere outsiale [Comparative ? s d air prass ure s Air inside ( Hign > Air to Innalaxion s Breatming Intercoastal m - . The Esternar linternal tawD in wopk mussles as am Air in diffevent Internad muscles contraCt / Eaternal muscies relax ribs up and out Bressure move ↓ tneve l e m e ribs ana of in tmonax 1 o a the s moves doawn y s 3 Bair Coworncing antaagonistia relax the vo l e m e o f pmorans the proce hwre Emalafiom / Breatbinag musclascontract 9 d moves ovet . musces move s outsisle Bressare s1 in s ∴Inhalation / out usE leSEpuringvemtilation ) s s loaw ) vo l u m e o f tmoraas d a i r pressurei n cungs a s s moves abdomen lmngs Bomed smape - ' in the from Relaxes oa wolume o ftmoranx flattenss thorax the separates that Inspirantiorm Air mowes E ☆ out palation s ExDiratiom directions ) ventilantion of Effect of physicalactivityombreathing ana Frequency - depth breatning of r mu s cle s meealm o re s oxygmmme Is to inarease a n d h a e re m o re Cos t o b eremoveal → prodace anergy more energy meeded respire : : 1 - R ate o f respiration increases EOsevels imecrease iom - Ir 3 COa s - brain imto exeraises blooa plasma ancialic circalatomy the around semas Imcrease tme of sate - calls becomes vigoroes system ana passes to the braim cnemoracaptorsd e te c tinarease i n E oz l eve l anl abangei n p 매 Tme - blood : asihia Bowd t l ows 3 4 is for aells mesese EDs diffuses D u t o fthe → - the s impusses merve rateaanch Vantilation protectiom the deptho f omesaze ' increases of to the liappragon and intercoasta l muscies con fraectiom : t a st a n a dees breatns Breathing system toget removed The - s - Tney The s passages to the lugs a r elimed withailitatead h ave nairs o nt h e e n d t h a t b e a t gobiet is made by mucus traps partiales , patmogens mecus The lowwn epithelial cens amd Busm musust othepassagastoawarast h e ase and tbroat cens like bacteria or viruses , and dests and prewents tserm getting into tme lunays TOPiC 12 Respiration - Respiratimeneniniace Svoves ot ., - It axygen Caerobis ) witm blace witmout on oaygen Ean aerobic 3 s sespirantion oEcaurs in o Aerobic : : crytop lasm meed Humans cal 5 livinag an mitoan onalriaa AmaerobiE s - take Enarayasreleased aerobicaullyEnergyreleaseah a n aerobicaly s - aither cam e l e a s e c n e rg y eregre controlled ) the reakdown of p a t r i e n t m o re c aye s to Ahe released enargy durinagrespirationt ocar r y o u t mamy processes EEns muscle Eontraction , cell division … 3 Aerobic Respiratiomm ) - It chemicalreactions i m c e l st h a t a g a breakalowno f glucose the is to prodece to Dxygen targe produces carbon diosiave a n d wa te r a s w a l l amoumt Ee u l aar as It break down of to renease energy e l e a s e aoergy witheut oxygen putrient mececules eneragay energy wDrae Eaeaeation : . Glaecose + oaggem ) lioxide carbon + water same Balanced cnemical eque ation : CoH , 200 + 60 a s & 6 c@z + for yeast amimals oHzD Anaerobic Respir txpica aactions in a l s - Ipcomplete that b re d k down n e t r i e n t m e ca l e s to breaelk dowoso f s l u c e s e and produsce s m a l l amocant o f eneragy for animals 「 - It produces alifferent breans down products depen ching on the type o forganisms it is taaking plase in - word Eanation : aGl u c o s e . Anaerobic Respivatiom in Anim als place in musce . - mainly s - takes cduring vigorous Balancea exercise tme ssome of s higher hemanal fo r emergy , but gluaoses a r r broken d ows mitm okygen the energies are sti ) stored in the cnemical aEia equation exercise CEH ㆍ zDE vigoroas most of cells sLactic aerdbic respiratton requires , while s o m e a re broken bonals of actrea a i d s dows , Dxy gen to alo without , proauainag ' 2 C3H 6 D ☆ 30 lastic akial l e ssenergy i srereasedi n A n a e ro b i c respiraxiorm . Anae r w b i c Respiration im Tnis - s - is Earbom This is ased bread im diopide makinag Broduced useaios also yeast . dough canses to rise Aconol broauced s carbon dioxiae → Ethanod Bal ancea Enemican g i ve st h e e a r Broduced Equatiom : Enuaose breawing s word its givas anconolic beer its nature EoH nD → 2 czH 50 H * carbon dioxiale Eauation : + ZCD 2 feer Oxygem Debt ac ticancias builads ep s Tnis cou a d e n a t u re t m e s a l e c e l l s a n d lowers t h ep r y o f t h e c a l l s enaymesi n c e l l s s o r t smowia b e removead sta ☆ s : . J . 고 . 3 ma is . Eells exaretelac ticacicd mmen tme The blood passes @ tbrouagtst h e liver ,t h e l i ve rE e l n s talke ap t h e aEid acial g oe sthro ugb aerobicrespivation . Broaduscing carbon dioxihea n d water Tb is i s t h e meason s into t h e blooa Laactia acil amyme continme t o breathe n e avily anad shoulcl transportad from muskle cans by bleed , our and near t Cnutriantmocecule i s j u s t cboangeal rate cantinue remaims high after tha exeraise getting Oxidiseah i n t h e l i ve r celns from gluscosa ? lopic 13 Excretion in Humans Excretion in Humams - - . of memoval Lungs : Kidneys : the Exarete waste carbon exbalation ahurimg dioxias and ExareteExEass wa t h e r , salts reactions , Foxis metabelic uf sabst ances - coz proancinag Urehm by h formed ig main structures . - . ereter - Tube organs the that kianey filter to proahuced by organ -Tu b et h a tcennaatst m e bladder Cwhere urime esiais , reaminememts can towe r tme p l y of cenls -y enaymes reduceactivituy wrime l i ve r frem that stares urine i bladher kianey to the cxterion is releasea ) kidmey the exarete the bey : ef exaess bloed tne tma wrethran Tmey regusate 「 semnacting Bladaler : The - : wamoves in involved i n Excretion kignay : twobean - spaped . br substances aminoaeaiohs axcess . must maxeriaisand water toaia content of bleed t r a s t e productso f matabolism and . - mum exaess Tme start substances wepnron calso in the knowm as of the cortex kianeys renan tubulas ) kidmay , wep dowm into medaulla and baak up to c o r tex I3 u l t r afiltr ntion ) 2 . . Arterioles branam 3 form anet of capillkerias s 3 a Inareases High . har rower suystaungestiltered * soma the of capsule out - water salts - bolucase = . z] seleEtive wrea " " tne → cemes capsule glomerules from aortas out of the sapill aries f i l t r a te , orea , salts m i l l reabsorged b a c ki n t o loo 와 at oop e f H e m e a n a af Henie B rox i m a l Tubule olleating luct reabsoryed mot I a into ' Bomman s : "hoop " ' : - mepbrom each is t h e b l o o d t ob e foreead moleules form filtrates use ful Raabseryea , furtber scucosre water : somponentso f f i t r a t e - to alraceady mign was smarver causes get tney as pressure Cawniam bewmam ' s tse lead and renal arterny the capinlaries cglomerusus3sittinas rnsiale the the pressare into ) get otf Reabsorytion Gmcose is tme first suystance to be reabsorbecd at the proaimal comwelutea tauy m le s Takes transyort ac tive by pl ace wepnromb a s to tsa f mitoamonariaa s provide energy for active tme transpert Reab sorption oE glucosh Glacosei s o n g reabsoryed from proaiman tubmle - neophe w i t h a i a b e te scamnotcemtrolt h a i r blooa s u c e s e evel sm o ta l l glucase reabsorbea be can back i n to the boeal As t h e filtrante s - arips througnt h e w o p o t Henme , mecsssary G by diffasion mater fo l l ows - rater Ls is also Amounts and by active usmosis reabsorbean depenaling om wrine salts are reabsorbed transport to trom Reabsorptiom maintain ane tne now balamce cosmoregulation ? salt e watar c e l l ec ting duat mucm wa t h r t h e boaly neeas at time ot . Tne Liver many digested food - - Tnese inaluaes - Eacess aminoacias 23 they Se monacmles amino acias- canmot in the u s e ad be 7o build intestine are carried to the liver for agsimit lation fibrinogens proces caned s deamination Amino L 7 - the part Tne Ls Tne Es amino of otmer The wrean grous the of al amine removed acids- n t hy is moecule msicn ce n t ai n s carbors part wnicn is tanaen sonthins to the ε Hw storea brocan d o m n i n a are smaln nitrogen Kianey is to is turmead ba exaretel R - Group group turmeal into k - i n to gayaegem ammenian Enigmy and ㆁ " 매 caryoxylic acicd greup stareal tokics wnich is cemwertead - nign ureacancentreetios m ay lead to into urea E less tokia ) c e a n d e a t n l aiabetess d ionsulim ? Topic 14 coordinate & Response - ammaliamvervous .The . Tne - - the of consists : numan mervwus system cantral mervous systams a Brain and spinal peripneral sysfem E Aln merwous G Intormatiom is througn sent of merve as cerd ) in nemes tne system impunses bundhe boayy the - merve along cens knomn of meuronas : ner va maaromes as Types of weurones . bensory meuromes - Eanry impulsesfrom sense orgams to cN ☆ tne Relay wemrones : Fonnal inside t m e E u s a n d conmestsensor y a n a m o to r . - motor Axon ) - Carry mawe alomay wearones ) cess - weurones - Eell AlnDam is body them by impalse to Identifyinag the from fibrecaxon ) wasted insalated is Eleatrical Tneir 3 time impalses fatty a many sonnec t of smeath trom jumps types the tran stering contains to smal node extensiops other to called one uninsolated mext tme to cel anothar sections s it alonay aEficient [ noaes ) transport dendrites neuromes anal receive impulses from tyem , Eorminga meurone : mauromes : long , c l l buay Relay nenromes . s h or t, sman c e l l ong from impanse witm one many sensDry motornaamromes . pearonas the c a rst oe f fa c to rs( mmskce o r glanalss brcamaming body at off t h e one enh midale ot the witm uendrites mams axon bramcning off it , caraseE e l b o ay a to m e e n d mithi o n g dendrites bramecning off it n e t worls . Tne Reflexarc voluntary Response : ) - aonssious maka a with starts Invehentaryac t ion s a rerabid - - - Response Aatomatic to kelps Quicker your , wo o ut u particular aation : alamaage the mimimise than carry luntary responsest a ke omager wapia response t oa e and to brain : B o a s m o t i nvowebraima st h e cporalimator n o t awaret h ati t b a s compieted InvolumtaryResponse Reflex decision other amy type stimurms tme to of body nerwous response π 1 . 2 3 . . Tne pin Gne gensory Electris stimulus ) Impuise 4 Ralay meurone 5 motor newromes . 6 . . The send nourones musche win electrical passed is The synasse sunc fion - 1 Impulse . 2 . tnis travens . naurenas tbe along first axon maurone trigagarst h e ending o f t m e presynaptic neurotransmitxe r 3 two betmeen from molecules on tme aerass diffuse wanrotramsmitters receptor to rerease vesicles the synaptic of mambrane gap the and bind withs secomanmaaerone LG postsymaptic nanrene 4 . 5 . Tnis second stimunates Wauvotramsmittars s synaspes hs omhy place are ensure wnere mearone - way arug genaratr impmise destroyel t oprevemtrepeatead tmen ane to can trawes of ast to impulsa rmpulse affeat the mervows system a pain spressure I touch to motor maurome c a r r y imbulse a muscre in c o n t r a n c t and B a lt h efoot meceptor 7 → meurome - → sensory 3 in relay effactor mewrone response Refles Pathwaly anl the amay ] mecaptor spinal cora the neurone to to by impulse to Tne . on senmacts stimules motor detacted is the spinal passes tme leg ctme fram Relay the cord impuise effector ) stimulus neuron 은 semse organs - Reseptorsare LG - Detect abemicals Ear Sounad - . : specialised the anvironment cels anal stimunateelec tricaul impulse in respomse and food in the in amd arink air move ment Light : Receptor L 7 - cnemicals nose . Eye in pressures beat , bain . Tengma : - amanges stimmli oraganscentain group o freceptorst h a trespencht o speaific semse skin of growp pagsed Eelus ayenerate eleatrical i m b u l b ew b e nthey on to sensory peurome Here o aresponsewould b e Tmis effector The caries out → cand impulse decided om tme stimulated are anS , m o to r mewrame x effector [ w i a relay maurone 3 resmomse Eaye .cornea : Transparent lens that refrasts lignt as it enters tme aye [refracts the most? . . . Iris : controns mom Transparent rens : natina : Eontains muan dise ligmt tmat ignt anters can reseptor tme Enange caus pmpil snape Boas Dptia N e r ve: gensory mamrone t b a tc a r re s bupil : Hole that allows lisht to enxer the to and toces lignt onto the retinan sones impunses the aye asd simage formeas between eye aBlind sBot: rointw m e rea n e obtia merwe joins t m a re t i n a a s - - s re a s a m d aones c c a n n o t aatecz ligmt Aupil Refix seflea ac tiom car riedt o p ro te c tI m are t i n afrom Dim lignt: Pabil dil atesEaridensss aslo w Emaprows ) Brigntlignt : BuBil censtric ts 3 mo Antaugonistic pair of - s as muam prevant muscles c c i rc u l a r and toe lamage in ligat much Badial 3 light bright hine anal proxeat us trom adim lignt the brain AEsDmmoalation : . pme - arastia wmen - - object isclose up senes ) - - 3 - - tme eye in focusing cmmem the om anah mear susbensory ahistant objects ligamentsbecometignto r ousa ) contraction o r re l a x a t i o n o f t h e c i l i a r y mascies tme by hods ot cmange snape can brought Rols and . rens are Tnis - Eunction : wmen epject is far comesEells : to sensitive distinguish tybes sne fovea Roal c o l n s are is ot an aim ligmt between omes . area founa d i f fe re n tahors in brignt lignt re a , araan , Blma on al tme retina over the wmerea l m e sta l l rexina , except of tme blind come spot celnsare fonnah amay : in Hormones Humans oHormone c n e m i c a l substance proausea s Tney . Englectrine systam : T h el i ve r ragaulates Imsortant a . Gnucagon - Blood ) - . the knowm mormonesare Brinags . as bloed tmat receptors lood tne of mormones in in the numan boay : : be need to hormone the transtorming or . traansported can bind breaking comparison to dowm of any im werrous excess & Hormonal control : conxrollea by are made in the a megativefeed back pancreas 3 fhee frem fightor flignt' normone 3 gucose cevel fo r a adapgerous situaton prodeaed differentthings t o happen i n tmeboady Increasing blood hormones as supply target pnysical combat the bsoea spocific target organs more or the production o f insulios an d glucegon Adremaline : - one level lkve 」 s Gcuncose invowing Bets Insulin with cens Hormomes & of a n guod nave affect Hor monaso n l y gland anal cariead by a normones Ghanalsthatproauca glands Endeatrine activity the alters by increased , when boaly is in danger including respirationof muscle cells caryohenhinxide aelieerts tina and reatninraresatoasSuomaxsgen : Fireasvereoa - enentias umunkde . Dilating pupils to alld aw a s muah as ( Ey. Acimentarycanals t oreacnt h erexinafo r more light a s posssble t ot h e brain in for mationc a nb e s e n t Homeostasis : maintenance o fa when intannan anviromment conaitionswitnint h e boayn e e at ob eKapt Inter mal . constant of one these mixnin set limits deriatesfa r away from t h e m o r m a l . t h e boay will n o tfunc tion conditions control Homeostasis : Blood Gucose - wegative - it Feeaback or set poipt cevel of something rises control systems ave switabed on to reauce level something falns , contrl systems are swit cned on to raise mbat consiaared ' conlitions wben ocu rs the i t the ot encange from , tney stay I within Diabetes conditios . a par row range wnere Symptorms - of is and returms conditions to it it this set again noromall biooa tme gluaese incluae lewels are not able to be regulated as inslinc a n n o t b e proaluced insallivn … TMivSt tiredness wealkness / - Blurreau wisiors - - weignt - oss loss of censeiousness Paopren i t hTypeI s - - Biabetesmave to l eva l s o f puysical Blood . being axereising - with monitort h e i r bloed glacese ewels tmrougnouttmealay astivity amat h e i r anieta f fe c t t h e amount glucase teve lc a nb e meped careful point again : I tc a n b etreated by injec tirsg . iaeal tne 」 Tyme Broperny → aret foods ompoping that buy . wil n o tcause larage romarease bhowdagucese l eve l s awe s tomer of i n s u l i nneeled to rnareabed in blood respiraation is the giucese level mescies . Homeosta sis : Temperature our body nas to maistain struc ture of the s ki n anermoragulation by skim - . ime . comtrol temparaatureo f soptimmrn temperatare for anaymes : megulaation i s Eontrolled byt h e p r a i nwnicm aontamins receptosensitive _ - skin also nas temperature receptors s sensony w . . Fatty tissue under the weer m i s a c t s a s to h temperature brain ele c t r i s impuse w Brain t h e n s e n a simbulse t oe f foctors o f s k i to mmg manrones an maintaain t h e temperanture insulator of the bioead . vasodilationr wasoconstriction wnenw e a r ec o l a : wasosonstriation Ars teriol e ieading , . wnen rednkes we the mat skip capillariesgets Bar rowar ≈ amount the are to ot heat cesf ro m bloead by radicetiom ciess blood flows througn : vasedilation Blood vessels s blowd to flows at the skin Eapillaries a faster raate aget widmms , more meat is last by rediation the sur face of tme skin , - ropisrms plants Tney to maan towands grow cnanges in slower tham an amvironment for Light wathr grauwity ? survivan , , animans stimulus cpositive ) or awaag from a stimalus cregative ? Fropismons s . respond cam Responsesare s smoots mast > upwaras caway grow trom gravity ama towaras lignt ) Toanbso mbsunliagnt pnoto tropism positive an aa gravitropism megative RootS down ward Grow ) To ananor g oi l caway f ro m sight and pnant water absorb pmoto tropism magative . in to ama & positivs to warausgravity ? and minerael iorus gravifropismm Ace xing plunts responset ost i m a l i by preduaing ] plants They s the growtn their maeale mestay ara Aong . sentrol in tips the of oncouraga Aexin censentrated sEauses . - the Eravitropis ms Auxin ] on roots the to snoot lower . calls in Auxin concantrateae siate to bona towaraes immibits growtn sihe s benaddownarards : tne ame meristem on aiffuse to other parts grawituy grow the awenly smadea side 7 elongate and grow sum innibitsc a l n anzengation to mard and low ) to gro wtm one Aaxin Aexin growing ste ro n s andoots greaiant Enign cigntsmipeaevenly aroand t h e t i p : Light ' cnemically concentration pmoxotropism moomonecanled , lo we r simesgrow a ta s l o u we r rante faster than suany siae Reproductions sexual - Flowers ) gametes . . Femane s ollination . Insect poellinatad - . - - Adapted to Anthers so : by wn plants together in fertilisation graing owuces cnpollen i s transfered the trom that male part tofemale Bart alowars a l l e w i n s e c tst o collect poienf ro mt h e male wina pollinated Adapted u ve n ☆ Gametes prosess Eoma to male Gamates = of organs reproduetive are Enayhe Blants in p a r t and tramsfer to female tlowers wind and stigmas can nang easilg Eatan ponen grainsanal carrst h e mt ot h estigma tme fcower so outside pollen c a p b e easilg bloawn away pollen c a n b e Eas ily by stigmas caught tmat : part of anotmer flawer Adaptations o f inseat pollinatea larger, heawier - ) spikes and Aaaptations . casily outsiade pplinaxea arina Eangut the on sman , ligntawright s grains pollen noeks uf polan bay transter of Fertilisation : ane fusion of oxygen * war m th sarbon : emergy - - poll 9 n grains anther to sualeus a n Bolen an with stigmaa i mt h e st ar t - froam flowep allomwst h es e r at o swe l l u p a n dt h e enaymes Ererminaation - inseats nmcleus o f seeds : stick t o ovum .Gnermination water befter 5o grains Tne - s winca : pollination flower anayma dioxiae of can - is growtm in be base d n ot releasea the tor reaction : naeaed an seed ambryot os t a r t workimy germination nigmer temperature , germination improves so tnat growtn ocer cross pulination tme wman : polkem f ro m o n e plant i s transferred to the stigma of apotber but im provesgenetic - Raly - on blant sarsse spesies wariation ponimators gelf- Bellination : - pellan from a n f l owa r lamdo ni t s Dwmstigma redusesgeneticvarietya ft b e offsaring Ls less linaely that any offspring winn ave adaptations t h a ts u i tt h e m e aw aondition woluemtubeto r mation - Affer A pellination polien t u b e grows from t h e p o l l e n wu cleas foom . … Bellen t r ave s doawn wucemsanter t h e o r w m e a n a fuse grain tbe down the styre until it reacnes tube witm ovum mbalemsafertilisation ? aevele ps ouunes aewelop imto seeas a n a t h e ova r y into fruit the ovary Topic 117 Inneritance chromosomes Genese Protein . Inneritance: tramsmission of . cnromosomes s . Allelas The . sex be conid is Eontrol om protaim gameration to generation intormation DmA , carryinggenetic a cmromosome sum of versions trom in fors the af gewes wa 11 s cnaracteristies our aliffarent a re of of found structural a in formation likest ru c t u re s lwaatea i nt h e ucleus * Ganes . - . sbor t lengtho tBaA cGenes s tmread : genatic asaellagen code as tmay a particul ar that founa Eor gene for coales in skim proxeins : spesisic a protein calns that piay rolas impor tant give an other anaracteristias organisms thair in wnat our celns alo Enaracteristras inneritance of sex asetermined Femaiesr ☆☆ m a re x - by Dnly a fatmer 더alf - - otmer Inneritaince of of sex Ean the malf an pass sperm of can entire the be cr romosome is cnromosome celns sperm shomn contain aels using pair Eunike 3 a centain a responsible foruetarmining xcromaseme => u s awromasam es genetic diagram the Femave male apeameft sauare ) that sen are of just laterminea tme Enilal by ope o r a mummar of games ) Genes . & proteins eds The BnA tme process ot Transaris tiom - , s The : protein bases 3 syn thesis bas comvertea is two stages in bases gene a amine aetermines sase manA - . - Tme traves aede ot tman ribo seme of the geme is out eaEn moves ' reads ' muaieus to the traensaribeal onto out af the ode the the acids ] aaidsintoseananaei m a proterm ) of tmat seamen ca aminoaEias specifiaprexain makea molecules amino a a i a s Caentralledbythe seauence o fbasescontainead on rigosoms translate the ths an mkmA spesific sequence of ctoo ribosomes mucceasand Eaanaripleto f basesce ae s t o r a n s amino synthesis Brofeims a re made by ribosomasw i t ht h e sequence of ) of saquenceso f a m i n o asids g i ve a i f fe re n t smapes a n dtuonctions t oprateiom protein capnet series : pnA basessequencet obuilar af seamence diffhrant BouA prothins ca into araawritingt h eb a s ec o a eo f BmAi n t ob a s e so f BMA 1 Eusing Transio tion - ef series Ea RmA attasnes im big morecuce groaps toa of : te pass mmnA through malean Emessenger BBA 3 pores ) ribosorme three amineacid bases imto a sequence Df amino acichs tmat malce profeim within BWA ) proteins which Expression most . ∴ In are mot thay a re ' anl this wanyBMA ganes cell wmese a im energy the Diploid exprassed ofε only aell wnetber meams switameor of waste Haploid . gene a genes Ls - ot synthesised ? are anat gane two wualeaerivision giving a particular not or Darxicular call reseurces proteins are im the cell the a e l l Emrctiop oaan of stmpation a re witaul t ot h a tsel' bycontrepimg Eortrols copres in 1 : o n esopyo f eaana n ro m o s o m e ' - transarimea is : cnromesomme totas proauafios ( switemed expresea □f om ) proteins 2☆ of :to t a lof 4b Mitosis . s risf genetically identicaleor to ce l s a re s t i ll l dipleial ussad to r growth ,rapanir of damagedtissues ,replacement of aelss Each anromosome . cnromosomes 7 - . gtem : - A 17 ae l Eells line aiviaes in tme in pne up along in to t w∞ puceus copies tme centpre ae l ☆ * aygote s by mitesis tme uitimate diviode is aygote and preduae sfem daemgnter celss tmat can bacome specianisech cell adivianes sewaralt i m e s b y mitosist obacome a ef the body cexelmdinggameresy are uns pecialisedaellg Thay itself A a l lo t Vamspecialised cells embryoniastem cang 3 asacfly sforms cell wnere cEt λ - snapeat hromosomes ) fibers pull produseal by mitosis o tt m e them apart aygota . Meiosis N a ce a r aivisiom t h a t gives r i s e t o h e l l s t h a t genetically different m ) used to prodace gametas ases cens 3 of a ro m o s o m a snalve 와 : Bipspid → Haploid t Eacn abromosome m a ke s icenticarl Bivision 「st anromosomes : and thep and pivision : a e l lf i b e rs wid cnromosomesw i l n of itself the cantre aopies p a i r ms aeng but the ap anong cans will lina ef pairs the the ce l ☆ proquses . of fou r haepleias daugnter be proaucea @ gametesEeas sperm a n d egas cens 3 Increases genetic variation s mew combinations ∴ Eaan ofEspring of w i l l be of offspring mater nal aliaferent ana Batermal from any recomm ination Eentree f t h e c a l l balkt h e m apa r ∴ Total , amromosemes others oaours apart , cel tibars wis ) Mononybrid Inheritance Allasas - are As wariations awe maave of the same gane of eaan twoaopres o n e a u e l e i s inneritea t ro m : pmenotype Genotype - * Alle e s c a m cnromosome the motmer Tme obse wable amaracteristics Tbe combination of be vominant or alneles of that , me mave othar anl tne an organism control capiesa t each g e n e3 twoalklesfor twe eacn trom tne eaan gane tathen abarancteristic resessive Homoaygous Deminant Dominant =☆ 3o minant eteroaygous t Raaessive bominant => pominant tomoaygoasBecessivekeaessivh 3 Recessive Dominant + H Recessive Barabreeding : w n e n t w oindiviauals a r ab o t pnomoaygousfe r a Ls producing offsprimg w i t hexactly * inliviaduals a r en o t purebreedinag Heterozygous nonomybria Inneritance Inneritance of punneft Samare tme ; sama san cmaracteristicssentrolleadby a n partiaalar cmaracteristisamanb re al toghthe ,r genotype proauce and offspring Bmenetype with different gemotype and Bnamotype singie game psadigrea biagrams usedt o t r a c e t h e pattermo f i n beritanse o f a speaifia charaakeristic Casually disease ? codominance xacurgw n e n o t ha l l e l e s Ex . in me xeroaygous organisms contribate to the omenotype B o o dype IA and Allehes IB codaminant a re I s ' I ' i stheg e n e a n d iA' Bi st o a aaleles Sas - linked anarancyeristicg - - A l l e l e so nt h e anromosome a res a i dt o b e linkea wnen are aneles s Alamost a l casas - males omly nave iI Femakes atwo toama n t h e sexcnromosomes , , alel e s a r e ans ene tound on tma medeseribe inneritance pme sanromesome acmmomasome r smuan likely t os n ow s e a - : s tmat amromesome cinkea recessive a apromosomes ) arel i c e l y t oi m n e r i tsleminant au e le t h a tmasks is results muan as ises limkeg ' smaner cenditions nereaessivea l e i e s kn owos as ' saprier "
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