Module 1: Caribbean Society and Culture
Chapter 1: Locating the Caribbean
Geography, geology and the Caribbean region
Table showing territories in the Caribbean region
Subregions
The Greater Antilles
Countries
Cuba, Jamaica, Dominican Republic,
Haiti, Puerto Rico
The Lesser Antilles
Grenada, St. Martin, St. Lucia, St. Vincent
and the Grenadines, St. Kitts and Nevis,
Barbados, Martinique, Dominica,
Guadeloupe, Montserrat, Antigua and
Barbuda, the British Virgin Islands, the
US Virgin Islands
The Windward Islands
Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados,
Grenada
The Leeward Islands
St. Martin, St. Kitts and Nevis, Montserrat,
the Virgin Islands, Antigua and Barbuda,
Guadeloupe
The Netherlands Antilles
Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao (ABC Islands)
The Northern Caribbean Islands
Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, Cayman
Islands
The Mainland Territories
Belize, Suriname, Guyana
Definitions of the Caribbean Region
Geological definition: The Caribbean lies in the Caribbean Plate
01.​
and on the continents of North America, South America, Cocos and Nazca
Plates.
​
​
*a plate is a piece of the earth’s crust affected by seismic activity.
Historical definition: The Caribbean region is a socio-economic
02.​
and historical area of migration, ‘discovery’, colonialism, European rivalry,
enslavement, capitalism, plantation systems and indentureship.
Geographical definition: The Caribbean is based on the view
03.​
of the Caribbean Sea as a basin with the surrounding territories representing the
limits of the basin.
Political definition: The region is mainly defined as moving away
04.​
from Colonial rule, to independence. Most Caribbean Islands have a British
Monarchy (Queen/King) however, have political pluralism (different
government types). Eg Presidential (Guyana) and Dictatorship (Cuba). Other
political blocs (West Indies Federation).
Diasporic definition: A diaspora is a scattered group of people
05.​
whose origin lies in a separate geographical area. Many people from the
Caribbean have migrated all over the world. The diasporic Caribbean mainly
includes communities in the USA, UK and Canada, which have significant
populations of the people who have Caribbean ancestry.
Chapter 2: The Historical Process
The order in which they came to the Caribbean:
1.​ Amerindians
2.​ Europeans
3.​ African
4.​ East Indians
Amerindians
●​ Occupied and controlled the Western Hemisphere/New World before the
Europeans
●​ Left their homelands in Siberia, Asia and migrated eastward via a body of water
known as the ‘Bering Strait’
●​ Crossed this frozen bridge during the 4th Ice Age (occurred around 16 000 to
18 000 years ago)
●​ Ice Age resulted in a shortage of vegetation for animals which caused the
animals to migrate and caused a shortage of meat for hunters
●​ As the animals migrated the Amerindians followed
●​ The animal they followed was the mammoth which was their source of
meat and fur
●​ Different groups of Amerindians crossed over into the west at different times
●​ Some settled in parts of Central and South America
●​ Arrived in the Caribbean circa 5000 BCE
●​ There are different Amerindian groups and they can be distinguished based on
the cultural practices each group developed based on the resources which were
available to them in the locations of their settlements.
●​ The groups are Taino, Kalinago, Maya and Inca.
Taino/Arawak
●​ Migrated to the Caribbean from the Orinoco Valley Basin of Venezuela around
AD 600 - 700
●​ Settled in the Greater Antilles
●​ They were trying to escape frequent flooding, hurricanes and competition from
other groups for land
●​ Settlements were on flat lands to grow crops and near coast/fresh water to have
easy access to fish and seafood.
●​ They were farmers. They cultivated potato, cassava and maize.
●​ It was also to see where their enemies, the Kalinago, were coming so they could
prepare for conflict since they did not have a standing military.
●​ Ended up to the north of the Caribbean as a result of being pushed by Kalinago.
Kalinago/Caribs
●​ Occupied and controlled the Lesser Antilles
●​ Settlements had very little agricultural space due to them not being farmers
●​ They were fishermen
●​ Their society was built on warfare and trading
●​ Raided Taino settlements for agricultural produce and slaves
●​ Purpose of slaves was to work and provide the Kalinago society with children
●​ When of age, male children were taught the Kalinago way of life while the female
children were taught the Taino way of life
●​ As a result, two (2) different cultures lived within Kalinago settlements
*Kalinago and Taino shared Puerto Rico and Trinidad. Both groups were also
seen as ‘uncivilised’.
The Maya and The Inca
●​ Maya settled mainly in the interior areas of Central America: Belize, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico (the Yucatan Peninsula).
●​ Inca settled in South America: Peru, Ecuador, Central Bolivia and Columbia
●​ Both occupied high and lowland with land space that allowed for large scale
agriculture and their large populations
●​ Both had standing armies and complex political systems
●​ Were traders
●​ Mayans elected leaders
●​ Inca used a hereditary system (inherited rulership)
●​ Both has religious beliefs that gave validity to the rulers/leaders and their
privileges
Europeans
●​ Spain financed Christopher Columbus’ trip to spread Christianity, to be superior
over Portugal (had rivalry) and to find an alternative route to the East.
●​ Did not believe his voyage would be successful so they only sent three (3) boats
of prisoners to be a part of his crew.
●​ Voyage in 1492 (after 33 days at sea) led to the first encounter between the
Indigenous people (Amerindians) of the Western Hemisphere and the
Europeans.
●​ Voyage set in motion a wave of exploration, conquest and colonisation of the
Caribbean region
●​ Discovery of the ‘New World’ worried the Pope and as a result he came up with
the “Treaty of Tordesillas”
●​ This treaty was the dividing of all known and unknown territories between
Spain and Portugal
●​ Spain became the owner of the New World (Western Hemisphere) while
Portugal became the owner of the Old World plus Brazil.
●​ Gold and stone were discovered which led to persons, mainly the poor, fleeing
Spain to enter the New World.
●​ Conquistadors came to claim the New World for Spain and led poor persons who
came to make fortunes
●​ Colonists occupied and settled in the Greater Antilles due to being more
suited for large scale agriculture and being rich with minerals
●​ They settled in Hispaniola and established a permanent settlement in 1498
called ‘Isabella’ to honour the Spanish Queen
●​ Other countries challenged Spain for ownership of the New World
●​ Spain had religious and political rivalry with England, France, Netherlands, etc.
●​ Those countries financed illegal journeys in order to end Spain’s leadership and
settled in the Lesser Antilles due to Spain’s disinterest in them due to them being
small
●​ The Caribbean was used to generate wealth by sending raw materials back
●​ Labour was imported from Ireland, Holland, Portugal, France and England
●​ Amerindian slaves died due to hardships such as famine and other diseases
●​ Taino died due to genocide (the deliberate killing of a large number of people
from a particular ethnic group with the aim of getting rid of that group)
●​ Surviving slaves (Kalinago) retreated to the interior of the island
Africans
●​ After the deaths and escape of the Amerindians, new forms of physical labour
were needed quickly due to the Sugar Revolution in the 1640s
●​ An asiento (the permission given by Spanish governments to other countries to
sell people as slaves to Spanish colonies between the years 1543 and 1834) was
given to Portugal in 1515 to provide Spain with slaves.
●​ The demand for African slaves led to the Atlantic Slave Trade
●​ Between the 1500s and mid 19th century, it is estimated that up to 15 million
Africans were forcibly removed from their homes and taken to the Americas as
slaves.
Migratory Movement within and outside of the Region (from 1838 present)
Intra-Regional Migration - movement within the boundaries of the
Caribbean Regions. (e.g. from Barbados to St. Lucia). It also included the territories
within Central America to the Metropole (Europe, USA, Asia and Canada).
Examples of Intra-Regional Migration
●​ 1898 - British West Indies to Cuba (to work on the Sugar Plantations)
●​ Jamaica to Honduras and Costa Rica (Banana Plantations)
●​ 1850 to 1855 - British West Indies to Panama to work on railroads
●​ 1880 to 1889 - British West Indies to Panama to work on Panama Canal
➢​ Many people migrated from Barbados, Martinique, Guadeloupe and Trinidad, to
work on the Canal.
➢​ 4500 Jamaicans work on the railways. The majority of workers were from
Jamaica and Grenada.
➢​ 84 000 to work on the Canal
Extra-Regional Migration - movement/migration of people outside
of the Caribbean borders. (eg to countries such as USA, Europe and Canada)
Reasons for Migration (Economic)
●​ To escape political instability (eg the Cuban Revolution, Jamaica 1970s and 80s)
●​ IMF programmes which lead to economic strain in a country
●​ To escape poverty
●​ High employment/underemployment (eg Barbados: education is free,
therefore many people are highly qualified but can’t find suitable jobs)
●​ Low wages
●​ Employment opportunities
Reasons for Migration (Non-Economic)
●​ Education (scholarships, universities)
●​ Access to better healthcare (USA, UK)
●​ Citizenship
●​ To reunite with families
●​ Discrimination
●​ To escape Domestic Violence
●​ Perception
Positive Effects of Migration on the Caribbean
1.​ Remittances - money sent to your country of origin (eg through Western
Union)
2.​ Provides employment (when people leave, it creates job openings)
3.​ Reduces the demand for jobs on government
4.​ Tourism
5.​ Investments: great businesses to market abroad
6.​ Brain Gain - when large amounts of skilled professionals come into a
country
Negative Effects of Migration on the Caribbean
1.​ Brain Drain - when large amounts of skilled professionals relocate for
better pay or opportunities. Eg teachers in Jamaica
2.​ Crime -transporting of weapons, drugs
3.​ Spreading of diseases - HIV/AIDS or Covid - 19
4.​ Families are disrupted
Systems of Production
A system of production refers to the ways in which an economy is organised to
produce commodities to sustain society. All the functions required (input, process,
output) to create an end product. Systems of production were used by all racial groups
in the Caribbean and each group had its own distinctive style of providing food surplus
goods for trade and use.
The Amerindians
➢​ Early societies practiced a simple system of production, hunting and gathering or
subsistence agriculture (a farming practice where the main goal is to
produce food for the farming household’s consumption and survival.
Works well where there is sufficient land to maintain fertility.)
➢​ Taino practiced crop rotation
➢​ Their crops included cassava, sweet potatoes, yams, maize, squash, beans,
arrowroot and pineapples
1.​Slash and Burn Technique
●​ Taino men cut down trees and burnt the roots. They then mixed the ash
into soil to make it more fertile.
●​ This cleared the land in preparation for planting and got rid of pests.
●​ Plot of land would be cultivated for 3 - 5 years
●​ They used crop rotation in an attempt to not exhaust soil
●​ Technique was used by Taino and Maya before Europeans arrived
●​ On Kalinago settlements, Taino women who were captured did the
farming. Kalinago economy was based on fishing, hunting and raiding.
●​ The Mayan economy was the most advanced. Practiced large scale
agriculture and extensive trading.
●​ Method was adopted by poor peasant farmers during slavery
●​ In modern society, it is used by farmers who have limited tech and
resources.
2.​The Encomienda System 1500s - 1600
●​ Spanish colonists began new lives with mining activities, cattle ranching
and a bit of farming
●​ Used Amerindians as labourers
●​ Indigenous people were shared out unwillingly to a settler who was
responsible for educating them and converting them to Christianity
●​ This system, also called protection system, was supposed to safeguard
Amerindians from being abused but became a form of enslavement due to
them being overworked and treated poorly.
●​ Indigenous people either died from being overworked, European diseases
(smallpox) and those who refused to work were killed or committed
infanticide (the killing of a child/infant especially by a parent of that
child) and suicide.
●​ As a result by the mid 16th Century, Amerindians became extinct in the
islands
●​ Remaining present day Amerindians still follow Roman Catholic Faith due
to training
3.​Indentured Servant System 1600 - 1640
●​ In the early 1600s, there was not much gold or silver in the Caribbean so
agriculture became colonists’ main economic activity.
●​ Tobacco became the dominant crop produced
●​ Contracts for indentured servants stated they would work 4 - 5 years and
could return home and be paid or stay in the Caribbean and be given land,
tools and materials to start their own farms.
●​ Died from disease, being underfed, being overworked and being treated
harshly
●​ Indentured servants came from Ireland, England, Holland, France
and Portugal.
4.​The Plantation System 1640
●​ By 1640, demand for tobacco decreased
●​ The Dutch helped colonists in Lesser Antilles to establish sugar cane
estates
●​ Sugar replaced tobacco as main crop and was known as the ‘Sugar
Revolution’
●​ Large labour requirement = birth of Transatlantic Slave Trade;
Africans
●​ Longest existing system of production in Caribbean history
●​ Large farms used to produce sugar cane to export
●​ Plantations had many buildings: Great house for owner, Overseer house
for workers, huts for the enslaved, offices where records were kept,
workshop for repairs
●​ Sugar factory to process cane into raw sugar
●​ Plantations were run by white workers employed by the owner
●​ Life expectancy for a slave was 7 - 9 years and labour was divided by
age and health not gender
●​ Slaves were beaten and killed for resisting masters
Slave Society
In the system of stratification, position was based on race and ascription (skin colour ,
birthright or bloodline)
●​ Upper class/caste/ruling elites (traditionally white) - with their own wealth, means
of production and political power.
●​ Intermediate class (mulatto/browns) - usually educated, with some wealth, but
lacking political power, though they aspired to this.
●​ Working class (blacks) - slaves, uneducated, lacking wealth and power
Responses to oppression of Caribbean People
Responses to oppression were classified as non-violent/passive and
insurrectionary/active resistance.
The Taino
➢​ 1493; Taino killed men Columbus left as La Navidad, Hispaniola due to the ill
treatment of their women.
➢​ Caciques (Taino leaders) such as Guarionex in Hispaniola, Hatuey in Cuba
and Agueybana in Puerto Rico led this resistance.
➢​ They engaged the Spaniards in warfare, sabotaged plantations and hid in
mountains and caves.
➢​ Took Spaniards to 1503 to put down the most active rebellion in Hispaniola, took
them to 1515 to take over Puerto Rico and up to 1520 they were still fighting a
guerilla war in Cuba.
➢​ Other forms of resistance included pretending not to understand colonists,
running away, committing mass suicide and infanticide (killing infants, especially
their own).
The Kalinago
➢​ The women fought with bows and arrows in Guadeloupe in 1496
➢​ Kalinago raided Spanish and Europeans settlements
➢​ They avoid capture by escaping in dugout canoes (experts)
➢​ Kalinago retreated to the interior of the Lesser Antilles due to European
interlopers (the British, French and Dutch) who tried to colonise them.
➢​ Waged rages on European settlements
➢​ Alliances were formed with European powers
➢​ Treaties were signed to ensure the survival of the Kalinago
The Africans
➢​ Revolted passively (non-violently) in ways such as refusing to eat or drink,
inflicting wounds on themselves, opening old ones, faking illness and
prolonging sickness.
➢​ Created their own language so they could communicate without slave masters
understanding
➢​ Women practiced gynaecological resistance (functions and diseases
specific to women and girls especially affecting the reproductive system;
branch of physiology)
➢​ Used herbal concoctions to induce abortions and infanticide
➢​ Africans damaged and destroyed owner’s property by acts of industrial sabotage
such as breaking farm appliances/machinery and burning mills and sugar
plantations
➢​ Domestic slaves would poison their masters and other whites oppressing them
➢​ Enslaved Africans would maim, mutilate and kill plantation animals (horses and
mules)
➢​ Maroons in Jamaica formed guerilla bands and attacked plantations
➢​ Africans continued to tell their stories, Anansi stories and folklore, and make
music
Revolts and Rebellions that occurred throughout the Caribbean:
●​ The Tacky Rebellion
●​ The Haitian Revolution
●​ The Bussa Rebellion
●​ Demerara
●​ The Christmas Rebellion/Sam Sharpe Revolt (1831)
Movements Towards Independence
Emancipation - the freeing of people from slavery
Emancipation Day - August 1st
Under colonialism the Caribbean colonies were under the control of a European power.
This began to change as Caribbean people developed the skills and expertises to
challenge these powers as their first goal was political enfranchisement ( the right of
people to determine their own affairs).
The Moyne Commission (West India Royal Commission) was set up to investigate poor
working conditions in the British West Indies. These conditions led to the formation
of trade unions which was a working-class movement dedicated to getting better
working conditions for the poor as well as improvements in health and education.
This concern for social welfare made the trade unions the birthplace for political parties.
Leaders in trade union movement who transitioned to political
leadership:
●​ From Trinidad and Tobago - Uriah Buzz Butler, Adrian Cola Rienzi and Captain
A.A
●​ From Jamaica - Alexander Bustamante, Norman Washington Manley
●​ From Barbados - Grantley Adams
●​ From Guyana - Nathaniel Crichlow
Political Systems in the Caribbean:
1.​
Old Representative System - This included a Governor,
who dictated information from the Colonial Office in England. He/She was
assisted by a nominated Council and an elected Assembly.
2.​
Crown Colony Government - The Governor and a
legislative Council with official and nominated unofficial members, now ruled.
Universal Adult Suffrage and Self-government
Universal Adult Suffrage - the right of individuals of legal age
(18+) to vote for a political person or party.
●​ Universal Adult Suffrage was first put into effect in elections in Jamaica in 1944,
Trinidad and Tobago in 1945, Barbados in 1950, and British Guiana in 1953.
●​ Franchise (the right to vote in public elections) was a way for Caribbean
citizens to express their dissatisfaction with the neglect experienced under
colonial rule and a way of electing representatives to end their suffering.
●​ The system of internal self-government was progressively established where the
authority of the Governor in the Crown Colony Government was gradually
replaced by increasing the powers of elected government members.
●​ Colonial disengagement - the process of colonial power withdrawing its
influence from a dependent territory, often leading to the territory’s
independence or self-governance
●​ The West Indies Federation came into being in 1958 with Grantley Adams of
Barbados as the Prime Minister. Jamaica left in 1961 which pushed British
colonies to aim for individual independence.
●​ The push for independence started with the “big four” - Jamaica and Trinidad and
Tobago in 1962 and Barbados and Guyana in 1966. Overtime, they were
followed by smaller colonies, ending with St. Kitts in 1983.
●​ Political enfranchisement - the ability of a country to determine how it
develops its system of production
Ways Caribbean People Tried to Resist European Power And Develop
Their Owns Ways of Making a Living (Done at a small entrepreneurial
nature):
1.​ The establishment of peasant groups and free villages to acquire and cultivate
land away from the plantation system. This led to a diversified local economy
growing different types of cash crops, such as rice, bananas, cocoa, coffee,
ginger and arrowroot. They also grew food crops and reared animals.
2.​ Migrating and seeking jobs outside their home states to send home remittances.
3.​ The establishment of small family businesses such as shops and laundries.
4.​ Their involvement in savings societies and partner plans (Padner, Jamaica;
Sou-Sou, Trinidad and Tobago; Meeting Turn, Barbados) to acquire the financial
means to set themselves on the path of economic enfranchisement (an
individual’s influence and control over their own economic well-being,
encompassing factors such as financial stability, skills and agency to
improve their economic situation)
Republicanism
This is the final step in the severance of political dependence from colonisers. It is a
further step in self-government. This is where the Monarch has been replaced by a
President as the Head of State.
●​ Guyana became a republic on 23 February, 1970
●​ Trinidad and Tobago became a republic on 1 August, 1976
●​ Barbados became a republic on 30 November, 2021. (On 20 October, 2021,
Dame Sandra Mason became the first President-elect.)
Chapter 3: Characteristics of Society and Culture
Society
Definition 01: Society is a group of people who share a common culture, occupy a
particular territorial area and feel themselves to constitute a unified and distinct entity.
Definition 02: Society is a collection of people or individuals in the same geographical
area over a long period of time.
Definition 03: The community of people living in a particular country or region and
having shared customs, laws and organisations
Characteristics of Society
1: A shared common purpose or shared values
●​ Any group of individuals who intend to advance need to have common goals and
a collective purpose.
●​ The individuals and their institutions need to work together to ensure that goals
are achieved.
●​ The functionalist view states that all social structures exist to create
harmony, stability and effectiveness. This can only occur when the
institutions of society all work together to achieve this goal.
●​ Values help to promote order, stability, consensus and continuity
●​ Due to Caribbean countries having shared similar historical experiences, there
are several shared values among these countries
2: Continuity over Time and Space
●​ This is the ability to survive throughout time, space and location
●​ Culture of a society is never erased, it is said to be transformed
●​ Eg how Voodoo/Vodun in Haiti evolved out of its African base to include elements
of Roman Catholicism.
●​ This characteristic includes people who have formed communities in extra
regional countries and maintain strong Caribbean traditions, cultural ties, and
practices.
3: Defined Territorial Space
●​ Persons identify themselves as being a part of a particular society based on
geographic borders as a societal limit.
●​ Caribbean members identify their Caribbean society on the basis of their own
country. Eg Jamaican society would be different from Barbadian society even
though they are all considered Caribbean societies
4: Citizenship within a Space
●​ Citizenry - people who reside in a particular location and enjoy the rights
and privileges of that society.
●​ Cultural citizenship is a socio-cultural approach that examines the diversity in the
region with regard to the variety and the contribution of each group to the culture
of the Caribbean.
The functionalist view of society vs The marxist view of society
Functionalist View: Functionalism sees society as a relatively unproblematic
interaction of all social institutions (family, education, etc.)
Marxist View: Marxism sees society as dominated by one social institution; the
economy.
Culture
Definition: Linton (1945) defines culture as the way of life of a society’s members;
the collection of ideas and habits that they learn, share and transmit from one
generation to another.
Components of Culture:
●​ Values
●​ Symbols
●​ Norms
●​ Belief
●​ Language
Diagram Showing Types of Culture
Characteristics of Culture
1: Learnt Behaviour
●​ Enculturation: the process by which culture is passed on from one
generation to the next, and from one society to another.
●​ Culture is learnt through experience, observation and instruction.
●​ It is a part of socialisation; the process through which individuals learn the
behaviours required of them from members of society (mainly the family)
who communicate, express and transmit the values, customs, belief
systems and laws of a society.
2: Customs and Traditions
●​ These are expressions of culture based on practices which were passed down
from generation to generation.
●​ They preserve and maintain Caribbean cultural identity
3: Norms and Values
●​ Values and beliefs act as guides of acceptable behaviour that help to form
what is considered normal behaviour or norms.
●​ Values define what is morally correct and determine what is right and wrong,
good or bad, etc. Are a general guide for behaviour
●​ Norms set rules of behaviour designed to express a commitment to the society’s
underlying values. There are 2 forms of norms which are Implicit/Formal and
Explicit/Informal.
●​ Beliefs are the shared ideas held by people within a culture. These shared
ideas are what bind people together in a society and are the basis of values and
norms.
4: Institutions that Prescribe Behaviour
●​ Social institutions, such as religion, education, the economy, justice system and
the family, serve to teach expected normal behaviour and determine the value
placed on particular attitudes and behaviour. They also determine the sanctions
(rewards and punishments for conformity and nonconformity; respectively)
associated with norms and values.
●​ Functionalism believes social institutions are important as they promote
social unity, while Marxism believes that social institutions exist to
preserve, reinforce, and ensure the continuity of the unequal and
hierarchical structure of society.
●​ Cultural imperialism, also called neocolonialism, can be defined as the
process of a culture of a large and powerful country having a great
influence on another less powerful country. For example, North American
cultural traits being identified in food, entertainment, etc in the Caribbean.
●​ Religion, family and education are the social institutions that continue to promote
and protect local forms of culture in the face of cultural incursion (a situation
where one culture is introduced into or imposed upon another, often
leading to changes or modifications in the recipient culture).
●​ Indigenous and African culture forms have been retained in the region mainly
due to these institutions.
5: Gendered Practices
●​ Gender is a factor that determines one’s identity.
●​ By observing behaviours in the household, young boys take on the role of
‘protector’ by being allocated outdoor chores while young girls practice the
roles of caregivers and nurturers by taking on indoor chores.
●​ Young boys of the Caribbean are encouraged to have sexual relations only with
women and are ridiculed or abused for expressing feminine or homosexual
tendencies.
●​ The education system also aims in the preservation of gendered practices
through allowing students to choose the subjects they do in school.
●​ Girls tend to do the arts and ‘caring subjects’ while boys are directed to more
technical or scientific subjects.
Chapter 4: Identity and Social Formation
Cultural Diversity
In the Caribbean, culture is diverse due to its history. Cultural diversity can be defined
as the presence of different ethnic traditions (evident in race, language, religion,
family practices) within one society or region. It is the result of a variety of ethnic
groups being found in the region. Cultural diversity is seen in the Caribbean because of
the many races or racial groupings present in the region. They are:
1.​ Black
2.​ Indigenous people (Amerindians)
3.​ Mongoloids (Chinese, Japanese & East Indians)
4.​ Caucasoid (Europeans, Jews and Syrians)
Cultural Diversity and Ethnicity
Ethnicity - Cultural attributes or affiliations based on the ways of life of one’s
ethnic groups.
Ethnic group - A group of people who feel a sense of belonging together based
on shared culture, language, ancestry, nationality, religion, race, skin colour or
other factors.
Cultural Diversity and Language
Language is seen as a divisive force fighting against efforts at integration. This
can be said because the Caribbean is full of people who speak different languages
(English, Spanish, French) and the level of interaction with each other is based on
whether we speak the same language.
The issue of language experience in multilingual Caribbean countries stems from the
unwillingness of some groups to recognize the languages of other groups of equal
status.
Types of Languages in the Caribbean
1.​ Formal Language - conduct business
2.​ Creole Language - first language of many Caribbean people
Positive effects of cultural diversity:
➢​ Major tourist attraction leading to earning foreign exchange
➢​ Leads to complex aesthetic beauty of the physical landscape
(chattel/victorian/plantation)
➢​ Facilitates easy development of cultural industries
➢​ Leads to varied and diversified cuisine
➢​ Promotes cultural creativity
➢​ Promotes unity within society
➢​ Recognition and appreciation of the cultural traits of others
➢​ Cultural hybridization - when elements of different cultures are mixed to
form new ones. This can result in new forms of music, art and literature which
can speak to the experience of more than one ethnic group.
Negative effects of cultural diversity:
➢​ Creates insularity - ignorance or lack of interest in cultures, ideas and
people outside of one’s own experiences or culture.
➢​ Racial and ethnic conflict
➢​ Confinement to socio-cultural segments without practicing genuine integration.
e.g. whites in Barbadian society
➢​ Inability to be part of the ruling group or any other power to intervene and restore
order may lead to civil war and genocide
➢​ Feelings of discrimination especially when jobs, promotions, opportunities and
gifts are limited to people of the same ethnicity.
➢​ Politics can become a contest between ethnicities.
Social Stratification
Caribbean Society
●​ George Beckford portrayed Caribbean society as a “plantation society”.
●​ The plantation society is a rigidly stratified system of social and economic
relations enforced on plantations in the Americas and this society was forced
on the legacy of slavery and indentureship and the system of economic
organisation.
●​ Caribbean society is characterized by a stratified society where there are
historical divisions among the various groups where caste (race and colour) and
class (occupations) were rigidly divided.
●​ Whites and people of lighter colour were the wealthier members of society
historically and they continue to be, while blacks, mixed heritage and Indians are
increasingly accessing social mobility(the movement of people through
different classes within society) mainly through education.
●​ Plantation society resulted in unwillingness by the elites to allow other social
groups to access social mobility, persons only associating with others of similar
wealth, ethnicity, status and education and poorer classes accepting these
interactions as they believe it is acceptable; often do not see how they are
deprived.
●​ Culture, value and beliefs of each class/group will differ based on social location.
●​ Belief among lower socio-economic groups in society is that the only access to a
better life is through social mobility. Therefore in these lower classes, it is seen
that parents work harder to secure a higher standard of living for their children.
This behaviour can be linked to slavery/colonial times.
●​ Among the wealthier classes, beliefs and values do not focus working hard and
self-sacrifice, but on strategies to consolidate their positions and exclude others.
Plural Society
Cultural Pluralism - The idea that diverse cultural/ethnic groups can coexist
within the same space or society while not mixing to any significant extent and
maintaining their unique identities and traditions. Examples of places they may mix
are workplaces or schools.
It can be said that because of the ‘non-mixture’, the culture of these islands would be
different from that of the islands where populations are fully integrated.The culture of
Jamaica would therefore be different from that of Trinidad and Tobago because the twin
island republic has two major ethnic groups. In the Caribbean the plural societies are
Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and Guyana.
Social Stratification
Social Stratification can be defined as the sharp division or ranking of social
groups within a society based on factors such as wealth, race, power, gender,
education, profession, religion, etc. This can be said to be a form of social inequality,
hence why it deals with terms such as high society (those with high levels of wealth,
power and social standing) and low society (the working class who occupy the
lowest position in society’s socioeconomic hierarchy; persons with low incomes
and limited education), with each of these societies or groups having their own distinct
culture. Stratification in the Caribbean has its origin in plantation society.
Forms of Social Stratification
1.​
Ascribed - This is usually based on categories fixed at birth and
cannot be changed such as race and colour or the caste in which your
family belongs. For example, in the Caribbean during slavery, once you were
black you were automatically placed at the bottom of the social strata and once
you were white you were placed in the higher strata of society. Another example
is the Indian caste system. You were born into a social stratification system which
determined your occupation, social interaction, power and education at birth.
2.​
Achieved Status - This is when social mobility can be gained
due to your efforts. A major factor in the achieved status being brought about
within the Caribbean is education. This is due to the fact that primary and
secondary education is free and provided for all children.
Types of Stratification
1.​
Closed system - This is a rigid system with clearly set boundaries. In
this system, social class is strictly defined and determines access to occupations,
social position is determined at birth and social mobility from one level to the next
is NOT possible.
2.​
Open system - This system is based mainly on economic criteria such
as income and is where the boundaries between classes are more flexible than
with a closed system. This means that social position is achieved through one’s
own efforts and social mobility is possible.
Systems of Stratification
The caste system is a closed system of social stratification which indicates that the
groups in society are unequal and the pattern of inequality that forms continues
throughout each generation. This system is based on the ascriptive status which
depends on birth rather than achievement. The caste system was seen as permanent
and was replaced by elaborate practices and procedures to keep the castes separate.
Hybridisation and Creolisation
Hybridisation
This term can be defined as the process by which two cultural forms are mixed to
form a new culture. Hybridisation is partially responsible for cultural diversity.
Examples of where Hybridisation is found are the multiplicity of language and patois in
Jamaica. This process has been occurring for over 500 years due to groups
(Amerindians, Europeans, etc) coming to the New World and adopting each
other’s language and cultural practices.
Racial and ethnic hybridization
Miscegenation - sexual union between persons of different races, resulting in
children of mixed race. This was a result of Amerindian, African and lesser extent
Indian women being forced to have relations with and have children for European
conquistadors, slave masters and overseers.
Racial admixture
The mixing of these groups created racial admixtures:
★​ Mulatto: The offspring of African and European
★​ Mestizo: offspring of an Amerindian and a European
★​ Dougla: offspring of an indentured Indian and an African
★​ Creole: describes a person born locally of immigrant parents. In Trinidad and
Tobago, creole is used to describe persons of African descent. French creole
refers to descendents of French settlers who came to Trinidad in the late 18th
century.
Pigmentocracy - This refers to a social and economic hierarchy that values
persons with lighter skin toners over darker skin tones. It is a form of discrimination
based on skin colour, where individuals with lighter skin benefit.
Hence skin colour, hair texture and facial features impacted on Caribbean society,
culture and identity.
Cultural hybridisation
Cultural hybridisation can be defined as the development of new cultural forms
out of existing ones through a period of contact and interaction. Aspects of cultural
hybridisation are:
●​ Religion
●​ Language
●​ Music
Creole Society
Creole society is a society that embraces the cultural norms and practices of all different
groups that exist within a space or community. The mixing of cultures, particularly
European and African, gave birth to the creole culture. This culture is seen in religion,
food, family types, customs and values.
Creolisation
Creolisation can be defined as a process of change and adaption that takes place
in the way of life or culture of a particular society or region. This process was
conceptualized by Edward Kamau Brathwaite. He stated that with European culture
being the dominant culture in the region at the time, it shaped the culture of the
Caribbean to date. With the arrival of new cultural groups, Caribbean culture is still
evolving.
Creolisation involves (these can result in cultural change):
1.​
Acculturation - The process by which interactions between
different cultures result in the acquisition of new patterns by the
subordinate groups. e.g. The formation of syncretic religious practices such as
Revivalism. It can also be said to be the imposition of a dominant group’s way of
life on another group. This is a necessary part of creolisation as it allows for
inclusion or creation of a new, unique mix of cultural elements that define the
Caribbean
2.​
Interculturation - This is the mixing of cultures that goes on
between groups who share a space. This exchange of cultures does not alter
cultures or society. Cultural mixing occurs in a plural society where ethnic
groups may live with limited mixing yet elements of their cultures become
incorporated from national identities.
3.​
Transculturation - This is the process by which significant
changes take place to a certain aspect of a culture until it evolves into
something new, due to the movement of cultures across international
boundaries. This cultural change involves the whole society, sometimes due to
political upheavals. The steady import of Africans into the Caribbean drastically
altered all aspects of society and culture.
4.​
Enculturation - This is a process of socialisation which enables
us to learn the ways of life of a cultural group and possibly become a part
of that culture. This can be our own culture or we can become a part of another
group through the process of acculturation. Culture is learnt through
interaction with others.
5.​
Assimilation - This is the process where a minority culture adopts
or accepts the values, behaviours and beliefs of a more dominant culture.
This often results in a loss of the minority’s original cultural identity. The process
of assimilation can be forced or voluntary. An example of forced assimilation
is when indigenous people were told to abandon their languages and cultural
practices. An example of voluntary assimilation is immigrants adopting the
language and customs of their new home country.
Types of cultural change:
Cultural erasure
This term refers to the process of neglecting, replacing or ignoring aspects or
practices of a culture causing them to die out.
Ethnic groups that are victims of erasure (According to Rhoda Reddock):
●​ The Amerindians of Guyana
●​ The Garifuna or Caribs of Dominica
●​ The Chinese of Jamaica
Factors that cause cultural erasure:
❖​ Globalization
❖​ Impact of other cultures - for example American culture is evident as the younger
generation goes towards sports such as basketball and golf rather than cricket.
❖​ Technology and mass media - the younger generation tend to take in what they
see on television and in the media. As a result, foreign values and lifestyles can
be adopted. Also, due to technology, the youth are more interested in computer
games rather than traditional games and traditional forms of entertainment.
Cultural renewal
This refers to the efforts of a cultural group to salvage parts of their past or
aspects of their culture that have been hidden or forbidden. Garveyism
(established in the early 20th century) provided a core for the development of black
consciousness in the wider Caribbean and North America.
Examples of cultural renewal:
●​ Celebration of Emancipation day (August 1st) is reclaiming our past
●​ Increased interest in African religions such as Orisha
Cultural retention
This is where the cultural practices of the past continue into the present. This
resulted from the desire to keep traditions in order for some groups to be able to
preserve their sense of identity. Garifuna culture is described as one where there are a
remarkable number of cultural retentions. Example their traditional basketry designs and
technologies.
Chapter 5: The Impact of Geographical Phenomena
What is the Geology of the Caribbean?
The Caribbean can be defined using Plate tectonics, in terms of its seismic and tectonic
activities.
Vocabulary
➢​ Plate tectonics - a set of scientific theories that describe and explain the Earth’s
crust and upper mantle are broken into large, moving plates. These plates are
said to move because they are carried along by convection currents in the upper
mantle of the earth. Interaction at the boundaries of these plates can cause
phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain formation.
➢​ Seismic - movements in the earth that affect the surface. e.g. earthquakes.
➢​ Hazards - anything that has the potential to cause harm or damage to people,
property or the environment.
➢​ Disaster - Destruction as a result of hazard(s)
Layers of the Earth
The Caribbean Plate
The Caribbean Plate is the central defining feature when speaking about volcanoes,
earthquakes, mountains, etc. It is said to be located under Central America and the
Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean Plate is bordered by the North America, South
America, Nazca and the Cocos plates. When these plates come into contact, the
seismic activity is felt in different parts of the region. This plate is significant in
determining a definition for the Caribbean but it cannot be used to make a precise
definition as some of the countries on this plate are not identified as Caribbean.
Countries that fall on the Caribbean Plate include Belize, Guatemala, Honduras in
Central America and Venezuela in South America.
Map of Caribbean Plate boundaries
Tectonic Plate
●​ A tectonic plate is a large rigid piece of the earth’s crust and UPPERMOST
mantle (lithosphere)
●​ Entire continents and oceans lie on top of these plates
●​ These plates move on the asthenosphere (upper mantle)
Table showing tectonic plate interactions in the Caribbean
Type of plate boundary
Actions and effects
Examples in the
or margin
Convergent or
destructive boundaries
(subduction)
Caribbean
●​ Where plates collide
The Lesser Antilles
●​ Oceanic crust moves towards the
Trench
continental crust, but because it is
heavier, it may sink and form ocean
trenches and island arcs with
volcanoes
Divergent or
constructive
boundaries
●​ The plates move away from each
other
Small boundary off
Jamaica
●​ Ocean ridges are formed with
volcanoes
Transform faults or
transform boundaries
●​ Two plates move sideways past each
other.
●​ Land is neither formed nor destroyed
The northern and
southern edges of the
Caribbean Plate
Plate tectonics
This is the idea that the earth’s plates move (very slowly) in relation to each other
What causes plates to move?
1.​ Mantle convection - the movement of the mantle as it transfers heat from
the core to the lithosphere.
2.​ The upper mantle is cooler than the lower mantle and this produces circular
currents that pull and push plates above them.
Things caused by tectonic plates:
●​ Earthquakes
●​ Tsunamis
●​ Volcanoes
●​ Hurricanes
●​ Coral reefs
●​ Flooding and Drought
●​ Soil erosion and Soil conservation
Earthquakes
An earthquake is a vibration or a series of vibrations or shaking caused by a
sudden movement of the earth’s crust. In the Caribbean, the earthquake zone
(where earthquakes tend to focus) extends from Grenada to St. Kitts and up to Jamaica
and West of Trinidad. However due to interaction between the Caribbean Plate and the
plates surrounding it, the entire region is vulnerable to earthquakes. Earthquakes
cannot be stopped or prevented from occurring, however, precautions can be taken to
lessen the effect.
How do earthquakes occur/are caused?
●​ Movement of tectonic plates along the plate boundaries are not smooth which
causes friction and results in a buildup of potential energy. When that energy is
released we experience earthquakes. As plate boundaries pass each other, they
sometimes become stuck or slowed which results in this buildup of potential
energy.
●​ Can also be caused by volcanoes or human activities
●​ When two pieces of crust slip past each other suddenly and seismic waves are
released.
Terms and definitions to know:
Fault: The crack or fracture within or between plates where earthquakes tend to occur. It
is also where sudden slipping occurs and seismic waves start and spread out. There
are 3 types of faults which are normal faults(found along divergent boundaries) ,
reverse/thrust faults (found along subduction/convergent) zones and strike slip
faults(found along transform boundaries).
Focus: The point along the fault, inside the crust, where the slipping first occurs
Epicentre: The area on the earth’s surface directly above the focus and where seismic
waves spread from.
Footwall: Block of crust under the fault line.
Hangwall: Block which slips up or down over the fault
How are earthquakes recorded.?
Earthquakes are recorded using a seismograph/seismometer
How is the strength of an earthquake measured?
The strength of an earthquake can be determined by the two measurements.
1.​ Earthquake intensity: measures the strength of an earthquake based on how
much damage it causes. Is measured using the Mercalli Scale.
2.​ Earthquake magnitude: Measures the strength of an earthquake based on how
much energy was released by an earthquake. This is measured using the
Richter Scale which goes from 1 (weakest) to 10 (strongest).
Table showing The Negative Impact of Earthquakes
Economic
Social
●​ Destruction of land
●​ Destruction of
and property
families
●​ Decline in
productivity
●​ Decline in tourism
●​ Lost of natural
disease
destruction of coastal
areas and homes
●​ Landslides and
●​ Food shortage;
increase in
crime
●​ Increase in
●​ Loss of
●​ Rise in inflation
●​ Tsunamis;
●​ Outbreak of
resources
unemployment
Environmental
rockfall
Political
●​ Political
instability
●​ Corruption;
misuse of
money
●​ Destruction of power
lines and vegetation
teaching in
schools
Positive Effects of Earthquakes on the Region
1.​ Governments are forced to enforce stricter building codes
2.​ Early Warning systems, earthquake awareness programmes and restricted areas
for building will benefit the country.
Significant Earthquakes in the Caribbean:
●​ 1690 - Antigua, St. Kitts, Nevis, Montserrat (Great Chilean Earthquake)
●​ 1692 and 1907 - Jamaica
●​ 1766 - Trinidad
●​ 1839 - over 400 deaths in Martinique
●​ 1974, 2004 - Leeward Islands
●​ 1953 - St. Lucia
●​ 1954 - Trinidad and Tobago
●​ 2004 - Cayman Islands
●​ 2007 - Martinique
●​ 2010 - Haiti
Tsunamis
A tsunami is a series of large waves caused by the displacement of water which
can result from earthquakes, underwater landslides and volcanic eruptions or
underground eruptions. They can be said to be rare in the Caribbean but the
Caribbean is still prone to tsunamis due to the constant interaction between the
Caribbean Plates and the plates surrounding it, which exposes the region to
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
i.e. the Caribbean has only recorded about 50 tsunamis since the 1530s.
Notable Tsunamis in Caribbean:
●​ Hit Puerto Rico in 1918 due a 7.5 magnitude earthquake, which occurred on 11th
October 1918, in the Mona Passage between Hispaniola and Puerto Rico.
Resulted in about 100 deaths.
●​ In 1946, an 8.1 magnitude earthquake in the Dominican Republic resulted in a
tsunami which caused around 2000 deaths (directly and indirectly).
Effects of a Tsunami:
❖​ Flooding
❖​ Disrupts Transportation
❖​ Breakdown infrastructure
❖​ Pollute water supplies
Volcanoes:
A defining feature of the Caribbean Plate is the active volcanic arc in the Lesser Antilles
which lies along the eastern boundary of the plate. A volcano can be defined as an
opening on a planet that allows material warmer than its surroundings to escape
from its interior. These materials can be lava, rock fragments, hot vapour and gas.
When these materials escape, it causes an eruption.
Notable Volcanic Activity in the Caribbean Region:
●​ 1979 - Soufriere eruption in St. Vincent
●​ 1902 - Mt. Pelee eruption
●​ 1995 - Soufriere eruption in Montserrat
Evidence of Volcanism in Region:
●​ Crater Lake in Grenada
●​ Volcanic plugs in St. Lucia
●​ Fumaroles which send out steam, gas and sulphur dioxide in St. Lucia and
Dominica
●​ Kick em Jenny (volcano) off coast of Grenada
Positive Impacts of Volcanoes:
❖​ Land formation - islands in the Lesser Antilles were formed from volcanic
eruptions
❖​ Release of valuable materials such as gold, nickel and copper in areas such as
Pakaraima area in Guyana
❖​ Causes governments to enforce building codes to mitigate effects of natural
disasters
❖​ Tourist attractions - Sulphur Springs in St. Lucia, Boiling Late in Dominica
❖​ Hot springs which have potential for thermal energy in countries such as St.
Lucia and Dominica
Negative Impacts of Volcanoes:
❖​ Destruction of lives and infrastructure
❖​ Loss of culture
❖​ Displacement of people
❖​ Contamination of water by ash, dirt and gases which can result in pollution
❖​ .Displacement of people
❖​ Poisonous gases released into the atmosphere resulting in respiratory ailments
❖​ Mudflows which destroy vegetation and infrastructure
Hurricanes
Hurricanes are self-sustaining systems with low pressure, heavy rains and winds
exceeding 119 km per hour (74 mph). They originate in the tropical parts of the
Atlantic Ocean or the Caribbean Sea and move generally northward. Heat generated
from the sea causes the intensity of hurricanes. The Caribbean is prone to hurricanes
due to high amounts of humidity and warm air and these are near perfect
conditions to form hurricanes.
Features of Hurricane:
●​ Extremely low pressure
●​ Strong winds
●​ Heavy rainfall
●​ Often lasts more than a week; moves 10 - 20 miles per hour before dying out;
Intensifies as they move by collecting heat and energy from the ocean
Table showing the negative effects of hurricanes
Economic
●​ Property is destroyed
●​ Food import bill may increase due to country’s resources
being destroyed
●​ Tourism reduced due to hotels closing and sites destroyed
●​ Destruction of agriculture
Social
●​ Destruction of families due to loss of life
●​ Loss in education time due to closure of schools
●​ Increase in diseases
●​ Increase in poverty due to destruction of homes and
infrastructure
Political
●​ Political instability
●​ Increased lawlessness (anomie)
●​ Reliance on foreign aid
Environmental
●​ Landslides and rockfalls can occur
●​ There is rain with flooding and mudslides
●​ Damage to coral reefs
Other Environmental Impacts of Natural Disasters:
❖​ Destruction of forests
❖​ Erosion of beaches
❖​ Destruction of coral reefs and seagrass beds
❖​ Destruction of animal habitats
❖​ Animal deaths and injuries
Positive Impacts of Hurricanes:
●​ Relieve heat and prevents drought, which can increase the water supply
●​ Strong winds help to remove dead leaves from the forests and make room for
new leaves to grow
●​ Force persons to adhere to building codes
●​ Employment opportunities for person in the construction sector
●​ Improved community relations
Significant Hurricanes that Affected the Caribbean:
➢​ 1951 - Charlie
➢​ 1988 - Gilbert
➢​ 1989 - Hugo
➢​ 1992 - Andrew
➢​ 1995 - Luis and Marilyn
➢​ 1999 - Lenny, Mitch
➢​ 2001 - Michelle
➢​ 2004 - Ivan
➢​ 2007 - Dean
➢​ 2012 - Sandy
Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate.
There are 3 types of coral reefs. They are:
1.​ Fringing reef - grows directly from the shore, typically fringing a landmass like a
coastline or island
2.​ Barrier reef - reef running parallel to the shore but separated from it by a channel
of deep water
3.​ Atoll reef -ring shaped island including a coral rim that encloses a lagoon.
Conditions necessary for coral reefs:
●​ Warm water (23 to 29 degrees celsius) for best growth
●​ Clean clear water
●​ Salt water
●​ Healthy fish population to keep algae in check
Photosynthesis
Zooxanthellae - Coral : Sugars, Amino Acids, Lipids
Waste
Coral - Zooxanthellae : Carbon dioxide, Nitrate, Phosphate
Importance of Coral Reefs - Fishing Grounds
●​ Serve as fish habitats as they provide food, shelter and mating grounds
●​ Primarily where people fish due to this knowledge
Importance of coral reefs - ecotourism
●​ Used as sites for scuba diving, glass bottom boat trips and submarine trips
Importance of coral reefs - mitigating hydrometeorological hazards
●​ Coral reefs reduce speed and impact of incoming waves due to dissipation(loss
of energy) of wave energy
●​ Offers some protection to coastal settlements from tsunamis and storm surges
Threats to Coral Reefs
Environmental
●​ Climate change - rising tides
●​ Coral bleaching - death to corals due to warmer sea temperatures
●​ Ocean acidification - increased dissolution of coral due to greater concentrations
of CO2 in the oceans
Human
●​ Fishing - damage to reefs from equipment, fuel spills, overfishing
●​ Deforestation - increased water turbidity from erosion, etc.
●​ Agricultural - runoff introduces harmful chemicals into reef environments as well
as sediment
●​ Tourism - damage due to cruise ships and harvesting of coral
Coral Reef Conservation
Marine Protected Areas
●​ Specially protected areas (parks)
●​ Prohibited activities e.g. types of fishing, watersports
●​ Surveillance
●​ Aimed at protecting valuable coastal resources for over exploitation and
degradation
Land Use Policies
●​ Includes land use restrictions for development adjacent to coastal areas
●​ Requirement for environmental studies for large projects adjacent to coastal
areas
Artificial Reefs
●​ Man - made structures placed on seafloor
●​ Reefs are built around these structures
●​ Helps to rehabilitate threatened reef areas
(add rest later)
Flooding and Droughts
Flooding can be defined as the covering or submerging of normally dry land with
a large amount of water. Flooding is initiated by heavy or prolonged rainfall events.
There are 3 types of rainfall which are:
1.​ Relief (Orographic) Rainfall - occurs when moist air is forced to rise over
mountains or hills causing it to cool and condense which leads to cloud
formation. This leads to heavier rainfall on the windward side while the leeward
side is much drier.
Relief Rainfall Diagram
2.​ Convectional Rainfall - occurs when warm, moist air near the Earth’s surface is
heated and rises, cools and condenses to form clouds, leading to precipitation.
3.​ Frontal Rainfall - occurs when a warm air mass meets a cold air mass, creating
a boundary called a front. The warm air condenses leading to cloud formation
which leads to formation of a band of thunderstorms which produce heavy
rainfall.
Factors Contributing to Flooding
●​ Heavy rainfall - prolonged or intense rainfall can overwhelm drainage systems
causing rivers and streams to overflow
●​ Storm surges - strong winds and low atmospheric pressure associated with
storms can push sea water inland causing coastal flooding
●​ Tsunamis
●​ Construction - construction of buildings and paved surfaces reduce infiltration
which contributes to more overland flow of water and therefore flooding
●​ Deforestation - Trees intercept, store and release water. Therefore removal of
trees leads to more water reaching the surface
●​ Land pollution - Waste can block drains, canals and wells and can disrupt the
removal of runoff leading to flooding.
●​ Climate change - increased bursts of heavy rainfall
●​ El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) - Periodical shifts in atmospheric pressure
and sea surface temperatures.
Impacts of Flooding
Environmental
❖​ Landslides
❖​ Loss of animal and plant life
❖​ Degradation of coral reefs and mangroves from sedimentation
Social
❖​ Loss of human life
❖​ Destruction of homes and public infrastructure (schools, airports)
❖​ Disruption of day to day activities; business, education, telecommunications
❖​ Healthcare
Ways to mitigate flooding:
●​ No illegal dumping
●​ Clearing of drains
●​ Installation of additional drainage
Droughts
A drought can be defined as prolonged dry weather caused by an extended
period of abnormally low rainfall causing severe depletion of water available to all
living things. This can occur due to relief, size and location as well as global changes
in weather patterns. In the Caribbean, rainfall is influenced by the north-east trades.
Where winds rise over mountains, there is much relief rainfall.
Why Do Droughts Occur?
1.​ Semi-permanent weather systems. E.g. anticyclones result in dry weather in
the Caribbean between December and May
2.​ Climate variability - El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is associated with dry
weather in the Caribbean
3.​ Climate change - models indicate dry weather patterns for the most of the region
in the future
Impacts of Droughts
●​ Water stress and shortages - water shortages can result in competition for water;
conflict
●​ Loss in biodiversity - reduced rainfall leads to reduced soil water content which
further leads to water stress in plants.
●​ Reduced agricultural productivity which can result in higher import rates since
food and livestock will have to be imported if it cannot be grown
Ways to Mitigate Drought
❖​ Water rationing - prohibiting of water use for certain activities and times of days
e.g. watering plants with a hose
❖​ Improved drought monitoring - drought modelling and prediction
❖​ Rainwater capture and storage - water tanks for all buildings
❖​ Drought tolerant plants - genetic engineering to create xerophytic crops
❖​ Desalination - conversion of brackish water into potable water
❖​ Importation of water - to supply country during drought
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion can be defined as the natural accelerated removal or displacement of
the upper layer of soil which is the most fertile layer. It is a gradual process that
occurs when water or wind detaches and removes soil particles which deteriorate it.
Factors that cause soil erosion:
●​ Quarrying and mining
●​ Deforestation
●​ Housing construction - accelerates deforestation
●​ Agricultural practices - monocropping, overgrazing and ploughing, slash and
burn, making charcoal
●​ Poor drainage
Effects of soil erosion:
●​ Reduces land productivity
●​ Land can become useless
●​ Pollution of lakes, rivers and water supplies
●​ When coupled with natural disasters (earthquakes, hurricanes), it can cause or
create landslides and mudslides
●​ Breakdown of infrastructure, bridges, roads and buildings
Soil Conservation
Soil conservation aims to maintain the most fertile layer of the soil (upper layer). This is
meant to prevent soil erosion and restore eroded land to pre-erosion conditions.
Ways to do this are:
●​ Afforestation - The process of bringing vegetation or topsoil to an eroded
area to re-establish or establish a forest.
●​ Replanting of vegetation after destruction
●​ Control cutting of trees with strict penalties for illegal lumbering
●​ Landscaping - An entire area may have to be re-sculpted into a undulated land
before afforestation
Chapter 6: The Impact of Social Institutions on Caribbean
People
What are Social Institutions?
Social institutions are the established or standardised patterns of behaviour in a
society that are based on the relationship between people. These institutions
provide structure and shape the way people think and behave in a society.
Characteristics of Social Institutions
A.​ Intangible - not capable of being touched; has no physical substance
B.​ Manifested in social organisations - These organisations give social institutions a
tangible look. Examples of organisations are schools, churches, prisons, etc.
C.​ Purposeful - serves a purpose
D.​ Comprised of norms, values and roles
E.​ Based on ideas and beliefs
F.​ Stability - longevity over time
G.​ Has established rules and sanctions to govern behaviour
Types of Social Institutions:
1.​ Family
2.​ Education
3.​ Religion
4.​ Justice System
Family
The family is common to all societies and cultures. A family is a group of people, who
are related either by blood, marriage or adoption, living within the same household.
Functionalism/Functionalist View
Functionalists believe that the family is a vital social institution that carries out certain
functions such as order, reproduction, stability, socialisation, economic (provision of
money and goods to satisfy needs), cultural and affection. These functions are said to
ensure the continuity of society.
Marxism/Marxist View
Marxists believe that the family is filled with exploitation, oppression and domination.
This is said due to the assigning of roles based on gender established in a household.
They believe that problems in the family, such as child abuse, domestic violence,
poverty, alcoholism and adultery are cause by capitalism (an economic and political
system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for
profit).
Impacts of Family on Caribbean Society and Culture:
●​ Cultural Transmission - passing of culture from one generation to another
●​ Sense of identity for Caribbean people
●​ Social order and control - ensure order and control through early socialisation
and given roles to members from others
●​ Economic well being of members of society
Historical Factors That Influence the Structure of Caribbean Families:
❖​ Colonisation
❖​ Slavery
❖​ Indentureship
❖​ Emancipation
❖​ Migration
Due to these historical factors, the family in the Caribbean is complex. Instead of
defining just one family, researchers suggest the comparison of Caribbean families and
families in other parts of the world (functionalist).
Types of Families Found in the Caribbean:
Nuclear Family
●​ Consists of a mother, father and their unmarried children living under the same
roof
●​ Was introduced to the Caribbean by white Christian colonisers
●​ Seen as the ideal family form
Extended Family
●​ Consists of several generations of a family living in the same house. E.g. mother,
father, grandmother, children, uncle and aunt all living together.
●​ During plantation slavery, this is how slaves mainly survived
●​ Appreciated by persons of african and asian descent
●​ Has benefits such as pooling of resources, emotional support and the presence
of multiple disciplinary figures
Single Parent Family
●​ When on parent, either mother or father, lives with and takes responsibility for
raising children
●​ In the Caribbean, it is more common for the mother to be the single parent
●​ In the early 1980s, 44% of all households were headed by a woman in Barbados
(Thompson).
●​ This family type can be the result of death, choice or divorce
●​ Matrifocal - based on the mother as the head of the family or household
The Visiting Family
●​ This is a variation of the single parent family which involves the mother and
children living separately from the father (most likely in her parents home) and
him visiting them
●​ The difference between this and the single parent family is that in the visiting
family type the parents are still in a sexual and emotional relationship
●​ Originated in slavery where planters forbade couples to form family units
Common-law Union
●​ Widespread in English - Speaking Caribbean, mainly among the Afro - Caribbean
community.
●​ Involves a couple committing to each other in a lasting relationship without any
form of registration of the ‘marriage’
Blended Family
●​ When two different families come together through marriage
●​ Can occur from death or divorce of previous spouse
Sibling Family
●​ When younger children are left in the care of their older sibling due to absence of
parents from the household
●​ In the Caribbean, this is mainly due to migration
Features of Caribbean Families
Afro Caribbean Families
❖​ Absence of fathers
❖​ Grandmother dominated households
❖​ Characterized by marital, common-law and visiting union
❖​ Normally matrifocal in nature
Chinese Caribbean Families
❖​ Retain the cultures, traditions and customs of China
❖​ Provide education for all their children but favour sons over daughters
❖​ Families are very stable and isolated from others
❖​ Extended in nature
Indo Caribbean Families
❖​ Stress roles of members; father is usually the authority figure, head of household
and provider, mother is the caretaker and children bring honour to household and
take care of parents when they reach old age
❖​ Great emphasis on extended family structure
❖​ Strong adherence to traditional Indian values, customs and religions
❖​ Inferior roles for women
Diversity in Caribbean Families Explained:
1.​ African retention - African slaves brought their family types (polygamy and
extended) but had to modify them due to slavery. Example, Matrifocality can be
blamed on the fact that in the Caribbean, men could not take care of their many
children and abandoned the home.
2.​ Plantation Slavery - planters rejected legal unions and encouraged extended
households
3.​ Poverty and socio-economic conditions - resulted in the creation of common law
unions, extended families and sibling households
4.​ Changing roles of Caribbean women
Education
Education is the transmission of knowledge and skills and the development of traits.
Education can be formal (which occurs through a structured institution e.g. schools) or
informal (which occurs naturally when a person learns in an unplanned, unstructured
manner).
Historical Development of Education
Pre - emancipation era
●​ Education was limited to whites; blacks were excluded
●​ Planters feared educating slaves as it will normally spark rebellion
●​ Slaves went without education until the 1820s
●​ Missionaries taught some to write and read
Post - emancipation era
●​ Educational facilities were poor due to colonial belief that the development of
schools was useless and preferred an uneducated workforce
●​ Missionaries created free villages and helped in developing schools
●​ Ex-slaves became wealthy through small scale farming; had strong desire to
educate their children
●​ Indians who came to the region during indentureship were excluded from
educational opportunities
●​ Until 1900s most colonies went without formal education institutions
Independence
●​ Introduction of subjects such as Caribbean History
●​ Creation of Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC)
●​ Establishment of the University of the West Indies (UWI) in 1948
Impacts of Education on Caribbean Society and Culture:
➢​ Cultural transmission/socialisation - socialising children in the cultures of society
(formally)
➢​ Promotion of nationalism - education reinforces nationalist ideals, policies and
objectives
➢​ Social mobility becoming possible for black people and women
➢​ Improvement to the quality of life of persons
➢​ Changing the roles and perspectives of women. E.g. education has been seen as
a tool for gender equality
➢​ Improved literacy of Caribbean people
➢​ Social order and control
➢​ Exposure to other cultures
Religion
Religion is a set of symbols, invoking feelings of awe and is linked to rituals or
ceremonies in which a community of believers participates. It revolves around a deity or
supernatural being.Many religions in the Caribbean are considered syncretic
(characterised or brought about by a combination of different forms of belief or practice).
Established Religions in the Caribbean:
●​ Christianity (main religion)
●​ Hinduism
●​ Islam
●​ Buddhism
●​ Judaism
Indigenous Religions in the Caribbean:
●​ Rastafari
●​ Voodoo
●​ Santeria
●​ Shouter Baptism
●​ Comfa (Guyana)
●​ Revivalism
Historical Development of Religion in the Caribbean
★​ Pre - Columbian Era (up to late 1400s) - Taino and Kalinago believed in
spiritualism and ritualism
★​ Early 1500s - Spanish colonisation led to introduction to Christianity (Roman
Catholicism)
★​ Early 1600s - English colonisation expanded christianity (Anglicanism)
★​ 1600s - 1800s - Europeans facing religious persecution came to the Caribbean.
E.g Huguenots, Calvinists. Also, African slaves were punished for practising their
religions so they merged them with Christian beliefs creating hybrid religions. In
the post - emancipation era they expanded their religion: voodoo, Rastafarianism
★​ Early 1800s - Asian came during indentureship bring Hinduism, Islam and
Buddhism - Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Jamaica
★​ Early 1900s - Middle Eastern people brought Sikhism
Functionalist View on Religion
●​ Religion gives persons a sense of belonging
●​ Promotes social order and cohesion in society
●​ Reinforces societal norms and values
●​ Guide for right and wrong behaviour
●​ Allows persons to have an identity
Marxist/Conflict View on Religion
●​ Karl Marx believed religion to be the ‘opium of the masses’ as he saw it as an
illusion that eases the pain of exploitation and oppression.
●​ Values religion teaches are a device used by the ruling class to encourage the
working class to work more and accept their current state of oppression.
●​ Religion serves the needs of the dominant class of society.
Impacts of Religion on Caribbean Society and Culture:
➢​ Sense of belonging and community
➢​ Social order and control
➢​ Influence on legal system - Many laws are based on religious beliefs
The Justice System
The justice system is a series of government agencies and institutions whose goal is to
maintain the law and order of society and decrease and/or prevent crime and violence.
It also aims to maintain a fair society for all citizens. It involves the police, law makers
(legislatures), laws and courts (judiciary).
Diagram of the justice system
Courts of Limited Jurisdiction
●​ Specific court deals with specific matters to which it is given jurisdiction or
permission
●​ E.g Industrial Courts of Trinidad and Tobago; given authority over industrial
disputes between employers, employees and trade unions
●​ Another example is the Magistrates Court; deals with all types of criminal activity
ranging from robbery to family matters
High Court or Supreme Court
●​ Core of justice system as more matters are dealt with here
●​ At high court level there are also courts for specific matter, e.g. the Gun Court in
Jamaica
Court of Appeal
●​ Deals with appeals from the high court or direct from the magistrates court
●​ Three judges deal with issues at this level; decisions are made by majority rule
●​ Bound by decisions of courts above and its own decisions, but not by decisions
of lower courts
Chapter 7: Caribbean Arts and Popular Culture in the Region
and its Diaspora