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what are the four major sections of the brain?cerebrum<br>diencephalon<br>brainstem<br>cerebellum
what is the function of the cerebrum?it's the origin of all complex intellectual functions and it's the center of:<br><ol><li>intelligence and reasoning&nbsp;</li><li>thought, memory, and judgement&nbsp;</li><li>voluntary control of skeletal muscle&nbsp;</li><li>conscious perception of senses&nbsp;</li></ol>
what is the function of the diencephalon?it's the interbrain and contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
what is the function of the brainstem?connects cerebrum, diencephalon, and cerebellum to spinal cord<br>contains ascending and descending tracts&nbsp;<br>contains autonomic nuceli, nuceli of cranial nerves, and reflex centers<br>consists of: midbrain, pons &amp; medulla oblongata
what is the function of the cerebellum?"""little brain""<br>ensures muscle activity follows correct pattern, stores memories of learned movements, adjusts movements initiated by cerebrum, maintains equilibrium and posture"
what is neurolation? what are some birth defects? what vitamins are important?&nbsp;neurolation is the formation of nervous tissue during the third week of embryonic development. birth defects include anencephaly and spina bifida. vitamins b12 and folate are important during pregnancy
what does gray matter consist of?neuron cell bodies, dendrites &amp; unmyelinated axons<br>cerebral cortex &amp; cerebral nuclei&nbsp;
what does white matter consist of?myelinated axons; organized in tracts&nbsp;<br>corpus callosom &amp; internal capsule
list the cranial meninges from superficial to deepdura mater<br>arachnoid mater<br>pia mater
what is the function of the dura mater?tough fibrous membrane that forms the outer meningeal layer of the CNS <br>composed of the periosteal and meningeal layer
what is the function of the arachnoid mater?protects the brain and spinal cord by creating the subarachnoid space that contains the cerebrospinal fluid
what is the function of the pia mater?delicate thin layer of areolar CT that adheres to the brain surface. it also covers small blood vessels that enter the brain and help form CSF in the ventricles
what are the functions of the cranial dural septa?forms partitions between brain areas; provide support &amp; stabilizes brain to keep it in place
<div>what are the 4 ventricles and the structures that allow CSF to flow from one to another</div>two lateral ventricles<br>third ventricle<br>fourth ventricle&nbsp;<br>cerebral aqueduct<br>interventricular foramen
what is the function of the CSF?provides buoyancy, protection, and environmental stability&nbsp;
how does CFS circulate?&nbsp;<ol><li>CSF is secreted by choroid plexus in each lateral ventricle</li><li>CSF flows through the interventricular foramina into the third ventricle&nbsp;</li><li>more CSF is added in the third ventricle&nbsp;</li><li>CSF flows down from cerebral aqueduct to fourth ventricle</li><li>more CSF is added in the fourth ventricle&nbsp;</li><li>CSF flows out to two lateral apetures and one median apeture&nbsp;</li><li>CSF fills subarachnoid space&nbsp;</li><li>at the arachnoid villi, CSF is reabsorbed into venous blood of dural venous sinuses&nbsp;</li></ol>
<div>what are circumventricular organs and what is their function/purpose?</div>CVOs are spaces in the third and fourth ventricles where the barrier is absent&nbsp;<br>enables the brain to monitor and respond to fluctuations in blood glucose, pH, osmolarity, and other variables
what are the five lobes of the brain?frontal<br>parietal<br>temporal<br>occipital<br>insular
what is the function of the frontal lobe?motor control, concentration, verbal communication, decision making, planning, personality
what is the function of the parietal lobe?serves general sensory function like evaluating shape and texture of objects
what is the function of the temporal lobe?functions include hearing and smell&nbsp;
what is the function of the occipital lobe?vision and visual memories
what is the function of the insula lobe?memory and taste
where is the central sulcus located and what is the function?the central sulcus is a deep groove in the frontal lobe that marks its boundary with the parietal lobe; seperates the precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus
where is the precentral gyrus located and what is the function?it's located in the frontal lobe, anterior to the central sulcus. it contains the primary motor cortex that controls voluntary skeletal muscle activity
where is the postcentral gyrus located and what is the function?it's located in the parietal lobe, posterior to the central sulcus. it contains the primary somatosensory cortex that is responsible for recieving, processing, and storing somatic sensory information
what is the function of the cerebral peduncles?main highway for signals that need to be transported from the cortex to other parts of the CNS; essentially important for body coordination (motor tracts)
what is the function of the corpus callosum?largest white matter tract that connects the left and right hemispheres &amp; provides the main method of communication between the hemispheres
what is the function of the limbic structures?helps form long-term memories (parahippocampal gyrus hippocampus)<br>involved in many aspects of emotion and emotional memory (amygdaloid body)&nbsp;<br>process odors that can invoke emotions (olfactory bulbs, tracts &amp; cortex)
what are the functions of the hypothalamus?controls autonomic nervous system &amp; endocrine system<br>regulates body temperature&nbsp;<br>food &amp; water intake<br>sleep-wake rhythms<br>emotional behavior
what is the function of the pineal gland?secretes melatonin and helps regulate the circadian rhythm
what are the three tracts of the cerebral white matter in the CNS?association - connects regions of cerebral cortex within the same hemisphere<br><br>commissural - connect regions in different hemispheres<br><br>projection - link cerebral cortex to inferior brain regions &amp; spinal cord
where is the arbor vitae located and what is the function?located in the internal region of white matter in the cerebellum and its important for transfering sensory and motor information to and from the cerebellum
where is the wernicke are located and what is the function?located in the left hempisphere and is involved in recognizing, understanding, and comprehending spoken or written language
where is the broca area located and what is the function?its located within the inferolateral portion of the left frontal lobe and it's responsible for generating motor programs for the muscles of the larynx, tongue, cheeks, and lips
what is motor homunculus?its a topographic representation of the body parts and its correspondents along the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe
what is sensory homunculusdistorted proportions that reflect the amount of sensory information that is collected from that region<br>large regions for lips, fingers, genital regions
what fibers are found in the dorsal root, ventral root, and spinal rootdorsal root contains sensory fibers<br>ventral roots contain motor fibers<br>spinal roots contain sensory and motor fibers
what are the meningeal layers of the spinal cord?pia mater - delicate layer adhering to spinal cord and contains the filum terminale layer that anchors inferior end of spinal cord to coccyx<br><br>archanoid mater - web-like layer that lies external to pia. composed of both collagen and elastic fibers (arachnoid trabeculae). contains subarchanoid space where CSF flows through<br><br>dura mater - tough, outermost layer (dense irregular CT) that stabilizes spinal cord
what are the four nuceli found in gray matter?somatic sensory<br>visceral sensory<br>somatic motor<br>autonomic motor
somatic sensory nucleisensory nuclei found in the posterior horn; recieves signals from skin, muscle, joints
visceral sensory nucleisensory nuclei in posterior horn; recieves signals from blood vessels &amp; viscera
somatic motor nucleimotor nuclei in anterior horn; innervate skeletal muscle
autonomic motor nucleimotor nuclei in lateral horns; innervate smooth muscle, heart &amp; glands&nbsp;
what are the two spinal pathways?sensory and motor
sensory pathwaysensory input transmitted through the spinal cord to the brain from general sense receptors: somatosensory &amp; visceral sensory receptors
motor pathwaydescending pathway that controls effectors such as skeletal muscles &amp; starts in the brain; includes two neurons<br><br>upper motor neuron: in motor cortex, cerebral nucleus or brainstem nucelus; contacts lower motor neuron<br>lower motor neuron: in cranial nerve nucleus or spinal cord anterior horn; excites muscle
spinothalamic tracttract that carries ascending pain information from the spinal cord to the thalamus<br><br>primary neuron relays signal from skin to spinal cord<br>secondary neuron relays signals from spinal cord to thalamus<br>tertiary neuron relays signal from thalamus to cerebral cortex
what are the four main nerve plexuses and where are they located?located in the anterior rami branch:<br><br>cervical plexus in the neck<br>brachial plexus near the shoulder<br>lumbar plexus in the lower back<br>sacral plexus in the pelvis
which spinal nerves are involved in the phrenic nerve &amp; what is the purpose of this nerve?cervical plexuses innervate anterior neck muscles, skin of neck, portions of head &amp; shoulders<br>gives rise to the phrenic nerve innervating the diaphragm
which branch of the brachial nerve&nbsp;is involved in carpal tunnel syndrome, crutch paralysis and funny bone pain?medial nerve - carpal tunnel syndrome<br>radial nerve - crutch paralysis<br>ulnar nerve - funny bone
what is the function of the femoral nerve &amp; which nerve branch does it come from?originates in the lumbar plexus &amp; the main nerve is in the posterior division of the plexus<br>innervates anterior thigh muscles and sartorius<br>sensory input from anterior and infermedial thigh and medial leg&nbsp;
what is the function of the obturator nerve &amp; which nerve branch does it come from?originates in the lumbar plexus; main nerve is in the anterior division of the plexus&nbsp;<br>innervates medial thigh muscles<br>sensory input from superomedial skin of thigh
sacral plexussupplies remainder of lower trunk &amp; lower limb
sciatic nervelargest and longest nerve in the body &amp; functions in motor control and sensory reception
what are dermatomes?segment of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve and can help localize damage to one or more spinal nerves
what causes shingles?the virus from the chickenpox in the posterior root ganglia (remains latent) reactivates &amp; travels through the sensory axons to a dermatome where rash and blisters occur
what is a reflex arc? what is the pathway?a pathway that is responsible for generating a response&nbsp;<br><br>1. stimulus&nbsp;<br>2. afferent (sensory)<br>3. interneuron<br>4. efferent (motor)<br>5. skeletal muscle
what makes up a monosynaptic reflex?&nbsp;sensory and motor neuron
what makes up a polysynaptic reflex?sensory neuron, motor neuron &amp; one or more interneurons positioned between sensory &amp; motor neuron
what are the four properties of a reflex? why are they useful for a diagnosis?&nbsp;requires stimulation<br>quick<br>involuntary<br>survival mechanisim&nbsp;<br><br>useful for diagnoses because they can test function of specific muscles, nerves, &amp; spinal segments
hypoactive reflexdiminished or absent reflexes<br>indicates damage to spinal cord, or muscle disease, or damage to neuromuscular junction
hyperactive reflexabnormally strong response<br>indicates damage to brain or spinal cord
gray matter in spinal cordneuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons; also glial cells
white matter of spinal cordmyelinated axons to and from the brain<br>contains:<br>posterior funiculus - sensory tracts<br>lateral funiculus - sensory (ascending) &amp; motor (descending) tracts<br>anterior funiculus - sensory (ascending) &amp; motor (descending tracts)
what are the levels of organization? from simplest to most complexchemical level<br>cellular level<br>tissue level<br>organ level<br>organ system level<br>organismal level
what is the definition of homeostasis?the ability of an organism to maintain consistent internal environment in response to changing internal or external conditions
what are the components of the homeostatic mechanism?receptor - detects changes<br>control center - processes sensory info and directs response<br>effector - structure that brings about changes to alter stimulus
example of negative feedbacktemperature regulation
example of postive feedbackbreastfeeding, labor, blood clotting
nonpolar covalent bondsshared electrons spend equal amount of time around each nucleus<br>atoms with similar electronegativites&nbsp;<br>no poles
polar covalent bondsunequal sharing of electrons due to significantly different electronegativities
ionic bondsoccur when two atoms with vastly different electronegativities come together<br>cations and anions attract each other and form ionic bonds (no electrons shared)
hydrogen bondselectrical attraction between partially charged H+ and full or partial negative charge on same or different molecule
pH scalerepresents the concentration of free H+ in a solution
what is the pH of blood?7.35 to 7.45
which pH values indicate acidic solutions?&lt; pH 7.35&nbsp;
which pH values indicate basic solutions?&gt; pH 7.45&nbsp;
what is the function of the bicarbonate buffer system?the bicarbonate buffer system consists of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions that help resist changes in pH blood to maintain homeostasis
lipidsconsist of monomers &amp; are hydrophobic<br>function as stored energy, cellular membrane components, &amp; hormones<br>contains: fats (triglycerides), phospholipids, steroids &amp; eiconsanoids<br>building blocks are glycerol and fatty acids
proteinsamino acids are the building blocks
carbohydratesmonosaccharides are the building blocks
nucleic acidsnucleotides are the buidling blocks
what is the function of an enzyme?enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction
what does catalyst mean?something that speeds up a chemical reaction
what variables affects a reaction rate?temperature and pH (also call denaturation)
what is the purpose of aerobic cellular respiration?to create ATP&nbsp;
active transportthe movement of a molecule or ion against its concentration gradient; requires ATP
passive transportthe movement of a substance across the membrane down its concentration gradient (high to low); no ATP required&nbsp;
what does the central dogma state?genetic information flows in specific directions<br><br>dna to rna to protein
what are the 3 cellular attachments that hold cells together &amp; what are their functions?tight junctions - prevents substances from passing through<br><br>desmosomes - binds neighboring cells<br><ul><li>hemidesmosomes - anchors basal layer to underlying components</li></ul><div>gap junctions - provides passageway for substances to travel between cells</div>
what is connective tissue made out of?cells - fibroblasts, mesenchymal, macrophages<br><br>protein fibers - collagen, elastic, reticular&nbsp;<br><br>ground substance - viscous, semisolid, solid
what are the functions of the skin?protection from external environment<br>prevention of water loss/gain<br>vitamin d synthesis<br>secretion<br>absorption<br>immune function<br>temperature regulation<br>sensory reception
what is the most common type of skin cancer?basal cell carcinoma
what is inside children's bonemedullary cavity contains redbone marrow that has rbc, wbc, and platelets that are synthesized&nbsp;<br>contains a growth plate (epiphyseal plate) inside the metaphysis&nbsp;<br>red bone marrow is found in spongy bone and long bones&nbsp;
what is inside adult bones?medullary cavity contains yellow bone marrow that is filled with triglycerides for long term storage&nbsp;<br>growth plate turns into the epiphyseal line due to calcification in the metaphysis&nbsp;<br>red bone marrow is found in parts of the axial skeleton; skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, hip bone, etc.&nbsp;
"<div>bone is a composite, describe what this
means</div>"it has inorganic and organic components
explain calcium homeostasis1. low blood calcium levels - stimulus<br>2. pt glands detect low blood calcium levels - receptor<br>3. pt glands release pth - control center<br>4. pth and calcitriol act together to increase osteoclast activity in the bone. in the kidneys, pth and calcitriol decrease calcium released in urine. in the small intestines, calcitriol increases absorption of calcium - effectors<br>5. blood calcium levels return to homeostatic range
what is arthrologythe study of joints and their functions
"<div>what is the
relationship between mobility and stability?</div>"the more mobile a joint is, the less stable they are &amp; the less mobile a joint is, the more stable they are (inverse relationship)
define sarcomerefunctional unit of a skeletal muscle; myofilaments within myofibrils are arranged in repeating, microscopic, cylindrical units
rmp of a neuron-70mV
the bundle of connective tissue at the end of a skeletal muscle, that attaches the muscle to bone is called a(n)tendon
<div>the&nbsp;<strong>space</strong>&nbsp;between the neuron and the muscle is the</div>synaptic cleft
<div>Vesicles at the nerve ending fuse to the membrane and trigger exocytosis due to</div><div>increased calcium levels in the cytoplasm at the synaptic bulb</div>
voltage-gated calcium channels can be found in thet-tubules
<div>in a muscle fiber, the sarcomere is defined as the section between two</div>z-discs
<div>many drugs/medications introduced into the blood cannot directly affect the neurons of the CNS because</div><div>astrocytes line capillaries in the CNS forming a blood-brain barrier</div>
<div>The part of the peripheral nervous system which takes motor information out of the central nervous system is the _____ division</div>efferent (motor)
sensory nervous systemafferent - detects stimuli and transmits information from receptors to the CNS&nbsp;
motor nervous systemefferent - initiates and transmits information from the CNS to effectors
somatic sensoryafferent - sensory input that is consciously percieved from receptors (eyes, ears, skins)
visceral sensoryafferent - sensory input that is not consciously percieved from receptors of blood vessels and internal organs (heart)
somatic motorefferent - motor output that is consciously or voluntarily controlled (skeletal muscle = effector)
autonomic motoreffector - motor output that is not consciously or is involuntary controlled (cardiac muscle, smooth muscles &amp; glands = effectors)&nbsp;
astrocyteslocated in the cns - help form a blood-brain barrier by wrapping around brain capillaries
ependymal cellslocated in the cns - line cavities in brain and spinal cord &amp; part of choroid plexus that produces CSF
microglialocated in the cns - phagocytic cells of immune system &amp; engulf infectious agents and remove debris
oligodendrocyteslocated in the cns - forms myelin sheath
satellite cellslocated in the pns - electrically insulates &amp; regulate exchange of nutrients and wastes
neurolemmocytes (schwann cells)located in the pns - flat cells that ensheath PNS axons with myelin &amp; allows for faster a.p propogation
chemically gated channelslocated in the receptive segment (dendrite &amp; cell body) - chemically gated cation, chemically gated K+ &amp; chemically gated Cl- channels<br>remains closed until a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor &amp; flows down their electrochemical gradient (high to low)&nbsp;<br>produces graded potentials in the receptive segment
initial segment (axon hillock)contains voltage-gated Na+ channels &amp; voltage-gated K+ channel - closed until a voltage membrane charge changes&nbsp;<br>membrane potential is met at -55 mV &amp; + na ions enter the cell, initiating an action potential that will propogate down the axon&nbsp;
conductive segment (axon &amp; it's branches)contains voltage-gated Na+ channels &amp; voltage-gated K+ channel - closed until a voltage membrane charge changes&nbsp;<br>when threshold is met (-55 mV), na+ ions flow rapidly into the axon, causing depolarization (-55 mV to +30 mV)&nbsp;<br>voltage-gated K+ channels slowly open when threshold is met &amp; k+ ions exit the axon at +30 mV, causing repolarization (+30 mV to -70 mV)
transmissive segment (synaptic knob)contains voltage-gated Ca2+ channels &amp; Ca2+ pumps<br>voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open at +30 mV &amp; calcium ions move down their concentration gradient from the i.f through open voltage-gated Ca2+ channels into the synaptic knob<br>neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis when synaptic vesicles fuse with the p.m of the synaptic knob
<div><div>movement of molecules across the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration is known as</div></div>active transport&nbsp;
<div><div>the movement of water across a membrane from an area of low solute concentration (high water concertation) to an area of higher solute concentration (lower water concentration) is known as</div></div>osmosis
channel mediated facilitated diffusion is the movement of ions through channels. if they are continuously open they are known as ____&nbsp;channels, but if they are usually closed and open in response to a stimulus they are known as ______ channelsleaky &amp; gated&nbsp;
<div>all connective tissues are made of cells, protein fibers and blood vessels.&nbsp;</div>true
what are the major differences between adult and children LONG bones? (Select all that apply)<div>red bone marrow found in medullary cavity of children but not adults &amp; epiphyseal plate is present in children but not in adults</div>
<div>during hematopoiesis, what 3 general cell types are synthesized?</div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets</div></div></div></div></div></div></div>