IB PSYCHOLOGY
SAQ Exemplars
Table of Contents
Important considerations ............................................................................................................ 1
Biological Approach................................................................................................................. 2
Explain how damage to the brain can influence behavior. .................................................... 2
Explain localization making use of one research study. ........................................................ 2
Explain how genetics may influence one behaviour.............................................................. 3
Explain one technique used to study the brain in relationship to behaviour, making use of
one research study. ................................................................................................................. 3
Explain the effect of one hormone on human behaviour. ...................................................... 4
Explain one evolutionary explanation for one behaviour. ..................................................... 5
Explain one example of neuroplasticity. (Discuss research on neuroplasticity.) .................. 6
Explain neural pruning with reference to one study. ............................................................. 7
Explain the formation of neural networks with the use of one study ................................... 8
Explain the effect of one neurotransmitter on behaviour....................................................... 9
Explain one example of how human behavior may be influence by pheromones............... 10
Explain the role of agonists with reference to one study. .................................................... 10
Explain the role of antagonists with reference to one study. ............................................... 11
Explain the role of inhibitory synapses in one behaviour. ................................................... 11
Explain the role of excitatory synapses in one behaviour.................................................... 12
Discuss how genetic similarities help psychologists in the study of genes and
behaviour/Explain how genetic similarities are used in studies on genes and behavior. .... 13
Explain how twin and/or kinship studies are used to understand the effects of genes on
behavior................................................................................................................................ 14
Explain how adoption studies are used to understand the effects of genes on behavior. .... 14
Explain the use of one research method used in the biological approach to understanding
human behaviour. ................................................................................................................. 15
Outline one ethical consideration related to studies on the brain and behaviour................. 17
Cognitive Approach ............................................................................................................... 18
Explain one study of one model of memory. ....................................................................... 18
Explain the influence of emotion on one cognitive process. ............................................... 19
Describe one example of rational (controlled) thinking. ..................................................... 20
Outline one example of intuitive (automatic) thinking. ....................................................... 20
Outline one research method used to study cognitive processes. ........................................ 21
Outline one ethical consideration related to studies on cognitive processes. ...................... 23
Explain schema theory. ........................................................................................................ 23
Sociocultural Approach ......................................................................................................... 25
Explain how culture may affect one behavior. .................................................................... 25
Explain one cultural origin of behavior. .............................................................................. 25
Outline one-way cultural norms may influence human behaviour. ..................................... 25
Explain the role of one cultural dimension in human behaviour. ........................................ 26
Explain how belonging to cultural groups may influence cognition. .................................. 27
Explain/Describe Social Identity Theory. ............................................................................ 27
Explain how and/or why stereotypes are formed. ................................................................ 28
Explain how stereotypes may influence human behaviour.................................................. 29
Explain/Describe Social Cognitive Theory. ........................................................................ 30
Explain one effect of enculturation on human behaviour. ................................................... 31
Describe one effect of acculturation on human behaviour. ................................................. 32
Explain the use of one research method used in the sociocultural approach to
understanding human behaviour. ......................................................................................... 33
Discuss one or more ethical considerations related to research in the sociocultural approach
to understanding human behaviour. ..................................................................................... 35
IB Psychology
Important Considerations
SAQs
Important considerations
This resource is provided by Sydney Wong. Here’s the link to her YouTube video IB Psychology: How
to get a 7: https://youtu.be/nT4UGL71FcU?si=E6O0xn2yVyni-HMN
It is important to note that the studies Sydney has used may not be the same ones you have studies
in class. Therefore, this resource is more of a general example in how to attempt writing SAQs.
For each potential SAQ, need to consider the potential command terms:
-Define
-Describe
-Outline
-State
-Analyze
-Apply
-Distinguish
-Explain
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SAQs
Biological Approach
Explain how damage to the brain can influence behavior.
Damage to a part of the brain can influence behavior, because the brain consists of a localization
function; the idea that certain areas of the brain are responsible for certain functions, influencing a
specific behavior. One example of this would be the localization function of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, located in the frontal lobe. The pre-frontal cortex is responsible rational decision
making and social intelligence. It works closely with the amygdala, to inhibit any emotional actions to
be carried out. Hence, when there is a lesion in pre-frontal cortex, one’s ability to control their
emotions is damaged as well. Damage to this part of the brain can lead to aggressive behaviors, and
an attempt to seek for short-term gratification which both can be understood as an over fluctuation
of emotions.
A research study on the role of the ventromedial pre-frontal cortex was carried out by Bechara in 2000.
The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between lesions in the ventromedial PFC and
consideration of future consequences of their behavior. The experiment had 17 healthy controls and
8 patients with lesions in ventromedial PFC as participants. Both groups participated in the Iowa card
gambling game, and their choice of card decks throughout the game was recorded. The results were
that the healthy controls learned to avoid the high penalty decks, while the experimental groups
constantly chose decks with higher rewards and bigger risks. From the relts, Bechara was able to draw
the conclusion that the people with no lesion was able to consider their future consequences of losing
money if they kept choosing the decks with high rewards, but big risks at the same time. On the other
hand, the experimental group didn’t have the ability to do so, therefore focused only on instant results.
This study supports the link between the role of the ventromedial PFC and one’s ability to make
rational decisions.
Explain localization making use of one research study.
Localization of function is the concept whereby certain areas of the brain correspond to
specific functions of the brain that associates with the individual’s thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
For instance, the pre-frontal cortex located in the frontal lobe is responsible for processing
information and making rational decisions. With the localization concept in mind, psychologists can
conclude that damage to an area of the brain is linked to the individual’s behavior.
A study that provided insight to the localized function of the ventromedial pre-frontal cortex
was the Iowa Card Gambling experiment, carried out by Bechara in 2000. (Bechara et al, 2000) The
aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between lesions in the ventromedial PFC of the
participants and the consideration of future consequences in their behavior. The experiment had 17
healthy controls and 8 patients with lesions in ventromedial PFC as participants, participating in the
Iowa card gambling game. There were 4 decks of cards in which two of them provided smaller awards
and smaller penalty, creating a long-term gain; while the other two consists of higher awards but also
higher long term loses of money. The participants had to learn the pattern from experience, and their
choice of card decks throughout the game was observed and recorded. The results were that the
healthy controls learned to avoid the high penalty decks, while the experimental group constantly
chose decks with higher rewards and bigger risks.
From the results, psychologists can draw the conclusion that damage to the ventromedial
pre-frontal cortex is related to the individual’s behavior of choosing card decks with more satisfying
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SAQs
results but more risks in the long run. Their behavior reflected their act on impulsive decisions and
inability to consider future consequences of losing more money, which connects to their lesion in the
ventromedial pre-frontal cortex. On the other hand, the healthy controls were able to recognize the
pattern and win more money in the long run, because they were able to perform more careful
consideration with their proper functioning ventromedial pre-frontal cortex. Therefore, the
experiment showed that the mental process of rational decision making is localized to the
ventromedial pre-frontal cortex.
Explain how genetics may influence one behaviour.
The variation of MAOA gene (the MAOA-L gene) may increase an individual’s probability of being
violent by affecting levels of neurotransmitters in the brain; hence, affecting brain activity in certain
parts of the brain including the amygdala and the pre-fontal cortex. Genes are a heritable factor that
determine specific characteristics. The MAOA gene codes for the production of MAOA enzymes
(monoamine oxidase A) that affects the level of neurotransmission in the brain, by breaking down
neurotransmitters in the synapse (including serotonin and dopamine).With that being said, low
expression of MAOA gene (the MAOA-L gene) hence lowers the amount of MAOA enztme, which leads
to an overall lower breakdown of neurotransmitter in the brain.
Meyer Lindberg study aimed to investigate the relationship between variation in the MAOA gene
and brain activity. (Meyer Lindberg, et al) The sample consists of 2 groups of healthy participants, one
with high expression of MAOA gene (MAOA-H), the other with low expression of MAOA gene (MAOAL). Both groups lied in the fMRI scanner while looking at different facial expressions and their brain
activity in the amygdala and their pre-frontal cortex is recorded. The results of the study was that
there is a high level of brain activity in the amygdala, and reduced brain activity in the ventromedial
pre-frontal cortex in the MAOA-L group while looking at angry and fearful faces.
The results of the study can be explained by understanding the role of neurotransmitters in the
communication of the brain and the localization of function. The PFC is responsible for rational
decision making while the amygdala is activated when the individual detected threat from the
environment, which is shown through the angry facial expression. High activity in the amygdala is
associated with high emotional arousal. This is because a low variation of the MAOA gene lowers the
expression of the MAOA gene therefore lowering the production of MAOA enzyme that breaks down
neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft. Less enzyme to break down neurotransmitters will result in an
increase in those neurotransmitters, like serotonin. While it might seem that an increase in serotonin
is beneficial for the inhibition of aggression, the MAOA-L variant can lead to reduced sensitivity to
serotonin later in life. Neurotransmitters like serotonin functions to suppress negative emotions
generated in the amygdala due to the stress response, to ensure that the pre-frontal cortex is
functioning to make rational decision making and inhibit impulsive behavior. Hence, with less
response to the effect of serotonin, there is high brain activity in the amygdala and low levels of
serotonin. When an individual has high levels of emotion and low levels of rational thinking when
they are threatened, it is more likely for them to act on their impulsive behaviors, being violent.
Explain one technique used to study the brain in relationship to behaviour, making
use of one research study.
A technique used to study the brain is the functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (or fMRI), which
is used to study brain activities. This technique uses magnetic fields to cause nuclei to emit radio
waves, takes snapshots continuously to present the difference between regions with high vs low
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SAQs
oxygen-rich blood flow in a 2D representation. The assumption is that the more active a part of the
brain is, the more oxygen will need to be supplied to that specific area. fMRI scans are non-invasive,
so it is able to show change in brain activity when reacting upon a stimulus presented. The fMRI scan
is heavily relied upon when it comes to the study of localization of function which is the theory that
particular function of the brain is restricted to certain areas of the brain.
A study that uses fMRI is conducted by Passamonti et al. The aim of the study is to investigate the
relationship between the neurotransmitter serotonin and the brain. The sample of the study were
healthy volunteers, and they were randomly allocated to one of the two conditions: control or
serotonin depletion group. In the depletion group, the participants were given a drink that lacked
tryptophan, which was an amino acid that is the building block of serotonin. Hence, their levels of
serotonin were lowered by the drink. The control group received a drink with normal levels of
tryptophan; therefore, the levels of serotonin were not altered. After the participants received the
drink, they were instructed to lie in the fMRI scanner and their brain activity was measured while they
looked at happy, neutral, and angry faces. The results were that there was increase activity in the
amygdala and a decrease in activity in the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) only when the in the experimental
when viewing at angry faces. Something particularly different to note is that disruptions occurred
between the brain activity of amygdala only in the low serotonin conditions group while the
participants were viewing at angry faces.
The results of the experiment can be explained through understanding the role of serotonin, and
the localization function of the brain. The PFC is responsible for rational decision making while the
amygdala is activated when the individual detected threat from the environment, which is shown
through the angry facial expression. The results produced by the fMRI in this study supported
localization of function, as the amygdala had an increase in brain activity, and the PFC having a
decrease in activity. This shows that people with low serotonin levels are more likely going to commit
aggressive and violent acts, because the PFC was not functioning enough to make rational decision
and inhibit impulsive behavior. In addition to this finding, the fMRI scanner also showed a disruption
of communication in the brain activity between the amygdala and the PFC. From this finding we can
conclude that serotonin functions to suppress negative emotions generated in the amygdala due to
the stress response, to ensure that the pre-frontal cortex is functioning to make rational decision
making and inhibit impulsive behavior. Therefore, the fMRI scanner is useful in terms of determining
the relationship between biological factors and human behavior in a living brain, comparing to
conducting autopsies in animal research, which are invasive. In this case, it helps psychologists to
study the how emotions and reactions can be affected by serotonin.
Explain the effect of one hormone on human behaviour.
https://www.themantic-education.com/ibpsych/2017/10/03/how-does-testosteroneinfluence-aggression/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4O6CPnJs9Y
Hormones are chemical substances that travel through the bloodstream when released by
specialized endocrine glands and regulate long term ongoing processes. Hormones also function to
stimulate physiological responses including the brain. Testosterone is an example of a sex hormone,
secreted in the testes of males for the production of sperm and development of secondary sexual
characteristics. Testosterone is linked to the behavior of aggression, which are behaviors that seek to
dominate another individual. On average, an adult human male body produces about 40 to 60 times
more testosterone than an adult human female body, and it accounts for the fact that male is the
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SAQs
more aggressive gender. A study that shows the effect of testosterone on aggressive behaviors during
the stress response conducted by Radke et al (2015).
**Use Goetz et al (2016)’s study instead
Differences are:
-repeated measures
-no movement of joystick
-Results: when participants were injected with testosterone, there is an increase brain activity in the
amygdala and the hypothalamus when they were viewing images of angry faces.
Radke’s study aimed to investigate the influence of levels on testosterone on aggressive behaviors.
The study had 54 females, which they were randomly allocated to one of the conditions. The
experimental group was injected with testosterone to increase the levels of testosterone in the
body, while the control group were injected with placebo solution. In both conditions, the participants
were placed in an fMRI scanner, while they watched angry, happy and neutral faces. The participants
were also instructed by the researchers to move a joystick which would either enlarge or zoom out
the images displayed. The study found that there is an increase activity in the amygdala the
participants were looking at angry faces in both conditions; more specifically, when they were
instructed to enlarge the image of the angry face. The brain activity in the amygdala in the
experimental group is on average greater than those in the control group.
The results show that there is a positive correlation between the levels of testosterone and
the activity in the amygdala. The amygdala is activated when individuals are threatened,
constructed by the angry faces, which triggers the stress response. When the stress response occurs
as a result of perceived threat, the adrenal glands produces testosterone and activates the
sympathetic nervous system, which creates physiological arousal. In addition, the HPA axis occurs,
where the hypothalamus sends a signal to the pituitary gland, and the pituitary gland releases
another hormone to stimulate the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and cortisol into the
bloodstream. The increased testosterone levels in the body in turn increases activity in the
amygdala, leading to an emotional arousal, which helps prepare and motivates the individual to
"fight" against the threat. These arousals result in the individual in being more likely to react
aggressively (fight response), rather than escaping from the situation (flight response). Therefore,
this study shows that testosterones do not influence aggression immediately but increases the
probability that an aggressive act will occur when stimulated by an environmental stimulus.
Explain one evolutionary explanation for one behaviour.
**emphasis on reproduction!
Evolution is the cumulative change in inherited traits in a species over time. According Charles
Darwin’s theory of evolution, those who have traits that adapt best to the environment due to
variations in their genes will have a greater chance of survival, therefore passing on those traits to
the next generation; this is called the survival of the fittest. The variations in genes are a result of
random mutation. Evolution is present due to natural selection, which occurs when an
environmental pressure is posed on the species, and the survival of the fittest (ones with most
favorable traits) will survive the competition for limited resources between members of the same
species, which provides them. The survival of the fittest will have a greater chance of survival,
reproduction, and passing on genes. Hence, natural selection results in the successful traits being
more prevalent in the population (as they are inherited by their offspring), as it aids the organisms
in its survival. If it is assumed that certain behaviours is inherited through genes, and that the
principles of evolution dictate that only traits that aid in the survival of an species is passed on to
offspring, then behaviours observed today should have an evolutionary explanation. Disgust is an
example of a trait that aids in our survival. Disgust is an evolutionary adaption, because it protects
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SAQs
the individual by preventing the consumption and contact of diseases or poisonous objects through
invoking the body to have a feeling of distaste and discomfort.
Curtis et al. (2004) investigated the patterns in disgust to substantiate the potential evolutionary
origin of disgust with a web-based survey, administered to more than 77,000 participants
worldwide. Participants were asked to rank their level of disgust for 20 images. Within the 20
images were 7 pairs where one was infectious or harmful to the immune system and the other was
similar but non-infectious. For example, one image was a plate of cooking fluid and its pair was a
plate of bright blue chemical liquid. The results were consistent across cultures, and indicated that
disgust responses were strongest for images presenting a potential threat to the immune system.
Furthermore, the researchers found that disgust responses diminished with age, and that disgust
responses were on average higher for women than men.
The findings suggest that disgust is evolutionary. Natural selection may have helped human
ancestors to be more disgusted at things which threatened the immune system to avoid things
that could potentially lead to diseases or sickness. This would allow them better chances of survival
and reproduction to pass on their genes. The decrease of disgust with age may be explained by the
fact that the older a member of a species, the less likely they are to reproduce. Therefore, their
disgust reaction (that can prevent death of offspring) decreases. The stronger disgust reaction of
women may be the result of natural selection and adaptation. As women are the carriers for
offspring, they have a stronger disgust reaction so as not to threaten the lives of unborn offspring
and consequently, the species. This study supports the role of disgust in aiding reproduction, and
thus, as an evolutionary behaviour.
Explain one example of neuroplasticity. (Discuss research on neuroplasticity.)
Neuroplasticity suggests that the human brain is malleable by environmental stimulus. The brain
has the ability to reorganise itself and form new connections between neurons when something new
is learned from environmental stimulus. Neurons function to send electrochemical messages to the
brain, thereby enabling mental processes. Billions of neurons connect together to form a neural
network through dendritic branching. On the other hand, neural pruning is the loss of specific synaptic
connections that are less frequently used. Synapse is the connection between two dendrites of
neurons, which help electrochemical messages to travel around the brain. Interaction with a certain
stimulus over time can strengthen the neural connections that are utilized more often, and unused
synapses are pruned (weakened), which increases the effectiveness of the more commonly used
neural circuits. Synapses appear as part of the grey matter in the brain. Therefore, measuring
changes in grey matter can show the synaptic pruning process. A study that shows synaptic pruning
of the brain over time is by Draganski et al (2004)
The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between learning a new skill and the
structure of the brain. The study used 24 participants with an average age of 22 years old. All
participants were non-jugglers at the start of the study and each participant had an MRI scan at that
time. Participants were allocated to one of two conditions - the jugglers and the non- jugglers. Those
that were in the juggling condition were taught a three-ball cascade juggling routine. They were asked
to practice this routine and to notify the researchers when they had mastered it. At that point the
jugglers had a second MRI scan. After the scan, they were told not to juggle anymore and then a third
and final scan was carried out three months later. The non-juggling group served as a control group
for the duration of the study. To analyse the MRI scans, the researchers used voxel-based
morphometry [VBM] to determine if there was significant differences in neural density (grey matter)
in the brains. The found that the jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of grey matter in the
mid- temporal area in both hemispheres - an area associated with visual memory. Three months after
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SAQs
the participants stopped juggling - and many were no longer able to carry out the routine - the amount
of grey matter in these parts of the brain decreased.
The finding of the experiment can be understood by incorporating the role of the temporal lobe
and the concept of neuroplasticity. According to the localization of function, the temporal lobe is
responsible for visual memory, which is needed the in practicing of juggling. As the participants learn
a new skill (juggling), new neural connections with synapses are formed, which leads to an increase in
grey matter in the temporal lobe. As the participants stopped practicing the skill, those newly formed
neural connections are weakened to ensure the efficiency in other areas of the brain. The trend of
increasing then decreasing of brain matter based on whether or not the participants are practicing the
skill shows that the brain has the ability to re-organize itself based on environmental stimulus. The
study demonstrates that the temporal lobe may change in response to environmental demands (in
this case learning a new skill).
**or use study by Maguire (but not preferred because doesn’t show neural pruning and networks)
Maguire’s study aimed to investigate the relationship between taxi London Taxi drivers and if the
size of their hippocampus would be different due to their training and extensive use of spatial memory.
The study used 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers with at least 1.5 of working experience and
compared their MRI scans of 50 right-handed males who did not drive taxis. The data from the MRI
was measured used voxel-based morphometry [VBM] and pixel counting, to measure the density of
grey matter in the brain and count the pixels in order to calculate the area of the hippocampus. They
found that the posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers were significantly larger relative to those of control
subjects and their anterior hippocampi were significantly smaller. In addition, VBM showed that the
volume of the right posterior hippocampi correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver.
No differences were observed in other parts of the brain.
The results of the study can be explained by the localization of function of the brain. The
hippocampus is responsible for spatial memory that enables navigation. Since there are differences in
different areas of the hippocampus between the taxi drivers and normal people, they must be a result
of different experiences. It appears that the posterior hippocampus plays a key role in spatial memory
and navigation, whereas the anterior hippocampal region may be more involved perception and
coping with novelty. This demonstrates that the hippocampus may change in response to
environmental demands.
Explain neural pruning with reference to one study.
Neural (synaptic) pruning is when people lose specific synaptic connections because they are not
used. Synapse is the connection between two dendrites of neurons, which help electrochemical
messages to travel around the brain. Neuroplasticity suggests that the brain has the ability to
reorganise its synapses and form new connections between neurons when something new is learned
from environmental stimulus. Therefore, interaction with a certain stimulus over time can strengthen
the neural connections that are utilized more often, and unused synapses are pruned, which increases
the effectiveness of the more commonly used neural circuits. Synaptic pruning helps the formation
of neural networks, which are a series of connected neurons in the brain. Synapses appear as part
of the grey matter in the brain. Therefore, measuring changes in grey matter can show the synaptic
pruning process. A study that shows synaptic pruning of the brain over time is by Draganski.
The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between learning a new skill and the
structure of the brain. The study used 24 participants with an average age of 22 years old. All
participants were non-jugglers at the start of the study and each participant had an MRI scan at that
time. Participants were allocated to one of two conditions - the jugglers and the non- jugglers. Those
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SAQs
that were in the juggling condition were taught a three-ball cascade juggling routine. They were asked
to practice this routine and to notify the researchers when they had mastered it. At that point the
jugglers had a second MRI scan. After the scan, they were told not to juggle anymore and then a third
and final scan was carried out three months later. The non-juggling group served as a control group
for the duration of the study. To analyse the MRI scans, the researchers used voxel-based
morphometry [VBM] to determine if there was significant differences in neural density (grey matter)
in the brains. The found that the jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of grey matter in the
mid- temporal area in both hemispheres - an area associated with visual memory. Three months after
the participants stopped juggling - and many were no longer able to carry out the routine - the amount
of grey matter in these parts of the brain decreased.
The most important finding that relates to neural pruning is that the the amount of grey matter
in the mid-temporal area that is associated with juggling decreased after 3 months of the study. This
shows that the less used neural connection (in this case the ones that is used for juggling) was pruned
and the connection weakened to ensure efficiency in other areas of the brain performing other types
of tasks.
Explain the formation of neural networks with the use of one study
A “neural network” is formed from hundreds or thousands of simulated neurons connected
together. Neurons have dendrites, which are the branch like extensions that connect with other
neurons via a synapse, this is called dendritic branching. The connections between the synapses is
how information travels around our brain via electrical and chemical signals. More neural
connections form when a new skill is learned. Interaction with a certain stimulus over time can
strengthen the neural connections that are utilized more often and weaken the ones that are less used
thereby forming new neural networks. Unused synapses are pruned, which increases the
effectiveness of the more commonly used neural circuits, this is called neural pruning. The synaptic
connections appear as the grey matter in the brain. Therefore, measuring changes in grey matter can
show the how neural networks change over time. The more grey matter, the more synaptic
connections and neural networks. A study that shows how neural network differ depending on the
different perception of environmental is conducted by Draganski.
The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between learning a new skill and the
structure of the brain. The study used 24 participants. All participants were non-jugglers at the start
of the study and each participant had an MRI scan at that time. Participants were allocated to one of
two conditions - the jugglers and the non- jugglers. Those that were in the juggling condition were
taught a three-ball cascade juggling routine. They were asked to practice this routine and to notify the
researchers when they had mastered it. At that point the jugglers had a second MRI scan. After the
scan, they were told not to juggle anymore and then a third and final scan was carried out three
months later. The non-juggling group served as a control group for the duration of the study. To
analyse the MRI scans, the researchers used voxel-based morphometry [VBM] to determine if there
was significant differences in neural density (grey matter) in the brains. The found that the jugglers
showed a significantly larger amount of grey matter in the mid- temporal area in both hemispheres an area associated with visual memory. Three months after the participants stopped juggling - and
many were no longer able to carry out the routine - the amount of grey matter in these parts of the
brain decreased.
The finding of the experiment can be understood by incorporating the role of the temporal lobe
and the concept of neuroplasticity. According to the localization of function, the temporal lobe is
responsible for visual memory, which is needed the in practicing of juggling. As the participants learn
a new skill (juggling), new neural connections with synapses are formed, which leads to an increase in
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SAQs
grey matter in the temporal lobe, indicating the formation of new neural networks. The trend of
increasing then decreasing of brain matter based on whether or not the participants are practicing the
skill shows that the brain has the ability to form new neural networks based on environmental
stimulus. The study demonstrates that the temporal lobe may change in response to environmental
demands (in this case learning a new skill).
Explain the effect of one neurotransmitter on behaviour.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are released at the end of the nerve fiber by the
arrival of action potential. It transfers impulse throughout the brain by diffusing across the synapse
between neurons. A synapse can be excitatory or inhibitory when a neurotransmitter binds to
receptors on it on the postsynaptic neuron. Neurotransmitters are excitatory when making a target
neuron more likely to fire an action potential (more likely to be transferred to the next neuron); they
produce stimulating effects on the brain. Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood that
the neuron will fire an action potential (less likely to be transferred to the next neuron); therefore,
they have calming effects on the brain. There are artificial chemicals that are made to enhance
or disturb the binding of a neurotransmitter. Agonists are chemicals that promotes binding of
neurotransmitter by replicating to the receptor’s site. Antagonists are chemicals that counteract a
neurotransmitter by blocking a particular receptor that a neurotransmitter binds to. So
neurotransmitters, in affecting transmission of impulses, may affect behavior. Therefore, by
changing levels of neurotransmitters (thus synaptic activation) may thus affect behavior differently.
One example of a neurotransmitter is serotonin. Serotonin is inhibitory and has been linked to
aggressive behaviors which will be illustrated in this response.
Passamonti aimed to investigate the effects of serotonin depletion on the brain. The experimental
group consume a drink that lacked tryptophan. Tryptophan is an amino acid used to build serotonin.
Creating a lack of tryptophan in the body can create reduced levels of serotonin in the brain. On the
other hand, the control group was given a drink with normal amounts of tryptophan that did not have
any effects on the body. The participants were put in fMRIs and their brain activity was measured
while they were seeing images of happy, angry or neutral faces. The results show that there was
reduced activity in the frontal lobe during the low serotonin conditions when the participant was
viewing the angry face (a threatening stimulus). Moreover, communication between the amygdala
and the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) was weaker and disrupted in this case of viewing angry faces with low
level of serotonin.
To understand the results, the role of the PFC and amygdala needs to be understood. The PFC is
responsible for regulating impulsive behaviour, and the amygdala in regulating emotion and the stress
response . Therefore, the two areas of the brain balance each other so that an individual is not too
emotional nor too rational. The disruption of brain activity in these two areas may be a result of low
serotonin. Therefore, serotonin may have the role of facilitating effective communication between
the amygdala and the PFC. In addition, a lack of activity in the PFC may affect the individual’s ability
to regulate the stress response as triggered by the amygala’s reactivity towards the threat. So, when
an individual has high levels of emotion and low levels of rational thinking as a result of low serotonin
levels, it is more likely for them to act on their impulsive behaviors, thereby eliciting aggression.
***The results of the study can be explained by understanding the localization of function of the brain. The PFC is located in the frontal lobe that is
responsible for rational thinking and decision making. The amygdala is the emotional center of the brain and is activated when a threat is
perceived to elicit the fight of flight response. In this case, the threat is the angry face displayed in the fMRI. The PFC and the amygdala
communicate and work to balance each other out to ensure that an individual is not too emotional nor rational. It can be seen from the results
that serotonin depletion is correlated with low brain activity in the PFC. In addition, it may have disrupted the essential communication between
the PFC and the amygdala to regulate a person’s behavior. Hence, when an individual has high emotional arousal triggered by a threat stimulus,
and low rational thinking, they are more likely to act on impulsive thoughts, thereby displaying aggressive behaviors. In conclusion, low levels of
neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain is correlated with low brain activity in the PFC, which increases the chances of an individual showing
aggressive behaviors.
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Explain one example of how human behavior may be influence by pheromones.
Pheromones are airborne chemical messengers that communicate information from one species
member to another. They function to activate specific physiological or behavioral responses.
Pheromones have been well documented in many animal species to play a role in signaling fertility
and sexual attractiveness, but its effect in human behavior remains inconclusive. Most mammals use
vomeronasal organ (VNO) to detect pheromones. The VNO is connected through nerves to a region
called accessory olfactory bulb to process pheromones. However, most adult humans lack accessory
olfactory bulb, and the minority of humans that have them are not functional (not linked to nervous
system, therefore non-functional). Even so, there is still a possibility that pheromonal information is
processed somewhere else.
Thorne et al’s (2002) study aimed to investigate the role of pheromones on female ratings of
male attractiveness. The experiment used repeated measures design to expose 32 female
undergraduate students (half of the which were users of the contraceptive pill) to axillary secretions
odor (experimental) and the no odor (control group). The participants took part in the two conditions
on two separate occasions, based on menstrual cycle phase. The axillary secretions were collected
from pads worn in the armpits overnight, which they are assumed to contain the pheromones
androstene (AND). The pads were hidden in laboratory cubicles in the experimental condition where
participants completed the experiment. These pads were assumed to include male pheromones. The
control group on the other hand, did not have the axillary secretions exposed to them. During both
visits to the lab, participants were asked to read fictional vignettes and answer a questionnaire, which
required participants to rate the vignettes and pictures for attractiveness. The results show that there
is a no effect of the menstrual cycle or contraceptive use on ratings of attractiveness. However, there
is a statistically significant positive correlation between exposure to male axillary secretions and
ratings of attractiveness, meaning the ratings of the questionnaire items related to sexual attraction
is on average higher in the experimental group, comparing to the control group.
The results show that exposure to natural male axillary secretions can significantly enhance
female perceptions of various aspects of male attractiveness. Since it is assumed that the
pheromone androstenes are present in the secretions, it indicates that they may serve the function
of signaling sexual attraction, thereby influencing the female’s perceive attractiveness of the male
figures and influencing mate selection human behavior.
Explain the role of agonists with reference to one study.
Agonists are chemicals that promotes binding of neurotransmitter by replicating to the
receptor’s site. As a result, it enhances the action of a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are
chemical messengers that are released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of an action potential.
They function to transmits signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron by binding to target
receptors. An example of an agonist to the ACh receptor site for neurotransmitter acetylcholine is
physostigmine. Acetylcholine plays a role in the consolidation of memory in the hippocampus. It is an
excitatory neurotransmitter, therefore increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action
potential. Physostigmine, as an agonist enhances the binding of acetylcholine therefore enhances
memory formation. Its role will be supported by the following study.
A study conducted by Martinez and Kesner aims to investigate the relationship between
acetylcholine and memory formation. Their study used rats as sample, and consists of 3 different
conditions: scopolamine group, physostigmine group, or placebo group. Physostigmine is an
agonist, while scopolamine is an antagonist to ACh receptor. In all three conditions, the rat was
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placed in the T-maze with food placed on one of the T arms. After the rat has found the food,
before the memory was consolidated, the rat is injected by one of the three solutions. The rats
were located back into the maze again to locate for the food placed in the same location. The
results show that the scopolamine group took longer and made more mistakes, whereas the
physostigmine group learned faster and made fewer mistakes.
In this study, the findings of the role of acetylcholine in mice is being extrapolated to human
behavior, as it is assumed that acetylcholine functions the same way in animals and humans. Even
though this is an animal study, and generalization of findings to humans need to be cautious, it
can be seen from the results that physostigmine has enhanced the effect of acetylcholine, hence
increased the consolidation of memory in the hippocampus. Therefore, it can be concluded that
the Physostigmine has increased the excitatory effect of neurotransmitter acetylcholine,
confirming its role as an agonist.
Explain the role of antagonists with reference to one study.
Antagonists are chemicals that counteract a neurotransmitter by blocking a particular
receptor that a neurotransmitter binds to. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are
released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of an action potential. They function to transmit
signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron by binding to target receptors. Therefore,
antagonists prevent a signal from being transferred further as it blocks the target receptors. An
example of an agonist to the ACh receptor site for neurotransmitter acetylcholine is scopolamine.
Acetylcholine plays a role in the consolidation of memory in the hippocampus. It is an excitatory
neurotransmitter, therefore increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential.
Scopolamine, as an antagonist will prevent the binding of acetylcholine to the ACh receptor,
therefore decreases memory formation. Its role will be supported by the following study.
A study conducted by Martinez and Kesner aims to investigate the relationship between
acetylcholine and memory formation. Their study used rats as sample, and consists of 3 different
conditions: scopolamine group, physostigmine group, or placebo group. Physostigmine is an
agonist, while scopolamine is an antagonist to ACh receptor. In all three conditions, the rat was
placed in the T-maze with food placed on one of the T arms. After the rat has found the food,
before the memory was consolidated, the rat is injected by one of the three solutions. The rats
were located back into the maze again to locate for the food placed in the same location. The
results show that the scopolamine group took longer and made more mistakes, whereas the
physostigmine group learned faster and made fewer mistakes.
In this study, the findings of the role of acetylcholine in mice is being extrapolated to human
behavior, as it is assumed that acetylcholine functions the same way in animals and humans. It
can be seen from the results that scopolamine has reduced the normal effect of acetylcholine, to
play its role in memory formation. Therefore, it can be concluded that the scopolamine has
decreased the excitatory effect of neurotransmitter acetylcholine, confirming its role as an
antagonist.
Explain the role of inhibitory synapses in one behaviour.
A synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass a chemical signal to
another neuron. A synapse can be excitatory or inhibitory when a neurotransmitter arrives at the
end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of action potential. Neurotransmitters are chemical signals that
transfers an impulse by diffusing across the synaptic cleft and binding to the receptor in the post
synaptic cell. Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an
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action potential; therefore, they have calming effects on the brain. An example of an inhibitory
neurotransmitter is serotonin. Adequate amounts of serotonin are necessary for a stable mood
and to balance any excessive excitatory (stimulating) neurotransmitter firing in the brain. In
addition, serotonin is linked to aggressive behaviors which will be illustrated in this response.
Passamonti aimed to investigate the effects of serotonin depletion on the brain. (Passamonti
et al). The experimental group consume a drink that lacked tryptophan. Tryptophan is an amino
acid used to build serotonin. Creating a lack of tryptophan in the body can create reduced levels
of serotonin in the brain. On the other hand, the control group was given a drink with normal
amounts of tryptophan that did not have any effects on the body. The participants were put in
fMRIs and their brain activity was measured while they were seeing images of happy, angry or
neutral faces. The results show that there was reduced activity in the frontal lobe during the low
serotonin conditions when the participant was viewing the angry face (a threatening stimulus).
Moreover, communication between the amygdala and the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) was weaker
and disrupted in this case of viewing angry faces with low level of serotonin.
To understand the results, the role of the PFC and amygdala needs to be understood. The PFC
is responsible for regulating impulsive behaviour, and the amygdala in regulating emotion and the
stress response. The disruption of brain activity in these two areas has created a lack of activity in
the PFC, which may affect the individual’s ability to regulate the stress response as triggered by
the amygala’s reactivity towards the threat. So, when an individual has high levels of emotion and
low levels of rational thinking as a result of low serotonin levels, it is more likely for them to act
on their impulsive behaviors, thereby eliciting aggression.
Explain the role of excitatory synapses in one behaviour.
A synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical
signal to another neuron. A synapse can be excitatory or inhibitory when a neurotransmitter
arrives at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of action potential. Neurotransmitters are
chemical signals that transfers an impulse by diffusing across the synaptic cleft and binding to the
receptor in the post synaptic cell. Neurotransmitters are excitatory when making a target neuron
more likely to fire an action potential; they produce stimulating effects on the brain. An example
of an excitatory neurotransmitter is acetylcholine. Acetylcholine plays a role in the consolidation
of memory in the hippocampus. The increase in memory in the hippocampus would then lead to
an increase in spatial ability as the behavior. The following study illustrates the role of
acetylcholine in memory.
A study conducted by Martinez and Kesner (1991) aims to investigate the relationship
between acetylcholine and memory formation. Their study used rats as sample, and consists of 3
different conditions: scopolamine group, physostigmine group, or placebo group. Physostigmine
is an agonist, while scopolamine is an antagonist to ACh receptor. In all three conditions, the rat
was placed in the T-maze with food placed on one of the T arms. After the rat has found the food,
before the memory was consolidated, the rat is injected by one of the three solutions. The rats
were located back into the maze again to locate for the food placed in the same location. The
results show that the scopolamine group took longer and made more mistakes, whereas the
physostigmine group learned faster and made fewer mistakes.
The results of the study show that acetylcholine is responsible for memory consolidation in
rats. In this study, the findings of the role of acetylcholine in mice is being extrapolated to human
behavior, as it is assumed that acetylcholine functions the same way in animals and humans.
Memories are formed when neurons make new physical connections and synapses with each
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other. Therefore, the excitatory acetylcholine promotes the firing of an action potential to allow
neurons to make such connections. This therefore increases the memory formation in the rats
lead to a better navigational behavior.
Discuss how genetic similarities help psychologists in the study of genes and
behaviour/Explain how genetic similarities are used in studies on genes and behavior.
https://www.themantic-education.com/ibpsych/2018/11/13/genetic-similarities-twin-and-kinshipstudies-on-antisocial-behaviour-and-aggression/
Genes are segments of DNA inherited by the offspring from the parent and are considered
responsible for the development of behavioural characteristics. Humans share a degree of genetic
similarity with related family members. For example, siblings on average share 50% of their
genotype with their parents and with each other. Monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100% of their
genotype with each other. Some methods of research that are based on genetic similarities are twin,
family, and adoption studies. The possible correlation of genetic inheritance and behaviour is
mostly studied through twin research. Studies utilize genetic similarities between MZ and DZ
twins to study the extent of influence of genes on behavior versus other factors like
environment and upbringing. Heritability is a statistic used to measure how much of
the variation in a trait is due to genes. This is done by looking at & comparing concordance rates,
which is an extent to which a given trait is shared by a pair of individuals in percentage. The
Falconer Model is a method to estimate heritability of a trait from the observed similarities between
the MZ and DZ twins by taking in consideration of heredity, shared environment, and individual
environment. Monozygotic twins especially, have 100% genetic similarity which allows
researchers to operate under the assumption that any major difference in behaviour was due to
environmental factors. Psychologists can compare behavior of twins with each other to determine
degree of similarity.
An example of a twin and kinship study is a study conducted by Bouchard and McGue (1981).
The study aims to determine the degree of heritability of intelligence levels, or IQ. The study was
a meta-analysis of 111 studies that included both MZ twins, DZ twins, and siblings that are reared
together or apart. The results showed that the individuals that had a closer kinship had a higher
median correlation in intelligence levels with each other. For instance, MZ twins that are reared
together (they have 100% similarity in genetics and shared environment) have a 0.85 median
correlation value, while MZ twins that are reared apart had a value at 0.67. Siblings that only had
50% genetic similarity had a lower correlation value, with dizygotic twins reared together coming
at the third and sibling reared apart value being the lowest. Their meta-analysis also yielded the
heritability of intelligence to be 54%, based on calculation using the Falconer model.
The study demonstrates that intelligence is inherited to a considerable extent. The 54% value
indicates that intelligence is approximately half determined by genes and half determined by
environmental influence. Even though genes do play a role in affecting intelligence, IQ is not
completely inherited, as even with rMZ, their median correlation is not perfect. This shows
that individual environment also play a role in influence intelligence levels. This study is an
example of how psychologists use genetic similarities in known familial relationship and
comparison of differences in traits (like IQ) can yield answer to the extent to which a gene
determines a certain trait.
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Explain how twin and/or kinship studies are used to understand the effects of genes
on behavior.
Genes are segments of DNA inherited by the offspring from the parent, and are considered
responsible for the development of behavioural characteristics. Twin and kinship studies are used
to understand the effect of genes on behavior because there is a degree of genetic similarity among
family members. For example, siblings on average share 50% of their genotype with their parents
and with each other, and monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100% of their genotype with each other.
Collecting the data on similarity and differences in behavior with known genetic similarity can be
used to calculate the degree of heritability. Heritability is a statistic used to measure how much of
the variation in a trait is due to variation in genes. This is done by looking at & comparing
concordance rates, which is an extent to which a given trait is shared by a pair of individuals
in percentage. As twin studies have 100% similarity, psychologists compare behavior of twins
with each other to determine degree of similarity and the extent of effects genes have. The Falconer
Model is a method to estimate heritability of a trait from the observed similarities between
the MZ and DZ twins by taking in consideration of heredity, shared environment, and
individual environment. For studies conducted on siblings that are not twins (kinship studies),
making comparisons between these individuals based on genetic relatedness can also help
researchers draw conclusions about the extent to which behaviour is a product of genes or the
environment.
An example of a twin and kinship study is a study conducted by Bouchard and McGue (1981).
The study aims to determine the degree of heritability of intelligence levels, of IQ. The study was
a meta-analysis of 111 studies that included both MZ twins, DZ twins, and siblings that are reared
together or apart. The results showed that the individuals that had a closer kinship had a higher
median correlation in intelligence levels with each other. For instance, MZ twins that are reared
together (they have 100% similarity in genetics and shared environment) have a 0.85 median
correlation value, while MZ twins that are reared apart had a value at 0.67. Siblings that only had
50% genetic similarity had a lower correlation value, with dizygotic twins reared together coming
at the third and sibling reared apart value being the lowest. Their meta-analysis also yielded the
heritability of intelligence to be 54%, based on calculation using the Falconer model.
The study demonstrates that intelligence is inherited to a considerable extent. The 54% value
indicates that intelligence is half determined by genes and half determined by environmental
influence. Even though genes do play a role in affecting intelligence, IQ is not completely inherited,
as even with rMZ, their median correlation is not perfect. This shows that environment also play a
role in influence intelligence levels. This study is an example of how psychologists use familial
relationship to determine percentage similarity in genes and compare differences in traits (like IQ)
can yield answer to the extent to which a gene determines a certain trait.
Explain how adoption studies are used to understand the effects of genes on
behavior.
Genes are segments of DNA inherited by the offspring from the parent and are considered
responsible for the development of behavioural characteristics. Adoption studies are studies that
compare behavioral similarities between adopted children, and their adopted parents, biological
parents, and biological siblings. Adoption studies are used to understand the effect of genes on
behavior because a known familial relationship indicates a certain degree of genetic similarities.
This allows researchers to study the comparison between genetic and environmental influence
on behaviour, as adopted children share no genes with their adoptive parents but 50% of genes
with their biological parents and siblings. Collecting the data on similarity and differences in
behavior with familial members can be used to calculate the degree of heritability. Heritability is
a statistic used to measure how much of the variation in a trait is due to variation in genes.
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This is done by looking at & comparing concordance rates, which is an extent to which a given
trait is shared by a pair of individuals in percentage. Genetic influences can be inferred if adopted
children are more similar to their biological parents than to their adoptive parents.
An example of an adoption study is a study conducted by Scarr and Weinberg (1983). The aim
of the experiment is to investigate the influence of environment on intelligence, or IQ. The study
focused on 101 families who had raised both natural and adopted children. This study is also
transracial, meaning adoption participants who were African American children adopted by middleclass White families and vice versa. The children were categorized into the ones that were adopted
in the first 12 months of birth, and the ones that are adopted later. The children were being assessed
on IQ and school achievement tests, and correlations were calculated between the IQ of children
with their parents (both biological and adoptive). The results show that black children that were
adopted into white families show a substantial increase in their IQ. Adoption before and after age
of 1 did not have an impact of IQ levels. In addition, the correlation between adopted children and
their biological parents were higher than that of adoptive parents.
The two sets of data from this study appeared contradictory. The data showed that children
adopted into white families had an increase in IQ, because during that time, as black children came
from a lower socio-economic background and was less educated so they were placed in a better
environment. Yet, the correlation with the biological parents was higher, indicating that IQ levels
were more attributed to genes. This showed the additive influence of genetics and environment
in the development of IQ, which means that even though intelligence can be influenced by
genetic factors, the extent to which it is susceptible to the influence depends on genes.
Explain the use of one research method used in the biological approach to
understanding human behaviour.
One research method used to study human behavior from the biological approach is
experiment. The biological level of analysis (BLOA) states that all cognitions, emotions and
behaviours have a physiological basis. In BLOA in terms of a biological basis, symptoms and disorders
arise from physiological processes, such as hormones, neurotransmitters and the brain, which
cannot be directly observed. These theories are tested using research methods such as
experiments. Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two
variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables). Researchers manipulate the IV and
measure the DV. Experiments are based on hypothesis testing - that is, making a measurable and
testable hypothesis and then seeing if the results of the study are statistically significant so that they
can reject the null hypothesis. In addition, an experiment must contain at least one group that
receives a treatment (the manipulation of an independent variable), and a control group does not
receive the treatment. In a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated to conditions. In
understanding the biological basis of cognitive processes, laboratory experiments are mainly used
because it allows the researchers to pose strict control over as many extraneous variables as
possible. One study that used laboratory experiment to investigate the effect of neurotransmitters
in the brain and the human behavior of memory is conducted by Martinez and Kesner (1991).
A study conducted by Martinez and Kesner (1991) aims to investigate the relationship
between acetylcholine and memory formation. Their study used rats as sample, and consists of 3
different conditions: scopolamine group, physostigmine group, or placebo group. Physostigmine is
an agonist, while scopolamine is an antagonist to ACh receptor. In all three conditions, the rat was
placed in the T-maze with food placed on one of the T arms. After the rat has found the food, before
the memory was consolidated, the rat is injected by one of the three solutions. The rats were
located back into the maze again to locate for the food placed in the same location. The results show
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that the scopolamine group took longer and made more mistakes, whereas the physostigmine group
learned faster and made fewer mistakes.
As we share an earlier common ancestry and physiology with many species eg. primates it
is valid to make inferences about human behavior based on animal research. Therefore even
though this is an animal study, and generalization of findings to humans need to be cautious, it can be
seen from the results that physostigmine has enhanced the effect of acetylcholine, hence increased
the consolidation of memory in the hippocampus. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
acetylcholine plays a role in memory consolidation in human behavior. A laboratory experiment was
used in studying the role of acetylcholine because it allowed a cause-and-effect relationship to be
developed and recognised. The researchers were able to see how the enhancement of the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine has lead to an increase memory consolidation. Therefore, laboratory
experiment was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.
One research method used to study human behavior from the biological approach is experiment. The biological
level of analysis (BLOA) states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviours have a physiological basis. In BLOA in
terms of a biological basis, symptoms and disorders arise from physiological processes, such as hormones,
neurotransmitters and the brain, which cannot be directly observed. These theories are tested using research
methods such as experiments. Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two
variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables). Researchers manipulate the IV and measure the DV.
Experiments are based on hypothesis testing - that is, making a measurable and testable hypothesis and then
seeing if the results of the study are statistically significant so that they can reject the null hypothesis. In addition,
an experiment must contain at least one group that receives a treatment (the manipulation of an independent
variable), and a control group does not receive the treatment. In a true experiment, participants are randomly
allocated to conditions. In understanding the biological basis of cognitive processes, laboratory experiments are
mainly used because it allows the researchers to pose strict control over as many extraneous variables as possible.
The relationship between
Laboratory experiment
the brain and behaviour
-Why this method was chosen?
-Bechara
-allows the researchers to control any other factors that may affect behavior (e.g.
-Draganski et al
gender, environment) which increases the internal validity, allowing for a cause
-Martinez and Kesner
and effect relationship to be established.
-Passamonti et al
-therefore can conclude that the manipulation of a specific variable has lead to a
change in brain physiology and behavior
-it has a highly standardized procedure so the study can be replicated by other
researchers, and the reliability of the results can be further tested.
Hormones and pheromones Laboratory experiment
and their effects on
-Why this method was chosen?
behaviour
-allows the researchers to control any other factors that may affect behavior (e.g.
-Radke et al
gender, environment) which increases the internal validity, allowing for a cause
-Thorne et al
and effect relationship to be established.
-therefore can conclude that the manipulation of a specific variable has lead to a
change in brain physiology and behavior
-it has a highly standardized procedure so the study can be replicated by other
researchers, and the reliability of the results can be further tested.
The relationship between
Quasi experiment:
genetics and behaviour
-allows for comparison btw pre-existing groups
**unlike lab experiment, allocation to groups is not done randomly
-because what has already happened cannot be manipulated
-Meyer and Lindenberg
-IV High or Low Variation of MAOA Gene
-causation cannot be easily established; influence of extraneous variables more
easily reduced
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Outline one ethical consideration related to studies on the brain and behaviour.
Outline one ethical consideration related to studies in the biological approach to
understanding human behaviour.
One ethical consideration related to studies in cognitive processes is protection of participants
from physical and mental harm. Ethical considerations refer to the set of rules and guidelines set by
psychological organizations like the APA that researchers need to adhere to when conducting studies
in Psychology. Protection of participants from harm is the requirement that participants should not
be subjected to any long-term or undue physical & mental harm. These same guidelines of protection
of participants apply to animal research as well, but issues have been raised when animals are placed
in extreme conditions, and the findings from such animal research is generalized to the knowledge of
human behavior. Such issue is shown in Rosenzweig and Bennet’s (1972) study.
The aim of Rosenzweig and Bennet’s study was to investigate the correlations between brain
and behavior using animal study. Male rats were randomly chosen as participants, and randomly
allocated to one of these two conditions: enriched or deprived. In the enriched environment there
were 10-12 rats with a range of toys that they could play with. In addition, they had maze training.
The deprived cage was smaller, the rat was alone, and the cage was isolated in a separate room from
other cages. Both conditions were given adequate food and water, and the rats lived in these
conditions for 4-6 weeks. After the treatment periods, the rats were autopsied in order to identify the
differences developed in the brain. A blind procedure was used (the scientists didn't know which type
of cage the rat had been in when he/she autopsied it). The brains were measured, weighed, and
analyzed to determine the amount of cell growth and levels of neurotransmitter activity. The study
found that rats that lived in the enriched environment developed heavier and thicker frontal lobes.
Replications and further studies found that rats living in the enriched cages had a brain weight that
was 7-10% heavier.
The results of the study can be understood using the neuroplasticity theory of the brain.
Neuroplasticity suggests that the human brain is malleable by environmental stimulus. The brain has
the ability to reorganise itself and form new connections between neurons when something new is
learned from environmental stimulus. In this experiment, it is evident that the difference in each two
conditions, which are sensory enrichment and deprivation, had an effect on brain development,
shown by the difference in grey matter in the brain, thereby demonstrating neuroplasticity. In terms
of the protection of participants, the rats in the deprived condition have the possibility of experiencing
mental distress, therefore they are not protected from mental harm. Furthermore, all rats in the
experiment were not protected from physical harm, as they were all euthanized and underwent
autopsy for their brain to be studied. Even so, it is argued that the research provided significant benefit
to the understanding of the effects of the environment on brain plasticity, with knowledge benefiting
humans and other animals. Therefore, in this case, lack of protection from mental and physical harm
is acceptable.
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SAQs
Cognitive Approach
Explain one study of one model of memory.
The Multi-Store Memory Model (MSM) proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin aims to explain the
mechanism of memory storage (encoding, storage, and retrieval). The Multi-store memory model
assumes that memory is sequential (flows unidirectionally from one store to another) and that
different memories function in a uniform fashion, being stored separately. The model is being
separated to 3 storages: sensory memory, short term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
The sensory memory receives and temporarily stores sensory information in an unprocessed from. It
can only be transferred to STM for conscious recall when attention is being allocated to it. The shortterm memory has the capacity of 7 plus/minus 2 chunks of information and 15 seconds duration
according to Milner. According to the model, STM can only be encoded into LTM when it is being
constantly repeated, this is called rehearsal. When there are new information or tasks that prevented
the process of rehearsal, the memory is displaced and will be lost (displacement decay). The duration
and capacity of LTM is not established yet, but it potentially has unlimited capacity and duration.
The Multi-Store memory model is supported by Glanzer and Cunitz’s study. The researchers read
a list of 15 words to participants and asked them to recall the words in any order. Before they did this,
the researchers randomly allocated participants to one of three conditions. The words were read one
at a time and then the participants were either asked to recall the words immediately after the list
was finished, with a 10-second delay or with a 30-second delay. During conditions with delays, the
participants were asked to count backwards from 100. When there was no delay, they found that
participants remembered the first few words and the last few words on the list. In the 10 and 30
second delay condition, the participants mostly remembered the first few words on the list.
The results of the experiment showed that the primacy and recency effect was present in the control
group. The primacy effect, meaning that participants mostly remembered words from the beginning
of the list, showed that through constant rehearsal, the information was already transferred to LTM
and was therefore memorized and stored for a longer period of time, allowing it to be retrieved from
LTM back to STM to be recalled. The recency effect, which means that words at the end of the list was
remembered, was due to the fact that the words were temporarily stored in STM and can be
immediately recalled within 15 seconds. In the experimental group, the recency effect disappeared
(more in the 30 seconds condition than the 10 seconds condition), because the recency effect was
displaced by the filler task engaged, causing displacement decay of the STM. This shows that through
rehearsal words at the beginning of the list had been placed in LTM, but counting backwards had
displaced the information of the last few words on the list in STM. The fact that the inclusion of a filler
task results in disappearance of recency effect but not primacy effect supports the idea that STM and
LTM are two separate memory stores.
Common problems with this question:



The model is not clearly described. Descriptions require a good amount of detail and should not
be limited to a single sentence.
The study is not clearly described with regard to the aim, procedure and results.
There is no clear explanation of what the study tells us about the model.
https://www.student.thinkib.net/psychology/task/141207/saq-sample-memory-models
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SAQs
Explain the influence of emotion on one cognitive process.
Do NOT copy and paste SAQ here, as part of it is copy and pasted from other sources.
https://ibguides.com/psychology/notes/evaluate-one-theory-of-how-emotion-may-affect-onecognitive-process/
Emotions can influence the inner processes of memory and guide behaviour accordingly. One
theory of how emotion may affect memory is Flashbulb Memory (FBM) proposed by Brown & Kulik.
The theory of FBM suggests that emotions enhances the vividness of memory by combining various
sensory elements in the formation of an episodic memory. Flashbulb memories are detailed, and vivid
snapshots of a moment when an emotionally arousing event happened. Today, the most commonly
accepted model is the importance driven model, which emphasizes the element of personal
consequences in determining the intensity of emotion reactions of a person to a specific event. In
addition, Brown & Kulik postulated the special-mechanism hypothesis, where a special neural
mechanism triggers an emotional arousal when an individual encounters significant, often
unexpected and emotional events or experiences (that has had exceeded levels of surprise and
emotion). Flashbulb memories are unique because they are more vivid, detailed, accurate, longlasting, consistent and are remembered naturally. This is in contrast to normal memories, which most
researchers are believed to be selective, unreliable and malleable (easily changed or distorted).
Brown and Kulik’s hypothesis is supported by Sharot et al’s experiment. The aim of their main
study was to investigate the neural basis of FBM proposed by the theory regarding emotional arousal
and personal connection. Their study used the event of 9/11 terrorist attack in New York, as this event
stands out in memory much more than others because people may experience high emotional state
and engage in personal response to the event. The participants were 24 people that were in New York
city when the event after, with them present that day on varying locations. The experiment was
conducted three years after the incident. The participants were located in an fMRI scanner to measure
their brain activity while word cues were presented to them. The word cues either directs participants
into the recalling of summer or the 9/11 event. The memories of personal events in summer served
as a base line for the comparison of different levels of brain activity in the two different conditions.
After the brain scan, participants were asked to rate their memories for vividness, detail, confidence
in accuracy and level arousal and to write a description of their personal events. According to the
participants’ own rating, the researchers determined that only 50% having what would be called
"flashbulb memories" of the 9/11 event, and they were those people that reported being closer to the
World Trade Centre on the day of the terrorist attack. The results showed that subjects that were
closer to the WTC had a higher level of brain activity in the amygdala comparing to when they were
recalling their summertime. The participants that were further away had equal levels of brain activity
response when recalling the two events.
The results of the experiment can be explained by the critical role of the amygdala. The
amygdala is considered as the emotional centre of the brain, as it is highly involved with
different emotional responses. As the results show that the level of amygdala activation correlated
with flashbulb memories and the distance of the participants to the World Trade Centre, it supports
Brown and Kulik’s theory that close personal experience is critical in engaging the neural
mechanisms of producing flashbulb memories. On the other hand, the people that were further away
had lower levels of personal engagement, therefore did not trigger an intense biological response that
created flashbulb memories. In conclusion, level of personal consequential and emotional arousal are
critical elements in the formation of flashbulb memories.
-personal consequential: triggers more intense biological response
-but also creates errors: taps into the schema
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SAQs
Describe one example of rational (controlled) thinking.
One example of rational (controlled) thinking is the override of system 1 thinking by system 2
thinking. Thinking is the process of using knowledge and information to make plans. Before
decision making, an individual will have to analyze the available information (processing) and
make an assessment on it (judgement). Then, a conclusion can be made through decision making
and act based on the judgement made. A theory that explains thinking and decision making is dual
processing theory (or model) proposed by Tversky and Kahneman. The dual processing
model that attempts to explain two systems people use when processing information: system one
and system two, and the system used to process information can affect our decision making.
They suggest that system one processing is intuitive (automatic), fast, unconscious, and based on
emotions. Therefore, it is subject to biases. On the other hand, system two processing is rational
(controlled), slow, conscious, and based on all information available. A study by Alter et al (2007)
shows that System 2 can override or modify the intuitive judgments of System 1 if those
judgements are identified as biased by System 2.
Alter et al’s (2007) study aimed to investigate the override of system 2 thinking on system 1
thinking. The researchers administered the the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) to the participants
in two different conditions: fluent condition (control) and disfluent condition (experimental). In
control conditions, the CRT is administered to the participants in an easy to read font. In the
experimental group, cognitive disfluency is manipulated through blurry fonts. The purpose is to
force individuals to use rational thinking over intuitive thinking in the process of comprehending
the texts. The dependent variable was how many items on the CRT were answered correctly. The
results suggested that participants answered more questions correctly when the font was difficult
to read.
The results indicated that participants in the disfluent font condition had used rational
thinking to overcome intuitive judgements, and in so doing answered more questions correctly.
As a result, this study showed that disfluency initiates rational thinking.
Outline one example of intuitive (automatic) thinking.
An example of intuitive thinking is the use of heuristics. Thinking is the process of using
knowledge and information to make plans. Before decision making, an individual will have to
analyze the available information (processing) and make an assessment on it (judgement). Then,
a conclusion can be made through decision making and act based on the judgement made. A
theory that explains thinking and decision making is dual processing theory (or model) proposed
by Tversky and Kahneman. The dual processing model that attempts to explain two systems
people use when processing information: system one and system two, and the system used to
process information can affect our decision making. System 1 is intuitive (automatic), fast,
unconscious, and based on emotions. Therefore, it is subject to biases and the use of heuristics.
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people take when there is no time or resources to analyze
the situation thoroughly. This ‘fast’ mode of thinking allows for efficient processing of the often
complex world around us but may be prone to errors when our assumptions do not match the
reality of a specific situation. The use of heuristics in system one thinking to make fast and
intuitive decisions may or may not lead to cognitive biases. Some other cognitive biases may arise
from the mind’s tendency to only focus on a limited portion of available info through selective
attention in combination with the use of heuristics. An example of this is the anchoring bias.
Anchoring Bias is the tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information offered when
making decisions. One of the studies on anchoring bias was done by Strack and Mussweiler. Their
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SAQs
study aimed to test the influence of anchoring bias on decision making. The researchers used an
opportunity sample of 69 German undergraduates in a university. The participants answered
questions on a computer screen, with each question having two components. The participants
were randomly allocated to either the low or high implausible anchor. In the first component,
participants were given the implausible anchor (either high or low based on the condition) to see
it would have an effect. The low anchor asked if Gandhi die before or after the age of 9, and it was
the same for high anchor, but the value was switched to 140 years old. In the second component,
participants were then asked to provide an estimation on Gandhi’s real age. Results were
calculated as the mean value offered for the second task, and it shows that the anchor clearly
influenced the final value offered. There was a higher estimation in the high anchor group
comparing to the low anchor group (67 years old comparing to 50 years old).
It can be concluded when facing an unknown, participants use the most recent, seemingly
relevant information to make their decision in the estimation. Even though in both cases the
numerical value given is implausible, they still had an effect in the participant’s estimation of the
age.
Outline one research method used to study cognitive processes.
One research method used to study cognitive processes is experiment. Cognitive processes
study mental processes such as perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking, which are
carried out by the brain and guide our behaviour. In cognitive psychology, testable theories are
developed about cognitive structures and processes which cannot be directly observed. These
theories are tested using research methods such as experiments. Experiments are used to determine
the cause and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV)
variables). Researchers manipulate the IV and measure the DV. In understanding cognitive processes,
laboratory experiments are mainly used because it allows the researchers to pose strict control over
as many extraneous variables as possible. One study that used laboratory experiment to investigate
schema as a cognitive process is conducted by Anderson and Pichert (1978).
Anderson and Pichert (1978) aimed to investigate if schemas influence the encoding and
retrieval stage of memory. In their study, the subjects were given a role of a burglar or a house buyer.
The subjects then had 2 minutes to read a passage about what two boys were doing at a home while
they were skipping school. The story contains 72 points of details about the house, which some were
rated more of an interest to a burglar than a house buyer, and vice versa. After a 2-minute reading
time, the participants performed a 12-minute filler task, before the story was recalled. Data was
collected via giving the participants blank papers and have them reproduce the story as much as
possible. After the first recall, another 5-minute filler task was given. For the second round of recall
half of the participants were instructed to switch to the alternative perspective and recall the text for
a second time without reading it again. The results showed that participants who changed roles
recalled 7% more points on the second recall test than the first, and those details are rated more
important to new perspective. The group that remained in the same role, had a decrease in the
number of details recalled.
This study showed that people encoded different information based on the schema (which was
manipulated by the different roles) that was activated based on the shift in perspective. Those who
had buyer schema at encoding were able to recall burglar information when the schema was changed,
and it was the same case with subjects that had a burglar schema. The participants who did not switch
role recalled less details over time due to displacement degradation of short-term memory from the
filler task. Therefore, schema processing has an influence at the encoding and retrieval stage, as new
schema influenced recall at the retrieval stage. The schemas caused the individuals to pay more
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SAQs
attention on details that fit what their given schemas would pay attention to. A laboratory
experiment was used in studying schemas because it allowed a cause and effect relationship to be
developed and recognised. The researchers were able to see how the activation of a different schema
(by instructing the participants to change perspectives) influence the memory retrieval of different
information present in the story. Laboratory experiment was the most suitable type to use for this
particular study.
Cognitive processes study mental processes such as perception, attention, language,
memory, and thinking, which are carried out by the brain and guide our behaviour. In cognitive
psychology, testable theories are developed about cognitive structures and processes which
cannot be directly observed. These theories are tested using research methods such as
experiments. Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two
variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables). Researchers manipulate the IV and
measure the DV. Experiments are based on hypothesis testing - that is, making a measurable and
testable hypothesis and then seeing if the results of the study are statistically significant so that
they can reject the null hypothesis. In addition, an experiment must contain at least one group
that receives a treatment (the manipulation of an independent variable), and a control group
does not receive the treatment. In a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated to
conditions. In understanding the biological basis of cognitive processes, laboratory experiments
are mainly used because it allows the researchers to pose strict control over as many extraneous
variables as possible. One study that used laboratory experiment to investigate the effect of
neurotransmitters in the brain and the human behavior of memory is conducted by Martinez and
Kesner (1991).
Cognitive processing
-Glanzer and Cunitz
-Laundry and Bartling
-Anderson and Pichert
-Bechara
-Alter et al
-Why this method was chosen?
-allows the researchers to control any other factors that may affect
memory recall (e.g. environment, number of words read, types of
words read to them) which increases the internal validity, allowing for
a cause and effect relationship to be established.
-therefore can conclude that the delay has lead to a change in memory
recall
-it has a highly standardized procedure so the study can be replicated by
other researchers, and the reliability of the results can be further tested.
Reliability of Cognitive -Why this method was chosen?
Processes
-allows the researchers to control any other factors that may affect
-Loftus and Palmer
memory recall (e.g. environment, wording of the question, etc.) which
-Strack and Mussweiler increases the internal validity, allowing for a cause and effect
-Tversky and Kahneman relationship to be established.
-therefore can conclude anchor provided has lead to a change in
estimation
-it has a highly standardized procedure so the study can be replicated by
other researchers, and the reliability of the results can be further tested.
Emotion and Cognition
Quasi experiment:
-Brown and Kulik
-allows for comparison btw pre-existing groups
-Sharot et al
**unlike lab experiment, allocation to groups is not done randomly
-because what has already happened cannot be manipulated
-IV: participants’ distance to the WTC
-causation cannot be easily established; influence of extraneous
variables more easily reduced
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SAQs
Outline one ethical consideration related to studies on cognitive processes.
Explain one ethical consideration relevant to studies on the effects of emotion on cognition. /
Explain one ethical consideration relevant to one study on the reliability of cognitive processes. /
Outline one ethical consideration related to studies in the cognitive approach to understanding
human behaviour.
One ethical consideration related to studies in cognitive processes is informed consent.
Ethical considerations refer to the set of rules and guidelines set by psychological organizations like
the APA that researchers need to adhere to when conducting studies in Psychology. Informed
consent requires the researchers to inform the participants on the general aim of study and their
rights to agree to participate. Researchers need to receive a formal signed consent form from the
research participants that show their willingness to participate. Issues of consent have sometimes
been an issue with the use of case studies of people that suffer with amnesia, because the
participants wouldn’t be able to remember themselves giving consent to the researchers on
participating in various experiments and the publication of personal information. This is
demonstrated in the HM case study.
Corkin et al. (1997) carried out a longitudinal case study on HM to investigate the role of the
hippocampus on memory formation. HM was hit by a cyclist while crossing the street when he was
young and sustained a serious head injury. Epileptic attacks began and they were assumed to be
connected to the accident. With the approval of the patient and his family, the neurosurgeon
performed an experimental surgery where he removed tissue from the medial temporal lobe
(including the hippocampus) on both sides of HM’s brain to see how it affected his brain. The
surgery has had a significant effect on the amnesia of HM. After the surgery, his retrograde amnesia
diminished, meaning his childhood memory before the experiment was restored. However, he was
left with severe anterograde amnesia meaning he could not acquire new semantic and episodic
memory. This was due to an unknown cause until 40 years later when Corkin et al. wanted to
research the case more closely. In order to conduct research and studies with HM, they required his
consent. They successfully received HM’s consent and even the consent of his caretaker. However,
due to the fact that HM wasn’t able to remember each time he gave consent, his consent wasn’t
seen as valid. The research team proceeded with the research regardless and showed the
localization of memory formation to be in the hippocampus.
The study of Corkin et al. (1997) raised discussions about ethical considerations about the ethical
guideline of informed consent. In cases of Corkin et al performing experiments, they successfully
obtained informed consent from HM’s caretakers and family members. However, this raises issues
with consent as it appears to escalate with people who suffer from amnesia or who are incapable of
providing it.
Explain schema theory.
Describe how one study relates to schema theory. / Explain one study related to cognitive schema.
Schema theory, proposed by Piaje, is a cognitive theory that explains our organizing of stored
information. According to Bartlett, “as active processors of information, humans integrate new
information with existing, stored information.” Schemas are the existing, preconceived ideas that
have established throughout an individual’s lifetime. They function as mental representations of
particular aspects of the world, including people, objects, and events. The different types of schemas
help us predict things about an object, person, or event, and guide our behavior accordingly. When
new novel things are encountered, new association will be created (accommodation) and added into
our existing schemas (assimilation). Schemas are intangible, but they help psychologists to
understand and study unobservable processes like memory.
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Anderson and Pichert (1978) aimed to investigate if schemas influence the encoding and
retrieval stage of memory. In their study, the subjects were given a role of a burglar or a house buyer.
The subjects then had 2 minutes to read a passage about what two boys were doing at a home while
they were skipping school. The story contains 72 points of details about the house, which some were
rated more of an interest to a burglar than a house buyer, and vice versa. After a 2-minute reading
time, the participants performed a 12-minute filler task, before the story was recalled. Data was
collected via giving the participants blank papers and have them reproduce the story as much as
possible. After the first recall, another 5-minute filler task was given. For the second round of recall
half of the participants were instructed to switch to the alternative perspective and recall the text for
a second time without reading it again. The results showed that in the first round of recall, the
participants who had a burglar perspective recalled more information relevant to their perspective,
and it was the same with the home buyer’s perspective. In the second round of recall, participants
who changed roles recalled 7% more points on the second recall test than the first, and those details
are rated more important to new perspective. The group that remained in the same role, had a
decrease in the number of details recalled.
This study showed that people retieved different information based on the their schemas
that were activated based on the perspective given to them. On the second round of recall, those
who had buyer schema at encoding were able to recall burglar information when an alternative
schema was activated. This showed that schemas did not affect the encoding stage of memory,
because the participants did not read the passage for a second time, so before the switch in
perspective, the piece of information more relevant to the burglar perspective was already encoded
but had not been retrieved. This showed that schemas influence the process of retrieval of already
stored information from memory. The participants who did not switch role recalled less details over
time due to displacement degradation of short-term memory from the filler task. In conclusion,
Schema processing has an influence at only at the retrieval stage.
1. With reference to one study, describe how one biological factor may affect one
cognitive process.
2. Explain how one principle that defines the cognitive level of analysis may be
demonstrated in one example of research (theory or study).
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SAQs
Sociocultural Approach
Explain how culture may affect one behavior.
Explain one cultural origin of behavior.
Cultures*** are made up of culture norms, which are a set of attitudes, behaviors and beliefs
shared by a large group of people, that are often passed down from one generation to the next.
Cultural norms control behavior in accordance with the group’s beliefs as it addresses acceptable
and unacceptable ways of thinking and behaving. An example of how culture can affect behavior is
the culture of honor. A culture of honor exists in the south of United States whereby men place a high
value on strength and social reputation due to the little law enforcement or authority. As a result,
any threat or insult to an individual’s family, reputation, or property is met with aggressive responses.
The aggressive behaviors are being encultured into the South of US, meaning the people have learned
it as a necessary and appropriate skill and norm in the context of their culture.
***include a clear definition of culture
The relationship between cultural cultivation and behavior is studied by Cohen. Cohen aimed to
investigate the relationship between the culture of honor and individual's aggression. His study used
a group of college aged white males with a variation of North and South Americans as participants.
The wanted to compare the responses of North and South Americans as a result of their different
cultures (Cohen et al). The participants were instructed to walk down a hallway. The experimental
group was being bumped and insulted, while the control condition did not receive them. In both
conditions, observers pretended to do homework, but they were sitting in a place where they could
covertly observe the participants facial expression and emotional reaction. Their level of aggression
was rated based on those observations. Cohen found that Northern participants were more amused
by the bump, while southerners were angrier.
The difference in cultures between the north and south of the US can allow researchers to draw
the conclusion that the culture of honor in the south had led to the elicit of aggressive behaviors in
response to threat. This is probably due to the positive reinforcement of children behavior growing
up, leading them being more prone to aggressive behaviors.
Outline one-way cultural norms may influence human behaviour.
Cultural norm is the unique set of attitudes, beliefs and behaviors specific to a particular
culture. Cultural norms can be learned from enculturation, which is the process of learning behaviors,
characteristics, and norms of the culture one belongs to via cultural transmission, passing cultural
norms from one generation to the next. Cultural transmission may occur via observational learning,
in which people learn behaviors through observing members of culture perform a norm/behavior and
participating in cultural activities directly. Such method of cultural transmission is supported by
theories such as Social Cognitive Theory that assert ppl can learn to do/not to do behaviors by
observing models perform it & the outcome the model experiences as a result.
Odden and Rochat studied the role of observational learning on the development of cultural
norms in Samoa. In particular, they looked at the behaviour of line fishing and conceptual
understanding of rank and hierarchy. The researchers carried out a longitudinal, naturalistic
observation of 25 months on 28 children in a single Samoan village. The study included semistructured interviews with caretakers, teachers, pastors, and chiefs in the village. They found that
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Samoan culture is very hierarchical – it has a very high power distance index where questioning in
classrooms was discouraged as it was viewed as a sign of disrespect to the adults. Parents have a
largely non-interventionist approach to their children and their learning where Samoan children are
largely left to learn things on their own without adults attempting to motivate or organize their
learning. As fishing lines, spears and nets are limited, children do not participate in fishing with adults.
Through both interviews and observations, the researchers noted that young males spend a lot of
time watching adult males fish, but there is no direct instruction. They found that children of around
10 years old would borrow the adult’s fishing equipment and experiment on their own without any
adult supervision. By age 12, most children were able to fish on their own. Futhermore, it appears that
knowledge of intricate social hierarchy, ritual practice and cultural concepts were acquired in the
same way, through observation.
It can be seen that Samoan children, through observation of adults, has learned the social
hierarchical and adults’ non-interventionist approach to children’s’ education as part of the cultural
norm. From the children’s behavior of borrowing fishing equipment on their own at the age of 10 to
learn fishing on their own, it can be seen that after growing up seeing that no other children were
getting explicit instructions, the behavior of observing and paying attention to what others are doing
to gain knowledge in fishing and other skills became enculturated in them. It appears that observation
is how Samoan children learn the social rules regarding how the chief system works on the island,
which in turn affected how they behave with people of higher rank.
Explain the role of one cultural dimension in human behaviour.
Cultural dimensions are general factors underlying cross-cultural differences in values and
behavior. Hofstede, with his original questionnaire of IBM employees found 6 cultural dimensions.
One cultural dimension that Hofstede identified is individualism vs. collectivism. This dimension
measured the degree to which people are integrated into groups. In individualist cultures, people
define themselves their personality in terms of their own personal characteristics, their success, and
unique features. Some of the strongest values in individualistic societies are autonomy,
competitiveness and self-reliance. As a result, everyone is expected to look after himself or herself
and his or her immediate family. On the other hand, in collectivist cultures, identity is linked to the
social group, and values associated with belonging to a group take priority over personal values. From
birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups (often extended families), which
provides them with support and protection. Some of the strongest values in collectivist societies are
social harmony, modesty, and interdependence.
One study that looked at the effect of an individualist or a collectivist culture on behavior is
conducted by Berry and Katz. The study aimed to investigate whether cultural differences in
individualism versus collectivism would affect conformity. Berry used three distinctly different
cultures. First, the Temne of Sierra Leone, a society that is based on rice farming, therefore this way
of life promoted collectivism, as the farmers’ method of survival relied on sharing food among group
members. Second, the Inuit people of Baffin Island in Canada, which survives by hunting and fishing.
This method of survival promoted individualism, as people are responsible for their own survival on a
daily basis, and there is little accumulation of food in the society. Lastly, he used Scots as a reference
group. The control group was made up of both urban and rural Scots. There were approximately 120
participants in each group. The researchers measured the participants’ conformity using Asch’s
paradigm, where participants were shown a series of lines of varying length, with one target line on
top of the page and several lines below, and the participants were which lines were an equal length
to the target line shown. The instructions were read in their own language by a native interpreter. In
the third trial, the participants were given a statement, which most Temne (or Inuit or Scottish) people
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say this line (experimenter pointed to a designated line) is equal in length to the one at the top. And
then the participants were asked to identify the line that is in most equal length to the target line.
The researchers found that the Temne, which is the collectivistic culture, had a much higher
rate of conformity when told what other Temne believed, even though it was incorrect. The Inuits,
on the other hand, had even a lower rate of conformity than the Scots. The researchers concluded
that individualist Inuit participants conformed less than collectivist Temne, because conformity to the
group norms is ingrained as a cultural value in Temne society. In collectivist culture where tight social
relations as means of survival, it may be more important for individuals to conform to in-group leaders
to increase chances of survival. On the other hand, since individualist cultures requires individuals to
rely upon themselves, the participants from Inuit culture has learned to be self-dependent. Therefore,
the findings supports Hofstede’s theory, that the degree of individualism of a culture would affect
group member behavior, in this case, conformity.
Explain how belonging to cultural groups may influence cognition.
Culture, according to Hofstede, can be defined as a “collective programming of the mind
distinguishing members of one group from another.” Cultures are made up of a set of attitudes,
behaviours, and symbols shared by a large group of people, and usually communicated from one
generation to the next. Cultural groups are characterized by different norms and conventions.
According to Hofstede’s definition, members of the same cultural have shared mental concepts (ideas,
norms, beliefs, etc.) that guide their thinking. These shared mental concepts may have an effect on
memory as a cognition.
Mullen conducted a study to investigate the effect of culture on memory. The study itself used
questionnaires to investigate relationships amongst birth order, gender, culture and age of earliest
memory. The participants included 768 undergraduate participants who were asked to describe their
earliest memories. The participants were divided into several demographic categories, based on birth
order, gender and culture. The three cultural groups included in the study were Caucasian-American,
Asian and Asian-American. Mullen (1994) found that the earliest memories for Asian and AsianAmerican participants happened on average six months later than for Caucasian-American
participants. She also found similar effects for first-born children and females, whose earliest
memories tend to be earlier than that for males and later-born.
Mullen (1994) theorised that this may happen because of individualism/collectivism and early
linguistic experiences, as individualist cultures encourage children to spin elaborate narratives with
themselves as the individual at the centre of the event or retelling. Therefore, autobiographical
memory appears to develop differently between individualist and collectivist cultures, because of how
parents talk to children differently in such cultures.
Explain/Describe Social Identity Theory.
Note: Minimal group paradigm (it’s arbitrary!) The minimum amount needed to distinguish between an ingroup and an
outgroup
Social Identity Theory (SIT) proposed by Tajfel and later developed by Tajfel and Turner (1971)
claims that our behavior is being affected by our social identity. Social identity forms when an
individual as perceived membership in a social group. They identified four psychological
mechanisms involved in the creation of a social identity: Social categorization, social identification
social comparison and the positive distinctiveness. Social categorization is the process of classifying
people into groups based on similar characteristics, and give rise to in-groups (us) and out-groups
(them). Social identification is how people think of themselves according to their membership of
social groups and begin to adopt norms to take on characteristic of the group. The individual will
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need to have a level of self-efficacy to reproduce the behavior to show its belonging to the group.
Social comparison is when people continuously compare their in-groups with relevant out-groups to
justify membership in the group. Social comparison occurs to lead to positive distinctiveness, to
conclude that our in-group is superior and establish superiority of in-group over out-groups.
According to the SIT, we display in-group favoritism, which is a bias where we favor members and
traits of the in-groups, as well as out-group discrimination, where we develop prejudices against
the out-group members
Tajfel’s study aimed to investigate the existence of individuals favoring their in-groups over outgroups. In his study, A sample of 48 boys, ages 14 - 15 years old, were asked to rate 12 paintings by
the abstract expressionist painters Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky. They were not aware of which
artist had painted which painting during the test. The boys were then allocated to one of two groups
and told that they had preferred either Klee or Kandinsky, based on their choice.With knowledge of
which groups they belonged to, the boys were told to work individually to give points to both ingroup and out-group members, through two methods of point allocation system. The first system is
that the point scores for each boy were linked so that the sum of the two scores was 15. If a
participant chose 8, the other boy automatically got a score of 7 (15 - 8). This means that as the
score for the participant increases, the score of the other boy decreases. The second system had
three different forms of giving points: 1) give the out-group more points if they award the in-group
with high points. 2) giving in-group a mid-range value would give the same points for the other
group.3) chose a low value for in-group and it would award fewer point to the other team. The
results show that in the first system of point allocation, the boys generally awarded more points to
the members of their in-group showing in-group favouritism. In the second system of point
awarding, the boys chose the 3rd option most frequently.
The results are significant because it shows that boys were willing to give their own team fewer
points with the goal of maximizing the difference between their in-group and the out-group. This
showed ingroup favoritism, strong tendency to award more points to in-group members. This is an
elicit of positive distinctiveness and supports the notion of social identity, where people seek a
positive social identity by making their scores higher so that they have a sense of superiority over
the out-group. The experiment showed that social identity was still established despite the arbitrary
method used to form groups, as the criteria for social categorization is extremely trivial and is
completely unrelated to what the participants are required to do in the experiment. Tajfel thereby
demonstrated that a "minimal group" is all that is necessary for individuals to exhibit discrimination
against an out-group. With the group present, the boys still subconsciously regarded themselves as
belonging to a group even when they were working individually. This experiment is considered a
classic in psychology because it demonstrates that intergroup conflict is not required for
discrimination to occur. The study thus challenged previous beliefs that competition was necessary
and sufficient to produce prejudice.
Explain how and/or why stereotypes are formed.
Stereotypes are generalized, fixed mental representations/social categorization of a group & its
members. Stereotyping occurs as a result of schema processing when we obtain information
through personal experience with individuals and groups, or gatekeepers - the media, parents, and
other members of our culture. Campbell’s grain of truth hypothesis argues that an experience with
an individual from a group will then be generalized to the group. We develop schemas about specific
groups of people, in which we categorize people into groups and we make generalizations about
the characteristics of those groups so that it makes it less cognitively demanding (easier) think about
the individuals we meet on a daily basis.
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Hamilton and Gifford (1976) argued that stereotypes formed through a type of cognitive bias that
takes place when two statistically infrequent events co-occur, known as the illusory
correlation. Illusory can be defined as a cognitive bias where people see a relationship between two
variables when there is actually none. After illusory correlations are formed, people actively seek to
confirm and support their beliefs by looking for evidence in a "biased" way, which is known as
confirmation bias, causing us to reinforce previously developed steretypes. Therefore making this,
“stereotypical thinking resistant to change.” These biases in our cognition which cause prejudice (ve attitudes/beliefs regarding groups) influencing our social behaviors.
Hamilton & Gifford (1976) carried out an experiment which aimed to investigate illusory
correlations based on the co-occurance of infrequent events. The participants listened to a series of
statements made about people from two groups - simply called group A and B. There were twice as
many people in group A (26) as group B (13), so group B was the minority group. Each statement was
about one individual in one of the two groups; the statement was either positive or negative. Each
group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments. Participants were then asked
how many of the people in each group had positive vs. negative traits. They found that the
participants overestimated the number of negative traits, particularly in the minority group.
Hamilton & Gifford argued that this was because the minority group was by nature smaller in
number, their negative behaviours appeared more distinct and appear to be representative of the
group. Furthermore, because negative, undesirable behaviors are more infrequent, it made that
specific behavior appear more distinction in regard to the population. Therefore, the researchers
argued that illusion correlation was caused by event distinctiveness, that encountering a member of
the minority group is a distinct event, and so is an undesirable behavior. And hence the cooccurrence of two distinct events is overestimated, leading to the formation of stereotypes.
*** Grain of truth hypothesis can be used to explain why people form illusory correlation. The grain of truth hypothesis states
that stereotype could be formed based on actual observations.
Stereotype -> biases -> prejudice -> discrimination
**schemas in a social context ***MAKE SURE TO MAKE REFERENCE TO SCHEMAS
Explain how stereotypes may influence human behaviour.
One way in which stereotyping may affect behaviour is stereotype threat. Stereotypes are
generalized, fixed mental representations/social categorization of a group & its members.
Stereotypes are formed because our social world is very complex, it needs to be simplified. To avoid
this information overload, we look for ‘trends’ to make info processing easier via mental shortcuts
(heuristics) through social categorisation. Thus, we may form biases in our cognition which cause
prejudice (-ve attitudes/beliefs regarding groups) influencing our social behaviors. Once a set of
characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those characteristics are often attributed to
all members of the group, thus affecting the behaviour of the people or individual who hold the
stereotype, and those who are labelled by a stereotype. Steele and Anronson proposed that
stereotype threat’ occurs when members of a group are aware of a stereotype and inadvertently
adjust their behavior to match it.
Steele and Aronson (1995) carried out an experiment on 114 black and white American Stanford
students that aimed to investigate the effect of stereotype threat on performance. They gave a 30minute verbal test, made up of very difficult multiple-choice questions that was enough for most
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participants to find it challenging. In the experimental condition where stereotype threat was
posed, the participants were told that the test was “a genuine test of your verbal abilities and
limitations”. In the control group, the participants were told that the aim of the test was to “better
understand the psychological factors involved in solving verbal problems” and had nothing to do
with intellectual ability. The researchers found that white participants performed equally in
diagnostic and non-diagnostic condition. Black participants performed as well as white participants
in non-diagnostic conditions but performed worse than white participants in diagnostic condition.
There was one more version of the experiment where the participants had to fill in a personal
information questionnaire. Half of the questionnaires asked the participants to identify their race.
African Americans who had to identify their race did poorly; those that did not, did just as well as
their European American peers.
The researchers argued that the black participants did worse in when the test is linked to their
intellectual ability may have increased apprehension of black students possibly conforming to the
negative group stereotype. Faced with this possibility, participants become anxious, which affects
their test performance. In the follow up experiment, it can be seen that reminding people of their
identity itself (without mentioning a specific stereotype) before performing a tasked stereotyped
with their identity can lead to stereotype threat. Therefore, The linking the test to diagnosing ability
depresses the performance of black students through stereotype threat.
*** The anticipation of a situation that can potentially at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about ones group.
Self-fulfilling hypothesis;
Stereotype threat and promise is an example of self-fulfilling hypothesis.
Stereotype promise
Explain/Describe Social Cognitive Theory.
The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is proposed by Bandura and it asserts that humans don’t need to
experience things personally to learn them and can learn through observational learning from
models. A learner can watch another person (model) carry out a behavior & learn to either imitate
or avoid said behavior depending on whether model is rewarded or punished through vicarious
learning***. According to Bandura, social cognitive learning involves the four cognitive factors:
attention, retention, motivation and potential. Firstly, the observer must allocate attention to the
model. Secondly, the observer must be able to remember the behavior through retention. Thirdly,
observer must have the motivation to want to reproduce by expecting a certain positive outcome
from the behavior. Lastly, the observer must believe themselves to be capable of carrying out the
behavior with a certain level of self-efficacy. Social cognitive learning theory has been used to
explain many things, particularly the role of violence on aggression in children.
**Link to operant conditioning -- Vicarious learning is encouraged by operant conditioning
Bandura conducted an experiment to investigate if social behaviors can be acquired by observation
& imitation, as explained by the SCT (Bandura et al). The lab experiment consists of 76 children from
the age of 3 to 6, randomly allocated into one of the 3 conditions. Then, the subjects in the first
condition watched the model to use physical and verbal aggression against the Bobo doll. In the
second condition, the subjects observed a non-aggressive adult who assembled toys for 10 minutes,
and a third group served as a control and did not see any model. In the first and second groups,
some children watched same-sex models and some watched opposite-sex models.After the
observation session, all pariticpants were sent to a room with toys and were told that they could not
play with them to cause a baseline level of frustration as control. After that, the children were
placed in a room with a Bobo doll. The children were covertly observed so their aggressive levels can
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be rated. Bandura’s group found that the children who had observed the aggressive models were
significantly more aggressive, both physically and verbally. In addition, children that were shown no
model were second-most aggressive and the ones shown with non-aggressive adults were least
aggressive.
The children showed clear signs of observational learning. They imitated the behaviors from the
adult models through paying attention, memorizing the behavior and reproducing it on the Bobo
doll. Bandura therefore argues that most behavior is learned from the environment, developing the
behaviorist approach. As explaining behavior and environment as a one-way relationship is overly
reductionist, Bandura proposed the triadic reciprocal determinism, as he argues that there is a
mutual influence of personal (cognition, biology, and mood), behavioral and environmental in
determining one’s behavior.
Explain one effect of enculturation on human behaviour.
Enculturation is the process of learning behaviors, characteristics, and norms of the culture one
belongs to via cultural transmission. Cultural transmission is the process of passing cultural norms,
which is a set of attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs specific to a culture from one generation to the
next. Cultural transmission may occur via observational learning, in which people learn behaviors
through observing members of culture perform a norm/behavior and participating in cultural
activities directly. Such method of cultural transmission is supported by theories such as Social
Cognitive Theory that assert ppl can learn to do/not to do behaviors by observing models perform it
& the outcome the model experiences as a result.
Odden and Rochat studied the role of observational learning on the development of cultural norms
in Samoa. In particular, they looked at the behaviour of line fishing and conceptual understanding
of rank and hierarchy. The researchers carried out a longitudinal, naturalistic observation of 25
months on 28 children in a single Samoan village. The study included semi-structured interviews
with caretakers, teachers, pastors, and chiefs in the village. They found that Samoan culture is very
hierarchical – it has a very high power distance index where questioning in classrooms was
discouraged as it was viewed as a sign of disrespect to the adults. Parents have a largely noninterventionist approach to their children and their learning where Samoan children are largely left
to learn things on their own without adults attempting to motivate or organize their learning. As
fishing lines, spears and nets are limited, children do not participate in fishing with adults. Through
both interviews and observations, the researchers noted that young males spend a lot of time
watching adult males fish, but there is no direct instruction. They found that children of around 10
years old would borrow the adult’s fishing equipment and experiment on their own without any
adult supervision. By age 12, most children were able to fish on their own. Futhermore, it appears
that knowledge of intricate social hierarchy, ritual practice and cultural concepts were acquired in
the same way, through observation.
It can be seen that Samoan children, through observation of adults, has learned the social
hierarchical and adults’ non-interventionist approach to children’s’ education. From the children’s
behavior of borrowing fishing equipment on their own at the age of 10 to learn fishing on their own,
it can be seen that after growing up seeing that no other children were getting explicit instructions,
the behavior of observing and paying attention to what others are doing to gain knowledge in fishing
and other skills became enculturated in them. It appears that observation is how Samoan children
learn the social rules regarding how the chief system works on the island, which in turn affected how
they behave with people of higher rank.
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Describe one effect of acculturation on human behaviour.
According to Berry, “acculturation is the dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes
place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual members". At
the individual level, it involves changes in a person's behaviour. Berry (1974) proposed four
different acculturation strategies used by individuals: assimilation, integration, separation, and
marginalization. Assimilation is when an individual abandons their original culture and adopts the
cultural behaviours and values of their new culture. Integration is when there is an interest in
adopting the behaviours and values of the new culture, while still maintaining the original culture.
Separation is when individuals maintain their own culture and minimize contact with the new
culture. And lastly, marginalization is when individual does not maintain their own culture, but
neither do they seek contact with new cultures. Berry argues that these four strategies are the result
not only of the importance of maintaining one’s culture for the individual, but also situational
factors in the new culture.
Shah et al aimed to investigate the association between acculturation and behavior, and
how it may lead to obesity. The study included a random sample of over 1300 South Asian male
migrant workers in the UAE. The participants were mainly drivers, laborers, agricultural workers,
and construction workers, over half of them lived in UAE for 6 or more years. The researchers also
compared a group of men of the same age in their culture of origin. The researchers found that
migrant workers in the UAE had significantly higher body mass index (BMI) than the comparison
group. Furthermore, the duration the participants stayed in UAE correlated with the increase in BMI.
Lastly, the prevalence of obesity was higher in migrants than in the comparison group.
From this study, it can be seen that the participants living in UAE have moved into a culture
that promoted less healthy eating behaviors. Because of the new environment, the participants have
abandoned their eating habits from their cultural origin, and adopted unhealthy eating, which lead
to an increase in BMI, demonstrating assimilation. Hence, this study shows that acculturation may
contribute to unhealthy eating behaviors, resulting in obesity and being overweight.
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Explain the use of one research method used in the sociocultural approach to
understanding human behaviour.
One research method used to study human behavior from the biological approach is experiment.
The sociocultural level of analysis (SLOA) is the scientific study of how people"s thoughts,
feelings and thus behaviours are influenced by actual, implied or imagined presence of
others and the environment around them. In sociocultural approach, testable theories are
developed about the influence of culture and surroundings on individuals’ behavior. In order to set
up the correct condition for the influence of culture to be tested, the theories are tested using
research methods such as laboratory experiments. Experiments are used to determine the cause
and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables).
Researchers manipulate the IV and measure the DV. In understanding cognitive processes,
laboratory experiments are mainly used because it allows the researchers to pose strict control over
as many extraneous variables as possible. One study that used laboratory experiment to investigate
the effect of neurotransmitters in the brain and the human behavior of memory is conducted by
Martinez and Kesner (1991).
Asch’s study aimed to investigate the effect of factors like group size and unanimity on normative
conformity to group norms. The study had 50 male students to complete a line judgment task. Asch
put the participant in a room with seven 'confederates' (who had organised to mislead the naive
participants). The seating plan was carefully constructed to prevent any suspicion on the part of the
naive participant that the others were confederates. The task was to estimate which of the three
vertical lines drawn on one card matched the single vertical line on the other card. The participants
answered one at a time, and on some occasions the confederates gave an obviously wrong
answer. They found that On average, about 32% of the participants who were placed in this situation
went along and conformed with the clearly incorrect majority on the critical trials. In the original
1951 experiment there were 18 trials in total and the confederates gave the wrong answer on 12
trials (which Asch referred to as the critical trials). Over the 12 critical trials about 75% of
participants conformed at least once and 25% of participants never conformed. In the control group,
with no pressure to conform to confederates, less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer.
The results of the experiment can be understood with the concept of conformity and the Social
identity Theory. Conformity refers to individuals’ act of changing their attitudes and behavior to
adhere to existing social norms. In this case, the majority influence acted as the social norm, and it
can be seen that 75% of participants agreed to their answer at least once, even though it is
incorrect. This then shows participants need of conforming to social norms. Studying sociocultural
influence on behavior requires strict control of the confederates’ behavior in order for it to have an
effect on the participants’ behavior. Hence, a laboratory experiment is most suitable because it is
the type of research method that allows most control variables to be implemented. Furthermore, it
allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised. The researchers were able
to see how the behavior of in group members would influence the conformity, and a cause and
effect relationship. Laboratory experiment was the most suitable type to use for this particular
study.
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The sociocultural level of analysis (SLOA) is the scientific study of how people"s thoughts, feelings
and thus behaviours are influenced by actual, implied or imagined presence of others and the
environment around them. In sociocultural approach, testable theories are developed about the
influence of culture and surroundings on individuals’ behavior. In order to set up the correct
condition for the influence of culture to be tested, the theories are tested using research methods
such as laboratory experiments. Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect
relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables). Researchers
manipulate the IV and measure the DV. Experiments are based on hypothesis testing - that is,
making a measurable and testable hypothesis and then seeing if the results of the study are
statistically significant so that they can reject the null hypothesis. In addition, an experiment must
contain at least one group that receives a treatment (the manipulation of an independent
variable), and a control group does not receive the treatment. In a true experiment, participants
are randomly allocated to conditions. In understanding the biological basis of cognitive processes,
laboratory experiments are mainly used because it allows the researchers to pose strict control
over as many extraneous variables as possible. One study that used laboratory experiment to
investigate the effect of neurotransmitters in the brain and the human behavior of memory is
conducted by Martinez and Kesner (1991).
The individual and the group
-Why this method was chosen?
-Bandura
-allows the researchers to control any other factors that may
-Tajfel and Turner
affect behavior (e.g. different adult model shown, adult model
- Hamilton and Gifford
doing different things) which increases the internal validity,
allowing for a cause and effect relationship to be established.
-therefore can conclude that the manipulation of a specific
variable has lead to a change in behavior
-it has a highly standardized procedure so the study can be
replicated by other researchers, and the reliability of the results
can be further tested.
Cultural origins of behaviour
-Why this method was chosen?
and cognition
-allows the researchers to control any other factors that may
-Berry and Katz
affect behavior which increases the internal validity, allowing for
-Cohen et al
a cause and effect relationship to be established.
-therefore can conclude that the manipulation of a specific
variable has lead to a change in behavior
-it has a highly standardized procedure so the study can be
replicated by other researchers, and the reliability of the results
can be further tested.
Case study:
-A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual or a small group of people.
-involved questionnaires and interview
-it was both longitudinal and prospective.
-method triangulation - both questionnaires and interviews were used.
Cultural influences on
-required because need a long period of time of observe and
individual behaviour
culture, and figure out its working
-Odden and Rochat
-needs to observe people in naturalistic conditions, rather than
-Shah et al
controlled conditions
-emic approach: wants to know how enculturation plays a role in
Samoan culture specifically
-so has less focus on generalizability; assess enculturation on a
case to case basis.
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Discuss one or more ethical considerations related to research in the sociocultural
approach to understanding human behaviour.
One ethical consideration related to studies in cognitive processes is informed consent. Ethical
considerations refer to the set of rules and guidelines set by psychological organizations like the APA
that researchers need to adhere to when conducting studies in Psychology. Informed consent
requires the researchers to inform the participants on the nature of the study, the general aim of
study, the participants’ rights to agree to participate, their right to withdraw at any time, and any
potential risks associated with completing the study. The researchers need to receive a formal
consent from the research participants that show their willingness to participate. Issues of consent
have sometimes been an issue when demand characteristics may occur the second the participants
know the aim of the study. Therefore in certain cases, the general aim of the study cannot be
revealed to the participants prior to the study, and this raises questions on the ethical consideration
of informed consent. One study that shows the ethical consideration of informed consent is a study
by Asch (1956).
Asch’s study aimed to investigate the effect of factors like group size and unanimity on normative
conformity to group norms. The study had 50 male students to complete a line judgment task. Asch
put the participant in a room with seven 'confederates' (who had organised to mislead the naive
participants). The seating plan was carefully constructed to prevent any suspicion on the part of the
naive participant that the others were confederates. The task was to estimate which of the three
vertical lines drawn on one card matched the single vertical line on the other card. The participants
answered one at a time, and on some occasions the confederates gave an obviously wrong
answer. They found that On average, about 32% of the participants who were placed in this situation
went along and conformed with the clearly incorrect majority on the critical trials. In the original
1951 experiment there were 18 trials in total and the confederates gave the wrong answer on 12
trials (which Asch referred to as the critical trials). Over the 12 critical trials about 75% of
participants conformed at least once and 25% of participants never conformed. In the control group,
with no pressure to conform to confederates, less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer.
The results of the experiment can be understood with the concept of conformity and the Social
identity Theory. Conformity refers to individuals’ act of changing their attitudes and behavior to
adhere to existing social norms. In this case, the majority influence acted as the social norm, and it
can be seen that 75% of participants agreed to their answer at least once, even though it is
incorrect. This then shows participants need of conforming to social norms. There are many
controversial views on the ethical consideration of this study, because it involves the use of
deception. If deception is involved in the study, that simultaneously mean that informed consent is
not obtained. With the case of this study, it is impossible to provide full information of the research
and achieve a full informed consent, because knowing the true aims of a study may affect
participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study. This is the same for disclosing any potential
risks in the informed consent form, because it may result in participants displaying demand
characteristics, and guess the aim of the study. This will prevent the researchers from testing the
role of conformity in human behavior. It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if
no harm is expected, but the effects of deception individuals may be unpredictable. true. Hence,
Asch’s study is often criticized by the public how it is unethical to deceive participants.
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One ethical consideration related to studies in cognitive processes is informed consent. Ethical
considerations refer to the set of rules and guidelines set by psychological organizations like the
APA that researchers need to adhere to when conducting studies in Psychology. Informed consent
requires the researchers to inform the participants on the nature of the study, the general aim of
study, the participants’ rights to agree to participate, their right to withdraw at any time, and any
potential risks associated with completing the study. The researchers need to receive a formal
consent from the research participants that show their willingness to participate. Issues of
consent have sometimes been an issue when demand characteristics may occur the second the
participants know the aim of the study. Therefore in certain cases, the general aim of the study
cannot be revealed to the participants prior to the study, and this raises questions on the ethical
consideration of informed consent. One study that shows the ethical consideration of informed
consent is a study by Asch (1956).
The individual and the group
-In this case covert observation was used, but
-Tajfel and Turner
the children were unaware of that
-Bandura
-children cannot know because knowing that
-Hamilton and Gifford
someone is observing may change behavior
-Steele and Anronson
-obtained informed consent from the parents,
in which they gave permission to observe their
children covertly and video tape the
experiment
-general aim of the study cannot be revealed to
the participants prior to the study, because
demand characteristics may occur
Cultural origins of behavior and cognition
-In this case covert observation was used, but
-Cohen et al
the participants were unaware of that
-Muller?
-participants cannot know because knowing
that someone is observing may change
behavior
-general aim of the study cannot be revealed to
the participants prior to the study, because
demand characteristics may occur
-considered acceptable given the aim of the
study, so as long as the participants were fully
debriefed it was ok
Cultural influences on individual behavior
-The researcher lets the participants know that
-Odden and Rochat
he or she is a researcher, but the purpose of
-Shah et al
the study may not always be clear.
-there was informed consent, researcher was
allowed to observe the children and society
-informed beforehand
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