SERIES IN
HRM NELSON
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
MANAGING PERFORMANCE
THROUGH TRAINING
AND DEVELOPMENT
EIGHTH EDITION
ALAN M. SAKS | ROBERT R. HACCOUN
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SERIES IN
HRM NELSON
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
MANAGING PERFORMANCE
THROUGH TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT
EIGHTH EDITION
ALAN M. SAKS
University of Toronto
ROBERT R. HACCOUN
Université de Montréal
SERIES EDITOR:
MONICA BELCOURT
School of Human Resource Management,
Faculty of Liberal Arts and Professional Studies,
York University
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Managing Performance through
Training and Development,
Eighth Edition
by Alan M. Saks and Robert R. Haccoun
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Library and Archives Canada
Cataloguing in Publication
Saks, Alan M. (Alan Michael), author
Managing performance through
training and development / Alan M.
Saks, University of Toronto, Robert R.
Haccoun, University of Montreal.—
Eighth edition.
Issued in print and electronic
formats. ISBN 978-0-17-679807-9
(softcover).—ISBN 978-017-684842-2 (PDF)
1. Employees—Training
of-—Textbooks.
2. Textbooks. I. Haccoun, Robert R.,
author II. Title.
HF5549.5.T7S23 2018
658.3’124
C2018-903528-5
C2018-903529-3
ISBN-13: 978-0-17-679807-9
ISBN-10: 0-17-679807-2
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In memory of my father, Simon Saks
Alan M. Saks
To the little ones: Orli, Amit, Erez, and Micah
Robert R. Haccoun
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BRIEF CONTENTS
About the Series xxiii
About the Authors xxiv
Preface xxvi
Acknowledgments xxxiv
Chapter 1
The Training and Development Process 1
Chapter 2
Learning and Motivation 40
Chapter 3
The Needs Analysis Process 80
Chapter 4
Training Design 115
Chapter 5
Off-the-Job Training Methods 149
Chapter 6
On-the-Job Training Methods 178
Chapter 7
Technology-Based Training Methods 210
Chapter 8
Training Delivery 249
Chapter 9
Transfer of Training 281
Chapter 10
Training Evaluation 317
Chapter 11
Training Costs and Benefits 357
Chapter 12
Training Programs 382
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Management and Leadership Development 413
The Evolution and Future of Training
and Development 455
Appendix Integrative Case Studies 469
Index 479
NEL
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v
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CONTENTS
About the Series xxiii
About the Authors xxiv
Preface xxvi
Acknowledgments xxxiv
Chapter 1
The Training and Development Process 1
Chapter Learning Outcomes 1
Introduction 3
Training Today 1.1: The Risks and Consequences of Failing
to Provide Training 4
Performance Management 5
The Trainer’s Notebook 1.1: Smart Goals 6
Training and Development 7
Benefits of Training and Development 8
Benefits to Organizations 8
Training Today 1.2: The Effects of Training on Firm Productivity
and Profits 10
Benefits to Employees 11
Benefits to Society 11
Training and Development in Canada 13
Is Training an Investment or an Expense? 16
The Context of Training and Development 17
The Environmental Context of Training and Development 18
The Organizational Context of Training and Development 20
The Trainer’s Notebook 1.2: The Strategic Alignment of Training
and Development 21
The Human Resources System 23
The Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Model
of Training and Development 23
The Trainer’s Notebook 1.3: The Application of the ISD Model 25
NEL
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vii
Summary and Road Map 26
Key Terms 27
Discussion Questions 27
The Great Training Debate 28
Exercises 28
Case Incident: Beer Ambassadors 29
Case Study: Flotation Ltd. 30
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 32
References 34
Chapter 2
Learning and Motivation 40
Chapter Learning Outcomes 40
Introduction 41
What Is Learning? 42
Workplace Learning 42
Training Today 2.1: Informal Learning Behaviours 45
The Trainer’s Notebook 2.1: Facilitating Informal Learning
in Organizations 46
Learning Outcomes 46
Stages of Learning and Resource Allocation Theory 48
Learning Styles 50
Learning Theories 53
Conditioning Theory 53
Social Cognitive Theory 55
The Trainer’s Notebook 2.2: Prompting Self-Regulation 57
Adult Learning Theory 58
The Trainer’s Notebook 2.3: Implications of Adult Learning Theory
for Training and Development 60
Motivation 60
Goal-Setting Theory 61
Training Motivation 63
A Model of Training Effectiveness 64
Summary 66
Key Terms 67
Discussion Questions 68
viii
CONTENTS
NEL
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The Great Training Debate 68
Exercises 69
Case Incident: Management Training at IKEA 71
Case Study: The Performance Appraisal Training Program 72
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 75
References 75
Chapter 3
The Needs Analysis Process 80
Chapter Learning Outcomes 80
Introduction 82
What Is a Needs Analysis? 82
The Needs Analysis Process 83
Step One: A Concern 84
Step Two: Importance 84
Step Three: Consult Stakeholders 84
Step Four: Data Collection 85
Needs Analysis Outcomes 85
Organizational Analysis 86
Strategic Alignment 86
Training Today 3.1: Strategic Alignment at MillerCoors 87
Environment 87
Resource Analysis 88
Organizational Context 89
The Trainer’s Notebook 3.1: Continuous Learning Culture Diagnosis 90
Task Analysis 90
Cognitive Task Analysis 93
Team Task Analysis 93
Person Analysis 94
Determining Solutions to Performance Problems 95
The Trainer’s Notebook 3.2: The Training Solution Checklist 98
Needs Analysis Methods 99
Needs Analysis Sources 103
Obstacles to Needs Analysis 104
The Trainer’s Notebook 3.3: How to Conduct a Rapid Needs
Analysis 105
NEL
CONTENTS
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ix
Summary 105
Key Terms 106
Discussion Questions 106
The Great Training Debate 107
Exercises 107
Case Incident: The Asthma Attack 108
Case Study: The Incident and Apology 109
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 112
References 112
Chapter 4
Training Design 115
Chapter Learning Outcomes 115
Introduction 117
Training Objectives 118
Writing Training Objectives 119
The Purchase-or-Design Decision 121
Purchase Decision Factors 121
Request for Proposal (RFP) 122
The Trainer’s Notebook 4.1: An Effective Request for Proposal (RFP) 123
Training Content 123
The Trainer’s Notebook 4.2: Training Content for Privacy Training 125
Training Methods 126
Active Practice 126
Training Today 4.1: Designing Training Programs for Older Workers 127
Pre-Training Interventions 128
Conditions of Practice During Training 131
The Trainer’s Notebook 4.3: How to Give Training Feedback 133
Active Learning 134
Error-Management Training (EMT) 135
Model of Training Effectiveness—Training Design 136
Summary 137
Key Terms 138
Discussion Questions 138
x
CONTENTS
NEL
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The Great Training Debate 139
Exercises 139
Case Incident: We ID 25 141
Case Study: Training the Sales Force 142
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 145
References 145
Chapter 5
Off-the-Job Training Methods 149
Chapter Learning Outcomes 149
Introduction 151
Lecture Method 152
Tips for Trainers 152
Discussion Method 153
Tips for Trainers 153
Case Study Method 154`
Tips for Trainers 155
Case Incident Method 155
Tips for Trainers 156
Behaviour Modelling Training 156
Tips for Trainers 157
The Trainer’s Notebook 5.1: Implementing Behaviour
Modelling Training 158
Role Play 158
Tips for Trainers 159
The Trainer’s Notebook 5.2: Steps for Effective Role Plays 160
Simulations 160
Tips for Trainers 162
Training Today 5.1: Simulations for Sales Success 162
Games 163
Tips for Trainers 164
Action Learning 164
Tips for Trainers 165
Instructional Media 165
Tips for Trainers 166
NEL
CONTENTS
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xi
Choosing an Instructional Method 166
Cost and Resource Availability 167
On-the-Job Application 167
Trainer Skill and Preferences 167
Trainee Preferences and Characteristics 167
Blended Training 168
Summary 168
Key Terms 168
Discussion Questions 169
The Great Training Debate 169
Exercises 170
Case Incident: The Altercation 171
Case Study: The Customer-Service Training Program 172
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 175
References 175
Chapter 6
On-the-Job Training Methods 178
Chapter Learning Outcomes 178
Introduction 180
On-the-Job Training (OJT) Methods 180
The Problem with On-the-Job Training 181
Job Instruction Training 182
Step 1: Preparation 182
Step 2: Instruction 183
Step 3: Performance 184
Step 4: Follow-up 185
Tips for Trainers 185
Performance Aids 185
Training Today 6.1: Operating Room Checklist Saves Lives 186
Tips for Trainers 188
Job Rotation 188
Tips for Trainers 189
Apprenticeships 189
Tips for Trainers 191
xii
CONTENTS
NEL
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The Trainer’s Notebook 6.1: Increasing Employer Participation
in Apprenticeship Training 192
Coaching 193
Tips for Trainers 194
Mentoring 195
The Trainer’s Notebook 6.2: Developing an Effective
E-Mentoring Program 196
Tips for Trainers 196
Off-the-Job versus On-the-Job Training Methods 197
Off-the-Job Training Methods 197
On-the-Job Training Methods 198
Combining On-the-Job and Off-the-Job Training Methods 199
Summary 199
Key Terms 200
Discussion Questions 200
The Great Training Debate 200
Exercises 201
Case Incident: Davco Machine Ltd. 203
Case Study: TPK Appliances 203
Running Case: Dirty Pools 205
References 206
Chapter 7
Technology-Based Training Methods 210
Chapter Learning Outcomes 210
Introduction 212
What Is Technology-Based Training? 212
Computer-Based Training and E-Learning 213
Instructor-Led Training and Self-Directed Learning 214
Asynchronous and Synchronous Training 216
Online and Distance Education 216
Electronic Performance Support Systems 217
The Virtual Classroom 218
The Trainer’s Notebook 7.1: Designing Effective Virtual
Training Programs 219
Social Media and Web 2.0 Technology 220
NEL
CONTENTS
xiii
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Mobile Learning (M-Learning) 221
Synthetic Learning Environments (SLEs) 222
Training Today 7.1: Virtual Reality Training at BNSF Railway 222
Designing Effective Technology-Based Training Programs 223
The Trainer’s Notebook 7.2: Design Principles for
Computer-Based Training 227
Benefits of Technology-Based Training 227
Advantages 227
Disadvantages 229
Effectiveness of Technology-Based Training 230
Summary 232
Key Terms 232
Discussion Questions 233
The Great Training Debate 234
Exercises 234
Case Incident: Playing Video Games to Learn 236
Case Study: E-Learning at Flotation Ltd. 237
Case Study: The Korea Ginseng Corporation 240
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 243
References 244
Chapter 8
Training Delivery 249
Chapter Learning Outcomes 249
Introduction 250
The Lesson Plan 250
The Trainer’s Notebook 8.1: Guidelines for Developing a Lesson Plan 252
The Trainer 254
The Trainer’s Notebook 8.2: Getting Trainees Engaged 255
Train-the-Trainer 255
The Trainer’s Notebook 8.3: Train-the-Trainer Fundamentals 256
The Trainees 257
Training Today 8.1: Training a Multi-Generational Workforce 257
Trainability Test 258
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Training Materials and Equipment 259
Training Site 259
Seating Arrangement 260
Scheduling the Training Program 261
Training Administration 262
The Role of Ethics in Training and Development 262
Implementing the Training Program 263
Learning Climate 264
Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction 265
Closing a Training Program 268
Training Delivery Problems 268
The Trainer’s Notebook 8.4: Solutions to Training Delivery Problems 270
Summary 272
Key Terms 272
Discussion Questions 272
The Great Training Debate 273
Exercises 273
Case Incident: Training the Trainer at the Running Room 275
Case Study: The Houghton Refrigeration Company 275
Running Case: Dirty Pools 278
References 279
Chapter 9
Transfer of Training 281
Chapter Learning Outcomes 281
Introduction 283
What Is Transfer of Training? 283
The Transfer of Training Problem 284
Transfer of Training Process 286
Trainee Characteristics 287
Training Design 287
Work Environment 288
Transfer of Training Strategies 290
Transfer of Training Strategies before Training 292
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Management 292
Trainer 293
Trainees 294
Transfer of Training Strategies during Training 295
Management 295
Trainer 296
Trainees 296
Transfer of Training Strategies after Training 297
Management 297
Trainer 298
Training Today 9.1: The Effects of Follow-Up Sessions on the
Transfer of Training 299
Trainees 299
The Trainer’s Notebook 9.1: Best Practice Strategies for Transfer
of Training 300
Training Today 9.2: Using Technology to Facilitate Transfer
of Training 300
Transfer of Training Interventions 301
Relapse Prevention 301
Self-Management 303
Goal-Setting 303
Post-Training Supplements 303
Booster Sessions 304
Self-Coaching 304
Upward Feedback 304
Transfer System 304
Model of Training Effectiveness—Transfer of Training 305
Summary 306
Key Terms 307
Discussion Questions 307
The Great Training Debate 308
Exercises 308
Case Incident: BC Assessment 310
Case Study: The School Board 311
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Running Case: Dirty Pools 313
References 314
Chapter 10 Training Evaluation 317
Chapter Learning Outcomes 317
Introduction 319
What Is Training Evaluation? 319
Why Conduct Training Evaluations? 319
Do Organizations Conduct Training Evaluations? 320
Barriers to Training Evaluation 322
Pragmatic Barriers to Training Evaluation 322
Political Barriers to Training Evaluation 323
Training Today 10.1: Upper Management’s Role
in Training Evaluation 323
Types of Training Evaluation 324
Models of Training Evaluation 325
Kirkpatrick’s Hierarchical Model: The Four Levels of
Training Evaluation 325
Research on Kirkpatrick’s Model 326
COMA Model 327
Decision-Based Evaluation Model 328
Training Today 10.2: The Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) 329
Training Evaluation Variables 329
Reactions 329
Learning 334
Behaviour 336
Motivation 338
Self-Efficacy 338
Perceived and/or Anticipated Support 339
Organizational Perceptions 340
Organizational Results 340
Data Collection Designs in Training Evaluation 342
Descriptive Training Evaluation Models 342
The Trainer’s Notebook 10.1: Understanding Pre-Post Differences 343
The Limit of the Three Descriptive Evaluation Models 344
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Causal Evaluation Designs 344
The Internal Referencing Strategy (IRS): A Compromise
Evaluation Model 345
Summary of Data Collection Designs 347
A Final Integrative Comment: Models, Outcomes,
and Data Collection Designs 347
Summary 347
Key Terms 348
Discussion Questions 348
The Great Training Debate 349
Exercises 349
Case Incident: The Social Agency 350
Case Study: The Alcohol/Drug Abuse Prevention
Program (ADAPP) 351
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 353
References 353
Chapter 11 Training Costs and Benefits 357
Chapter Learning Outcomes 357
Introduction 358
Training and the Bottom Line 359
The Trainer’s Notebook 11.1: Business Impact-Driven Learning 360
Training and the Bottom Line in Canadian Organizations 360
Costing Training Programs 361
Direct Costs 361
Indirect Costs 361
Developmental Costs 362
Overhead Costs 362
Trainee Compensation Costs 362
Training Costs at the Wood Panel Plant 362
The Benefits of Training Programs 364
Return on Investment (ROI) 365
Training Today 11.1: The Investing in People Project 366
The Trainer’s Notebook 11.2: Converting Benefits to Monetary
Values 368
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Utility Analysis 369
Break-Even Analysis 370
The Credibility of Benefit Estimates 371
The Trainer’s Notebook 11.3: Increasing the Credibility
of Benefit Estimates 372
Summary 372
Key Terms 373
Discussion Questions 373
The Great Training Debate 374
Exercises 374
Case Incident 1: The Harmony Remote 375
Case Incident 2: Renswartz Realty Company 376
Case Study: DATAIN 377
Running Case: Dirty Pools 380
References 380
Chapter 12 Training Programs 382
Chapter Learning Outcomes 382
Introduction 383
Orientation Training 386
Essential Skills Training 386
Technical and Non-Technical Skills Training 387
Information Technology Training 388
Health and Safety Training 388
Total Quality Management Training 389
Team Training 390
Sales Training 391
Customer-Service Training 391
Sexual and Racial Harassment Training 392
Ethics Training 393
Diversity Training 394
Cross-Cultural Training 395
The Trainer’s Notebook 12.1: How to Design an Effective Cross-Cultural
Training Program 396
Health and Wellness Training 397
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Training Today 12.1: Mental Health Training at the Government
of the Northwest Territories 398
Summary 398
Key Terms 399
Discussion Questions 399
The Great Training Debate 400
Exercises 400
Case Incident: Saving Theatre Calgary 403
Case Study: The Foreign Assignment 403
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 408
References 409
Chapter 13 Management and Leadership Development 413
Chapter Learning Outcomes 413
Introduction 415
Training Today 13.1: Bench Strength 416
What Is Management? 417
Management Development versus Employee Training 418
What Is Management Development? 418
Is Management Development Important? 418
Management Development 419
Core Managerial Roles 419
Interpersonal Roles 420
Informational Role 420
Decisional Role 420
Managerial Functions 420
Controlling 421
Organizing 421
Planning 421
Leading 421
Leadership: A Critical Function of Management? 421
Leadership and Its Development: A Work in Progress 422
Training Today 13.2: Authentic Leadership 424
Training Today 13.3: Taking Management Development Seriously:
The PricewaterhouseCoopers Story 425
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Management Skills 425
Emotional Intelligence 427
Project Management and Emotional Intelligence 428
Models of Management Skills Development 429
The Trainer’s Notebook 13.1: The TIMS (Training in Management Skills)
Procedure 429
Error Training for Management Development 432
The Content of Management Development Programs 432
Conceptual Skills 432
Technical Skills 434
Interpersonal Skills 434
Methods of Management Development 436
Training Today 13.4: The Origins of Outdoor Wilderness
Training 437
Management Education Programs 438
Training Today 13.5: Are Corporate Universities Useful? 438
Management Training Programs 439
Sources and Lengths of Management Training Sessions 440
On-the-Job Management Development 440
Is Management Development Effective? 443
Leadership Training: What’s Wrong and What Is Needed? 445
Summary 446
Key Terms 446
Discussion Questions 447
The Great Training Debate 447
Exercises 447
Case Incident: Middle Manager Burnout 449
Case Study: Market Research Inc. 449
References 451
Chapter 14
The Evolution and Future of Training
and Development 455
Chapter Learning Outcomes 455
Introduction 457
The Evolution of Learning in Organizations 457
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A Multilevel Systems Model of Organizational Learning 458
Organization Level 458
Group Level 459
Individual Level 460
Linkages Between the Levels 460
The Changing Role of Learning Professionals 461
The Trainer’s Notebook 14.1: Learning Material and Activities
in a Learning Environment 462
Making Training and Development Programs Effective 464
The Trainer’s Notebook 14.2: Making Training and Development
Programs Effective 465
Summary 465
Key Terms 466
Discussion Questions 466
The Great Training Debate 466
Exercises 466
Running Case Study: Dirty Pools 467
References 468
Appendix
Integrative Case Studies 469
Integrative Case Study 1: Training Security Guards 469
Integrative Case Study 2: The Learning a Culture of Safety
Program 473
Index 479
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ABOUT THE SERIES
The management of human resources has become the most important source of
innovation, competitive advantage, and productivity. More than ever, human resources
management (HRM) professionals need the knowledge and skills to design HRM policies
and practices that not only meet legal requirements but also are effective in supporting
organizational strategy. Increasingly, these professionals turn to published research and
books on best practices for assistance in the development of effective HR strategies. The
books in the Nelson Series in Human Resources Management are the best source in Canada
for reliable, valid, and current knowledge about practices in HRM.
The texts in this series include the following:
t Managing Performance through Training and Development
t Management of Occupational Health and Safety
t Recruitment and Selection in Canada
t Strategic Compensation in Canada
t Strategic Human Resources Planning
t Industrial Relations in Canada
The Nelson Series in Human Resources Management represents a significant development
in the field of HRM for many reasons. Each book in the series is the first and now bestselling text in the functional area. Furthermore, HR professionals in Canada must work
with Canadian laws, statistics, policies, and values. This series serves their needs. It is the
only opportunity that students and practitioners have to access a complete set of HRM
books, standardized in presentation, which enables them to access information quickly
across many HRM disciplines. Students who are pursuing the HR professional designation through their provincial HR associations will find the books in this series invaluable
in preparing for the knowledge exams. This one-stop resource will prove useful to anyone
looking for solutions for the effective management of people.
The publication of this series signals that the HRM field has advanced to the stage
where theory and applied research guide practice. The books in the series present the
best and most current research in the functional areas of HRM. Research is supplemented with examples of the best practices used by Canadian companies that are leaders
in HRM. Each text begins with a general model of the discipline, and then describes
the implementation of effective strategies. The books serve as an introduction to the
functional area for the new student of HR and as a validation source for the more
experienced HRM practitioner. Cases, exercises, and endnotes provide opportunities for
further discussion and analysis.
As you read and consult the books in this series, I hope you share my excitement in
being involved and knowledgeable about a profession that has such a significant impact
on the achievement of organizational goals, and on employees’ lives.
Monica Belcourt, PhD, FCHRL
Series Editor
March 2018
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Alan M. Saks
Alan M. Saks, PhD, is a Professor of Human Resources
Management at the University of Toronto in the Department of Management–UTSC and the Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources. Prior to joining the
University of Toronto, Professor Saks was a member of
the Department of Management in the Faculty of Commerce and Administration at Concordia University and in
the School of Administrative Studies at York University.
Professor Saks earned his HBA in Psychology from the University of Western Ontario,
an MASc in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from the University of Waterloo,
and a PhD in Organizational Behaviour and Human Resources from the University of
Toronto. He conducts research in a number of areas in human resources management
including recruitment, job search, training, employee engagement, and the socialization
and on-boarding of new employees. His research has been published in refereed journals such as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology, Academy of Management
Journal, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Human Resource
Management, Human Resource Management Review, Journal of Business and Psychology,
Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, and the International Journal
of Training and Development, as well as in professional journals such as HR Professional
Magazine, the Canadian Learning Journal, and Canadian HR Reporter. In addition to this
text, he is also the author of Research, Measurement and Evaluation of Human Resources, and
co-author of Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work.
Robert R. Haccoun
Educated at McGill University (BA 1969) and the Ohio
State University (MA 1970, PhD 1973), Robert R. Haccoun
is Full Professor of Psychology and Director of the
Industrial and Organizational Psychology program at the
Université de Montréal. Prior to returning to academia
in 1978, Professor Haccoun was a research scientist for
Bell Canada in Montreal. He is a founding member and
past president of the Industrial-Organizational Psychology section of the Canadian
Psychological Association.
Professor Haccoun has led a number of research studies, mainly focused on
training, absenteeism, and research methodology, and delivered papers at scientific
conferences. His research articles are published in Canada in journals that include
Canadian Psychologist, Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, and the Canadian Journal
of Administrative Studies. Internationally, his research is published in Personnel Psychology,
the Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, the
Journal of Organizational Behavior, and Applied Psychology: An International Review. He has
contributed chapters to several books, and his co-authored research book, Comprendre
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l’organisation: Approches de recherches, has been translated into Spanish. His statistics textbook, published in 2007, is in its second edition (2010). He is a reviewer for many scientific journals and has served on scientific advisory boards for provincial, national, and
international research funding agencies.
He has received a number of awards, including the Prize of Professional Excellence
from Quebec’s Society of Work Psychology and the Teaching Excellence prize from his
university.
Active in the transfer of knowledge from academia to applied settings, he has also
published non-technical articles and delivered conferences aimed at professional audiences. His consulting services have been called upon by organizations in Canada, the
United States, and Europe.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
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PREFACE
Increasing global competition and economic challenges along with new and changing
technology, an increasingly knowledge-based economy, skilled labour shortages and skills
mismatches, and demographic changes in the workforce have made learning more important than ever for employees, organizations, governments, and society. These challenges
require organizations to provide training and development programs for employees so
that they have the knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes that are necessary to be productive and innovative, and so that organizations have the human capital they need to
be competitive and survive.
Continuous learning and skill development is a fundamental requirement for organizations today. The ability to compete, adapt, innovate, and achieve an organization’s
goals and objectives in today’s increasingly competitive and uncertain environment
depends in large part on the provision and effectiveness of training and development—
the focus of this textbook.
Since the last edition of this text was published, the science and practice of training
and development has continued to advance. The increasing use of technology, learning
on demand, blended approaches to training delivery, social media, mobile (m-) learning,
microlearning, MOOCs, and synthetic learning environments are just some examples of
the exciting developments in training and development. The eighth edition of Managing
Performance through Training and Development reflects the many advances in both the science and practice of training and development.
As with the five previous editions, the eighth edition is co-authored by Alan Saks
and Robert Haccoun. The two authors have been involved in training research for over
20 years and have collaborated on numerous research projects. With the eighth edition,
they have continued to develop and improve this textbook in many ways.
// WHAT’S NEW IN THE EIGHTH EDITION
The eighth edition represents one of the most revised and restructured. In response to
the excellent comments we have received from reviewers over the years, we have decided
to remove the chapter on Organizational Learning (Chapter 2 in previous editions). As
a result, there are now 14 rather than 15 chapters in the text.
Although the chapter on organizational learning has been removed, many of the key
topics from that chapter can still be found in the eighth edition. For example, human
capital is now discussed in Chapter 1 (The Training and Development Process); workplace learning and informal learning can now be found in Chapter 2 (Learning and
Motivation); learning culture is now defined in Chapter 3 (The Needs Analysis Process);
communities of practice can now be found in Chapter 7 (Technology-Based Training
Methods); and organizational learning, the learning organization, and the multilevel
systems model of organizational learning are now in Chapter 14 (The Evolution and
Future of Training and Development).
Another major change to the eighth edition is the removal of the material on motivation theories from the chapter on learning and motivation (now Chapter 2). Many
reviewers have told us that the motivation theories are covered in other courses and do
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not need to be covered in the text. Therefore, we have removed the material on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, need theories, and expectancy theory. We have, however,
retained the material on goal setting theory, proximal and distal goals, and goal orientation because it continues to be important in training research and practice.
We have also made a number of changes to Chapter 14 (The Evolution and Future of
Training and Development). The section on ethics has been moved to Chapter 8 (Training Delivery) and, as already indicated, the multilevel systems model of organizational
learning, organizational learning, and the learning organization are now in Chapter 14.
We have also added a new section in Chapter 14 on how to make training and development programs effective, along with a new Trainer’s Notebook that summarizes the
main factors that contribute to the effectiveness of training and development programs.
In addition to these major changes, you will also find new content (e.g., synthetic
learning environments, Chapter 7); new definitions (e.g., learner engagement, Chapter 4);
expanded coverage of existing topics (e.g., adult learning theory and learning styles,
Chapter 2); updated material (e.g., training and development in Canada, Chapter 1); new
tables and figures (Table 4.3: Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives, Chapter 4); new
chapter-opening vignettes (e.g., Calfrac Well Services, Chapter 7); new Training Today features (Training Today 7.1, Virtual Reality Training at BNSF Railway, Chapter 7); and new
The Trainer’s Notebook features (The Trainer’s Notebook 8.2, Getting Trainees Engaged)
throughout the eighth edition of Managing Performance through Training and Development.
// FEATURES
As with the last several editions, our goal has been to make this textbook integrative
by including features such as Make the Connection, Flashback and Flash Forward Case
Questions, a Running Case Study, and an Integrative Case.
Make the Connection alerts the reader to material in a chapter that has a connection
to material that was presented in a previous chapter. For example, when reading about
a self-management transfer of training intervention in Chapter 9 (Transfer of Training),
the reader is reminded about material on self-regulation and social cognitive theory in
Chapter 2 (Learning and Motivation). The purpose of this feature is to help students
integrate material across chapters and understand how material in one chapter is related
to material that was presented in a previous chapter.
The Make the Connection feature appears in two ways. A puzzle icon in the margin
alerts the reader to a Make the Connection feature and indicates the chapter and page
number where the material was first presented. The connection is also explained to the
reader in the text. This feature is meant to help readers understand how the material
throughout the text is linked and interconnected.
The Flashback case questions ask students to consider the case study in each chapter
in terms of several of the chapters and topics discussed in previous chapters. For example,
the flashback questions for the case study in Chapter 9 (Transfer of Training) ask students
to consider the use of different instructional methods from Chapter 5, learning theories
from Chapter 2, and training design activities from Chapter 4. These questions require
students to integrate material from various chapters so they learn how material covered
in previous chapters is relevant for each case study.
The Flash Forward case questions, which follow the Flashback case questions, ask
students to consider the case in each chapter in terms of a topic covered in the next
chapter. This is meant to get students thinking about the next chapter before they actually study it. It is also another way to integrate material from different chapters when
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solving a particular case. For example, the Flash Forward question in Chapter 9 (Transfer
of Training) asks about how the training program in the case was evaluated and how it
should be evaluated, thereby getting students to begin thinking about the next chapter
in the text, which is on training evaluation. These questions can be used by an instructor
to encourage students to think about the next chapter after they have discussed a case in
the context of the current chapter.
The Flashback and Flash Forward questions allow instructors to use a case study from
any chapter to teach material in other chapters. In other words, every case study in the
text is a flexible case because instructors have the ability to decide how and when they
will use it in terms of topics, content, and chapters.
Another integrative feature is the Running Case Study. The Running Case Study
(Dirty Pools) appears at the end of Chapter 1 and is followed by questions that pertain to
the content of the chapter. Each subsequent chapter (with the exception of Chapter 13,
Management and Leadership Development) has a series of chapter-relevant questions
about the Running Case Study. Thus, instructors can relate the case to the material in
every chapter as they cover it. This provides students with the continuity of returning to
the same case throughout the course, and it allows them to apply the material from each
chapter to the case, thereby building on each chapter in the process.
Like the previous edition, this edition includes two Integrative Cases, both of which
are in the Appendix. The purpose of this feature is to provide students with an opportunity to work on a case that requires them to use and apply material from most of the
chapters. The relevant chapters for the integrative case questions are indicated so that
instructors can use the integrative cases throughout the course as each chapter is covered.
Alternatively, the integrative cases can be used at the end of a course as a review of all
the chapters. This feature is meant to help students integrate and apply their learning
throughout the text to one particular training situation.
In addition to these integrative features, the eighth edition continues to provide
students and instructors with a wide range of pedagogical features. For example, every
chapter has a Case Study with questions on the main topics, principles, concepts, and
theories covered in the chapter as well as flashback and flash forward questions.
The eighth edition includes two new case studies that can be found in Chapters 3
(The Needs Analysis Process) and Chapter 7 (Technology-Based Training Methods). The
new case study in Chapter 7 (The Korea Ginseng Corporation) is in addition to the case
study that has been in previous editions of the text (E-Learning at Flotation Ltd.), and
unlike other case studies in the text, it consists of several parts that are followed by a
series of questions. This case study provides an example of how an actual organization
used technology in the design of a new training program.
The eighth edition also includes a new kind of case study question called Rewrite
the Case. Every case study has one Rewrite the Case question. These questions require
students to write a paragraph or two for the case study in order to rectify something
important that is either absent or poorly performed. For example, the rewrite the case
question in Chapter 8 (Training Delivery) asks students to add a section in which they
describe the trainer making use of Gagné’s nine events of instruction.
The Rewrite the Case questions serve a number of purposes. First, they require
students to think carefully about how to make the training program described in the
case more effective using material from the chapter. Second, students have to write
their answer so that it fits into the case rather than just stating an answer to a question.
And third, we think this type of question might be more fun and engaging for students.
Instructors can use the Rewrite the Case questions for class discussion, assignments, or for
class presentations. Whatever their use, the Rewrite the Case questions provide instructors
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with another way to teach the cases in addition to the main discussion questions and the
flashback and flash forward questions.
In addition to the Case Study, every chapter has a Case Incident that consists of a
short description of a training problem followed by several questions. They can be used
to begin a discussion at the start of class or later in class when students are ready to apply
the chapter material.
As with the previous edition, the eighth edition has two types of exercises in every
chapter. In-Class Exercises can be completed during class time without any pre-class
preparation. In-the-Field Exercises require students to gather information in the field
by talking to HR and training professionals and by searching the Web to answer chapterrelevant questions. These exercises can also be used as projects and assignments.
Each chapter has Discussion Questions and The Great Training Debate. The
Discussion Questions focus on the main issues, principles, and theories described in a
chapter. The Great Training Debate presents an issue for students to debate either early
in a class to get them thinking about a topic or later in a class so they can begin to apply
the chapter material to an important training issue. For example, The Great Training
Debate in Chapter 1 asks students to debate whether all provinces should enact training
legislation similar to the training law in Quebec.
As in the previous edition of the text, every chapter begins with a chapter-opening
vignette. Each vignette tells the story of an actual training program in an organization
that is relevant to the material covered in the chapter. Many of the vignettes feature Canadian organizations, and the eighth edition includes several new ones that feature a variety
of types of organizations (e.g., financial, health, service, law enforcement, manufacturing,
educational, broadcasting, public transit) from across the country.
As with previous editions, you will also find in each chapter The Trainer’s Notebook
and Training Today features. The Trainer’s Notebook presents practical, hands-on information for trainers and practitioners (e.g., Chapter 8, The Trainer’s Notebook 8.2: Getting
Trainees Engaged). The Training Today feature describes the latest in training research
and practice (e.g., Chapter 9, Training Today 9.1: The Effects of Follow-Up Sessions on
the Transfer of Training).
We have also retained other features that appeared in previous editions, including
Chapter Learning Outcomes at the beginning of every chapter; Key Terms, which appear
in the text in bold and in the margins and are also listed at the end of each chapter; and
a chapter-ending Summary that reviews the main content of each chapter.
In summary, the eighth edition of Managing Performance through Training and Development offers a wide variety of pedagogical material in every chapter. Our intent is to
provide instructors and students with many options for pedagogical material to choose
from to best suit their learning needs, styles, and preferences.
// STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK
Managing Performance through Training and Development is structured in a manner that
follows the sequence of the instructional systems design (ISD) model of training and
development: needs analysis, training design and delivery, and training evaluation.
The text begins with an overview of the training and development process. Chapter 1
describes the importance and benefits of training and development for employees, organizations, and society. “Training and development” is defined and presented in the larger
context of the performance management process as well as the organization’s external
environment, the organizational context, and the HR management system. Chapter 1
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also describes the ISD model of the training and development process, which sets the
stage for the subsequent chapters.
The focus of Chapter 2 is learning, which is first and foremost what training and
development is all about. We believe it is important for students to first understand learning
before they begin to learn about training and development. Therefore, Chapter 2 describes
how individuals learn and their motivation to learn. Formal and informal learning, learning outcomes, stages of learning, learning styles, learning theories, adult learning theory,
goal-setting theory, and training motivation are described, along with their implications
for training and development. The chapter concludes with a model of training effectiveness that shows the variables that influence learning and retention, and how learning and
retention are related to individual behaviour, individual performance, and organizational
effectiveness. The training effectiveness model is further developed in Chapters 4 and 9.
The training and development process begins with a needs analysis, the focus of
Chapter 3. This chapter describes the needs analysis process with particular emphasis on
the three levels of needs analysis (organizational, task, and person) and how to determine
solutions to performance problems. The chapter also describes the methods and sources
of needs analysis and some of the obstacles to conducting a needs analysis.
Chapter 4 describes how to design training and development programs. The chapter
begins with an overview of the importance of training objectives and how to write them.
The chapter then proceeds to cover the main steps involved in the design of training
programs, including whether to purchase or design a training program; requests for proposals; training content; training methods; active practice and conditions of practice;
active learning and adaptive expertise; and error-management training.
One of the most important steps in the design of a training program is the choice of
training methods. Given the vast array of training methods and instructional techniques
available, Chapters 5, 6, and 7 are devoted to this topic.
Chapter 5 describes the most frequently used off-the-job instructional methods,
including lectures, discussions, case studies, case incidents, behaviour modelling training,
role plays, simulations, games, and action learning. Each training method is defined and
described, along with tips for trainers. The chapter also describes instructional media and
concludes with a discussion of the factors to consider when choosing training methods
and the importance of a blended approach.
In Chapter 6, we turn to on-the-job training methods, including job instruction
training, performance aids, job rotation, apprenticeship programs, coaching, and mentoring. As in Chapter 5, we define and describe each method and provide tips for trainers.
The chapter concludes with a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of off-thejob and on-the-job training methods.
Chapter 7 is devoted to technology-based training methods. The chapter begins
with a definition of technology-based training, followed by a description of computerbased training and e-learning. Distinctions are made between instructor-led training
and self-directed learning, and between asynchronous and synchronous training. This
is followed by a discussion of online and distance education, electronic performance
support systems, the virtual classroom, social media and Web 2.0 technology, mobile
(m-) learning, and synthetic learning environments. The chapter then discusses how to
design technology-based training programs, their advantages and disadvantages, and the
effectiveness of technology-based training methods.
The focus of Chapter 8 is training delivery. The chapter begins with a description of
a lesson plan and then describes the main components of a lesson plan, including the
trainer, trainees, training materials and equipment, the training site, and scheduling training programs. The chapter also describes the role of ethics in training and development,
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how to create a climate for learning, Gagné’s nine events of instruction, and common
training delivery problems and solutions.
One of the biggest problems facing trainers and organizations is the transfer of training, the focus of Chapter 9. The chapter begins with a review of the transfer problem
and barriers to transfer, followed by a description of Baldwin and Ford’s (1988) model
of the transfer process. The chapter then describes strategies that can be undertaken by
managers, trainers, and trainees to improve the transfer of training before, during, and
after training. The chapter also describes transfer of training interventions, post-training
supplements, and the transfer system.
Once a training program has been designed and delivered, it needs to be evaluated.
Chapters 10 and 11 are devoted to training evaluation. In Chapter 10, we describe the
purpose and barriers of training evaluation and three training evaluation models. The
chapter also describes how to measure key variables for training evaluation and the different types of training evaluation designs.
In Chapter 11, the focus shifts to the costs and benefits of training. Chapter 11
describes how to calculate the costs of training programs as well as the benefits (e.g., net
benefit, benefit–cost ratio, return on investment, and utility). The importance of the
credibility of estimates is also discussed.
Chapters 12 and 13 describe the types of training programs that are provided in
organizations. Chapter 12 describes the most common types of training that employees
receive, including orientation training, essential skills training, technical and non-technical
skills training, information technology training, computer software training, health and
safety training, total quality management training, team training, sales training, customerservice training, sexual and racial harassment training, ethics training, diversity training,
cross-cultural training, health and wellness training, and mental health training.
Chapter 13 is devoted entirely to management and leadership development. This
reflects both its importance to organizations and the large investments made by organizations in the development of management and leadership talent. The chapter begins with
definitions of “management” and “management development.” It then describes the core
managerial roles and functions, management skills, emotional intelligence, and transactional, transformational, charismatic, and authentic leadership. Models of management
skill development are also described, as well as error training for management development and the content and methods of management development programs. The chapter
concludes with a discussion of research on the effectiveness of management development.
Finally, Chapter 14 concludes the text with a discussion of the evolution and future
of training and development. The chapter begins with a discussion of the evolution of
learning in organizations. This is followed by a description of a multilevel systems model
of organizational learning that highlights the importance of learning at the individual,
group, and organization levels. The changing role of learning professionals is then discussed along with the skills and competencies required by learning professionals today
and in the future. The chapter concludes with a review of the main factors that make
training and development programs effective.
Throughout this textbook we have tried to maintain a balance between theory and
research on the one hand, and practice and application on the other. We have also tried
to provide examples of the concepts and principles presented in the text by showcasing
effective training programs. Overall, we have tried to provide a thorough and comprehensive text on training and development that reflects both the science and practice
of the field as well as our excitement and genuine love of the topic. We hope that the
combination of text material and the many pedagogical features will motivate students
to learn about the science and practice of training and development.
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// INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
The Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA) program delivers research-based
instructor resources that promote student engagement and higher-order thinking to
enable the success of Canadian students and educators. Visit Nelson Education’s Inspired
Instruction website at nelson.com/inspired to find out more about NETA.
The following instructor resources have been created for Managing Performance
through Training and Development, Eighth Edition. Access these ultimate tools for customizing lectures and presentations at nelson.com/instructor.
NETA TEST BANK
This resource was written by one of the book’s co-authors, Alan Saks. It includes over
480 multiple-choice questions written according to NETA guidelines for effective construction and development of higher-order questions. Also included are over 350 true/
false questions and over 120 short-answer questions.
The NETA Test Bank is available in a new, cloud-based platform. Nelson Testing
Powered by Cognero® is a secure online testing system that allows instructors to
author, edit, and manage test bank content from anywhere Internet access is available.
No special installations or downloads are needed, and the desktop-inspired interface,
with its drop-down menus and familiar, intuitive tools, allows instructors to create and
manage tests with ease. Multiple test versions can be created in an instant, and content
can be imported or exported into other systems. Tests can be delivered from a learning
management system, the classroom, or wherever an instructor chooses. Nelson Testing
Powered by Cognero for Managing Performance through Training and Development can also
be accessed through nelson.com/instructor.
NETA POWERPOINT
Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for every chapter have been adapted by one of the
book’s co-authors, Alan Saks. There is an average of 45 slides per chapter. The slides provide a basic outline of the chapter and many feature key figures, tables, and photographs
from Managing Performance through Training and Development, Eighth Edition. NETA principles of clear design and engaging content have been incorporated throughout, making
it simple for instructors to customize the deck for their courses.
IMAGE LIBRARY
This resource consists of digital copies of figures, short tables, and photographs used in
the book. Instructors may use these JPEGs to customize the NETA PowerPoint or create
their own PowerPoint presentations. An Image Library Key describes the images and lists
the codes under which the JPEGs are saved. Codes normally reflect the Chapter number
(e.g., C01 for Chapter 1), the Figure or Photo number (e.g., F15 for Figure 15), and the
page in the textbook. C01-F15-pg26 corresponds to Figure 1-15 on page 26.
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NETA INSTRUCTOR GUIDE
This resource was written by Steven G. Robinson at Georgian College. It is organized
according to the textbook chapters and addresses key educational concerns, such as
typical stumbling blocks students face and how to address them, as well as suggested
classroom activities to give you the support you need to engage your students in the
classroom. Other features include chapter summaries, sample lecture outlines, and suggested answers to end-of-chapter exercises, case incidents, and case studies.
// STUDENT ANCILLARIES
MINDTAP
Stay organized and efficient with MindTap—a single destination with all the course material and study aids you need to succeed.
Built-in apps leverage social media and the latest learning technology. For example,
t ReadSpeaker will read the text to you.
t Flashcards are pre-populated to provide you with a jump start for review—or you
can create your own.
t You can highlight text and make notes in your MindTap Reader. Your notes will
flow into Evernote, the electronic notebook app that you can access anywhere
when it’s time to study for the exam.
t Self-quizzing allows you to assess your understanding.
t Videos provide additional insights into topics discussed in the textbook.
Visit nelson.com/student to start using MindTap. Enter the Online Access Code from
the card included with your text. If a code card is not provided, you can purchase instant
access at NELSONbrain.com.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Writing a textbook requires the support and assistance of many people who directly or
indirectly make important contributions to the process and outcome. We wish to thank
all those who have played important roles in our lives and in writing this edition as well
as previous editions of this text.
First, we thank all the reviewers who provided us with insightful and constructive
feedback over the past few editions that led to many changes and improvements:
Lynne Bard, Conestoga College
Gordon Barnard, Durham College
Lisa Bering, Humber College
Anna Bortolon, Conestoga College
Holly Catalfamo, Niagara College
Alfonsina Chang, Seneca College
Genevieve Farrell, Ryerson University
Susan Fitzrandolph, Ryerson University
Morai Forer, Saskatchewan Polytechnic
Bernadette Gatien, Saint Mary’s University
Stefan Gröschl, University of Guelph
Jamie Gruman, University of Guelph
John Hardisty, Sheridan College
Jill Leedham, Mohawk College
Donna Leibham, University of Calgary
Barbara Lipton, Seneca College
Edward Marinos, Sheridan College
Kenneth McBey, York University
Thomas Medcof, University of Guelph
Jody Merritt, St. Clair College
Grace O’Farrell, University of Winnipeg
Louis Pike, Ryerson University
Steve Robinson, Georgian College
Carol Ann Samhaber, Algonquin College
Enda Sooster, Georgian College
Jennifer Souch, Durham College
Tracey Starrett, The Starrett Group
Wiktor J. Tutlewski, Kwantlen Polytechnic University
Michelle White, Fanshawe College
Valerie Whyte, University of New Brunswick
Jeff Young, Saint Mary’s University
Each one contributed to this text by lending us their expertise and by taking the
time to share their teaching experiences. Their comments and feedback have helped us
to improve each edition of this text.
Second, we wish to express our gratitude to the team at Nelson Education that
helped us develop and produce this text: Publisher, Jackie Wood; Content Manager,
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k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
Elke Price; Production Project Manager, Shannon Martin; Executive Marketing Manager,
Amanda Henry; and Permissions Manager, Lynn McLeod. We are grateful for their support and all their hard work and feel very lucky to be working with a team of dedicated
professionals who care so much about what they do and their authors.
Finally, we also wish to thank our families, who have had to endure the burden of
living with busy, tired, and overworked authors who sometimes don’t have time to play
or sleep! Alan Saks is grateful to Kelly, Justin, and Brooke for making it all worthwhile.
Robert Haccoun is grateful to his family, especially the little ones: Orli, Amit, Erez, and
Micah. Our love for them grows as they do.
Alan M. Saks
Robert R. Haccoun
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CHAPTER
1
THE TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
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NEL
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Several years ago police officers at the Edmonton Police
Service (EPS) participated in a one-day mental health
training program on how to effectively recognize and deal
with individuals suffering from mental illness and in crisis
situations. Officers participated in role-playing exercises
involving highly trained actors who represented various
mental illnesses. According to Sgt. David DeMarco, the
officer in charge of the tactics training team, the program
filled a void in officer training, since new recruits at the
EPS receive training on mental health issues but there is
very little related training after that.
The goal of the training was to improve interactions
between police officers and mentally ill individuals by
improving officers’ empathy, communication skills, and
ability to de-escalate potentially difficult situations. The
program encouraged police behaviours such as verbally
expressing empathy, maintaining eye contact, using nonthreatening body language, “mirroring” the actor’s movements, and sharing non-threatening information.
More than 650 officers from the police service participated in the training program. Each officer went through
six realistic scenarios:
t
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a depressed individual who was belligerent
and potentially violent with a weapon nearby
a psychotic individual who was experiencing
hallucinations
an excited individual behaving strangely
on a public street
an individual with presumed alcohol
dependence collapsed on the street
a couple arguing about the man’s gambling
addiction
a depressed individual who may have overdosed
According to Peter Silverstone of the University of
Alberta, who helped develop the program, “We were trying
to reflect the common interactions the police have and
trying to get them to see things in a different light than
they may have originally. For example, the manic presentation was very similar to an individual who may be taking
a stimulant or other drugs, so we tried to get the police to
not take the situation for granted and start to think about
what actually may be presented to them.”
The actors who portrayed the individuals with mental
illnesses really enhanced the officers’ training, said
2
Courtesy of the Edmonton Police Service
EDMONTON POLICE SERVICE
Police officers at Edmonton Police Services participated in
a mental health training program to recognize and deal with
individuals suffering from mental illness.
Sgt. DeMarco, especially since other types of in-service
training usually have police officers acting the part rather
than professionally trained actors. The actors also offered
feedback to the officers after the role playing, describing
how the officers’ actions made them feel. For example:
“I was frightened when you came that close to me.” Supervisors and psychologists also provided feedback to the
officers after they dealt with each scenario. They offered
tips for how to improve their interaction, such as changing
their body language to mirror that of the individual, looking
her in the eye, and sharing their names with her.
Six months after the program, the participating officers were able to deal with persons with mental illness
more effectively and better recognize mental health issues.
There was a 40 percent increase in officers’ ability to
recognize mental health issues as the reason for a call.
There was also an improvement in police officers’ ability to
communicate with the public and to verbally de-escalate
a situation, and in their level of empathy in dealing with
the public. Participating officers also used less physical
force or fewer weapons when interacting with persons
who had a mental illness.
Officers who participated in the training program also
improved their efficiency in dealing with mental health
issues. They were able to spend less time on calls, which
translated into a cost savings of more than $80,000 in the
six months after the program.
The EPS mental health training program is now part of
regular training. In a report to the Canadian Association of
Chiefs of Police, the Mental Health Commission of Canada
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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(MHCC) commended the Edmonton Police Service for how
its officers deal with people in crisis.1
Sources: Silliker, A. (2013, May 20). Mental illness training for cops
effective: Study. Canadian HR Reporter, 26(10), 1, 6. Reprinted by
permission of Canadian HR Reporter. © Copyright Thomson Reuters
Canada Ltd. (2013), Toronto, Ontario, 1-800-387-5164. Web: www.
hrreporter.com; Krameddine, Y. I., DeMarco, D., Hassel, R., &
Silverstone, P. H. (2013, March 18). A novel training program for police
officers that improves interactions with mentally ill individuals and is
cost-effective. Frontiers in Psychiatry, doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00009;
Maurier, R. (2013, March 18). Helping police protect and serve
people with mental illness. University of Alberta, http://uofa.ualberta.
ca/news-and-events/newsarticles/2013/. . . (2014, September 5);
Edmonton cops commended by Mental Health Commission. Edmonton
Sun, http://www.edmontonsun.com/2014/09/05/edmonton-copscommended-by-mental-health-commission (2014, September 5);
Specialized training helps officers safely deal with people in crisis,
Edmonton Police Media Release, http://www.edmontonpolice.ca/
News/MediaReleases/Specializedtraininghelpsofficerssafel. . . .
// INTRODUCTION
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TRAINING TODAY
1.1
THE RISKS AND CONSEQUENCES OF FAILING TO PROVIDE TRAINING
Although much is known about the benefits of training,
much less is known about the risks and consequences
of failing to provide training, especially when it comes to
occupational health and safety and harassment.
There are many negative outcomes that are possible
when an organization does not provide proper training. It
can be as simple as an employee or department failing to
perform their job adequately because they did not receive
the necessary skills training and development. However, it
can be much more serious, such as when there are lapses in
safety training or training on workplace policies that can have
legal consequences. Failure to provide training on proper
procedures, safety training, or ergonomics can result in disability claims, which can be very costly for organizations.
There are also legal consequences for organizations
that do not provide proper safety training and Workplace
Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) training
in compliance with the Occupational Health and Safety
Act. In addition, directors and owners of organizations are
susceptible to personal liability if they are aware of unsafe
working conditions and allow them to continue.
In 2015 two corporate directors with NewMex Canada,
a furniture retailer based in Brampton, Ontario, received jail
time and a $250,000 fine for failing to provide health and
safety training which, along with other safety violations,
was found to be the cause behind the death of a forklift
operator. The two directors were charged with failing to
take reasonable care and NewMex pleaded guilty to failing
to provide information, instruction, and supervision to a
worker regarding fall protection and working from a height.
There can also be consequences for failing to provide proper training on psychological safety and workplace
(continued )
4
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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harassment. For example, in 2015 the Canadian Olympic
Committee came under fire after receiving media attention
for a so-called “culture of harassment” within the organization. Former president Marcel Aubut stepped down after
being accused by multiple women of unwanted touching
and sexual comments.
Investigators found that there was insufficient training
on workplace harassment at the organization and recommended education, including a mandatory training session
for staff and board members on harassment policies and
procedures. The organization received a significant amount
of negative media attention and reputational damage as a
result of the incident.
Failing to provide training on workplace harassment can also lead to employees taking stress leave, and
employees who are injured as a result of an organization’s
failure to provide adequate training must be accommodated as required under the human rights code.
Thus, failure to provide necessary and adequate
training can result in considerable risks to employees
and negative consequences for management and
organizations.
Source: Based on Bernier, L. (2016, February 8). More than just a good idea or nice-to-have: A look at the potential consequences for failing to
provide adequate training. Canadian HR Reporter, 29(2), 14–15.
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// PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
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NEL
Performance
management
The process of establishing performance
goals and designing
interventions and
programs to motivate
and develop employees
to improve their
performance
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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5
FIGURE 1.1
THE PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Performance
Expectations
and Goals
Monitor
Performance and
Provide Feedback
Performance
Evaluation
and Consequences
Employee Training
and Development
SMART goals
Goals that are specific,
measurable, attainable,
relevant, and have a
time frame
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1.1
SMART GOALS
SMART goals are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant,
and have a time frame.
Specific: Goals must be specific regarding the behaviour
to be performed or the level of performance. Specific goals
are more effective than general or do-your-best goals.
Measurable: It must be possible to determine whether
goals have been achieved. Therefore, when setting goals
the criteria of success must be indicated.
Attainable: Goals should be challenging but attainable.
Goals should not be too difficult or too easy.
Relevant: Goals should be relevant and meaningful to
the individual. They should be clearly linked to unit and
organization objectives.
Time frame: A time frame within which the goal will be
achieved must be indicated.
Source: Latham, G. P. (2003). Goal setting: A five-step approach to behavior change. Organizational Dynamics, 32, 309–318.
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6
Managing Performance through Training and Development
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// TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
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NEL
Training
Formal and planned
efforts to help
employees acquire
knowledge, skills, and
abilities to improve
performance in their
current job
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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7
Development
Formal and planned
efforts to help
employees acquire
knowledge, skills,
and abilities required
to perform future job
responsibilities
Human capital
The knowledge,
skills, and abilities
of an organization’s
employees
Social capital
The social resources
that an individual
obtains from participation in a social
structure
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// BENEFITS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
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BENEFITS TO ORGANIZATIONS
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8
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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9
TRAINING TODAY
1.2
THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING ON FIRM PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITS
Is training related to firm profits? If so, how? To find out,
Youngsang Kim and Robert Ployhart conducted a study of
359 firms over a period of 12 years before (2000–2007) and
after (2008–2011) the recent recession. They argue that
training develops firm-specific human capital resources
that will result in higher productivity. Furthermore, greater
productivity will provide greater financial resources that can
be used for profit-generating opportunities, which in turn
will lead to greater profit growth in a strong and growing
economy (the period before the recession). In a weak
economy or during economic downturns (the period during
and after the recession), firms that provide more extensive training should be more prepared and able to quickly
recover from an economic downturn. This is because the
slack financial resources that result from higher productivity
can be used to counter the effects of a recession.
Training was measured in terms of the overall percentage of full-time employees trained internally on the
job. Organizations with a higher percentage of employees
who are trained on the job should have greater firmspecific knowledge and skills, which will increase productivity. As predicted, firms with more internal training
had greater productivity and profit growth, and the relationship between training and profit growth was due in
part to greater productivity. The authors also found that
firms with more extensive training generated resources
that help them to buffer and more quickly recover from
the recession.
The results of this study demonstrate that training
influences firm profit growth through its effect on productivity. In other words, the effects of training on profit
growth are due to its direct effect on productivity. The
most important practical implication of this study is that
firms that use more extensive internal training produce
and perform better than competitors and recover more
quickly from a recession.
Source: Kim, Y., & Ployhart, R. E. (2014). The effects of staffing and training on firm productivity and profit growth before, during, and after the great
recession. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(3), 361–389.
EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT, ENGAGEMENT, AND RETENTION
Work engagement
A positive, fulfilling,
work-related state of
mind that is characterized by vigour, dedication, and absorption
10
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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11
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12
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA
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NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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13
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TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA
t Total average training investment per employee in 2017: $889.
t Total average training investment per employee by organization type in 2013: private sector $773; federal/provincial/
Crown $947; municipal/university/hospital/school board $190; not-for-profit sector $381.
t Total average training investment per employee by organization size in 2013: fewer than 250 employees $997; 250–499
employees $1,127; 500–1499 employees $666; 1500 or more employees $349.
t Total average training investment per employee by level of unionization in 2013: non-union $779; low unionized $560;
high unionized $683.
t Annual training expenditure per employee by region 2004–2008: Quebec $1,158; Alberta $979; Manitoba/Saskatchewan
$829; British Columbia $811; Ontario $802; Atlantic provinces $611.
t Percentage of payroll spent on training and development in 2017: 1.39.
t Percentage of annual revenues spent on training and development in 2017: 1.12.
t Average number of training hours received annually per employee in 2017: 32.
t Average number of training hours received annually by employee category in 2017: senior management and executive
35; middle management 29; supervisory 23; professional, technical, and scientific 26; trades 18; non-technical 17.
Sources: Hughes, P. D., & Campbell, A. (2009). Learning & development outlook 2009: Learning in tough times. Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada; Lavis, C. (2011). Learning &
development outlook 2011: Are organizations ready for learning 2.0? Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada; Hall, C. (2014). Learning & development outlook—12th edition: Strong
learning organizations, strong leadership. Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada; Cotsman, S., & Hall, C. (2018). Learning cultures lead the way: Learning & development outlook—
14th edition. Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada.
14
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 1.2
VALUE OF SKILLS VERSUS WILLINGNESS TO PROVIDE TRAINING
Would Provide Training
Importance to Business
39%
Thinking/problem-solving
80%
43%
Customer Service
77%
43%
Essential Skills
74%
34%
Oral/communication
74%
43%
Reading, Writing, Math
72%
29%
Computer/technology Competency
69%
38%
Fluency in English or French
63%
31%
Health and Safety
63%
42%
Project Management Skills
36%
Using Machinery/equipment
0%
20%
40%
58%
49%
60%
80%
100%
Source: Anonymous. (2013, April 22). HR by the numbers (employers not providing training). Canadian HR Reporter, 26(8), 4.
NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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15
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16
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17
FIGURE 1.2
THE CONTEXT OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
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NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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19
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AND DEVELOPMENT
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STRATEGY
Strategy
An organization’s
objectives and action
plans for realizing
its objectives and
gaining a competitive
advantage
Strategic human
resource management (SHRM)
The alignment of
human resources practices with an organization’s business strategy
Strategic training and
development (ST&D)
The alignment of an
organization’s training
needs and programs
with an organization’s
strategy and objectives
20
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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FIGURE 1.3
A STRATEGIC MODEL OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Business
Strategy
HRM
Strategy
Learning and
Training
Strategy
Training and
Development
Programs
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
1.2
THE STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Strategic alignment between the learning and development
function and an organization’s strategy is a critical requirement for an organization to provide strategic training and
development programs and to contribute to an organization’s performance. The following scale was designed to
assess the perceived strategic alignment of the learning
and talent development (LTD) function in organizations.
The learning and talent development strategic alignment
(LDSA) scale consists of 15 items that measure two dimensions of strategic alignment: LTD business knowledge, skills,
and abilities (items 1 to 8), and cooperation (the cooperative
relationship between LTD practitioners and line managers).
To find out about the strategic alignment of the LTD
function in your organization, answer the 15 questions
below using the following scale:
15 Strongly disagree
2 5 Disagree
3 5 Neither agree nor disagree
NEL
4 5 Agree
5 5 Strongly agree
1. LTD understands the emerging needs of the business.
2. LTD knows the business value chain.
3. LTD has confidence to speak in business terms to
line executives.
4. LTD strategic plans are communicated in business
language.
5. LTD understands the context in which the business
operates.
6. LTD is deeply aware of what is necessary to execute
a firm’s strategies.
7. LTD understands how its efforts are linked to the
organization’s mission.
8. LTD provides ongoing communication of the business
case for learning decisions.
(continued )
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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21
9. The learning function works proactively with line
managers to develop trust.
10. There is an internal climate of cooperation where
the learning function can exercise its role in creating
strategic alignment.
11. LTD receives support from line managers.
12. The learning function plans how interventions will be
integrated throughout the organization.
13. Just-in-time learning solutions are offered to address
current business needs.
14. The learning function has ongoing dialogue with line
managers.
15. Gap analysis is performed to inform the design and
delivery of strategic interventions.
Add your responses for all 15 items. Your total score
can range from 15 to 75. Higher scores indicate greater
strategic alignment. To determine scores for each dimension, add responses for items 1 to 8 for LTD business
knowledge, skills, and abilities (scores can range from 8
to 40), and add responses for items 9 to 15 for cooperation
(scores can range from 7 to 35).
Source: Republished with permission of Learning Systems Institute, from Hicks, K. (2016). Construct validation of strategic alignment in learning
and talent development. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 28(4), 71–89; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
STRUCTURE
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CULTURE
At Hallmark Tubular Solutions Ltd. safety is a key part of its
strategy and is reflected in its training programs.
22
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NEL
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THE HUMAN RESOURCES SYSTEM
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Organizational
culture
The shared beliefs,
values, and assumptions that exist in an
organization
High-performance
work system (HPWS)
An integrated system
of human resource
practices and policies
that usually includes
rigorous recruitment
and selection procedures, performancecontingent incentive
compensation, performance management,
a commitment to
employee involvement,
and extensive training
and development
programs
// THE INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN (ISD)
MODEL OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
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NEL
Instructional systems
design (ISD) model
A rational and scientific
model of the training
and development process that consists of a
needs analysis, training
design and delivery,
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ADDIE
Analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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23
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24
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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FIGURE 1.4
THE INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN MODEL OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Needs Analysis
1. Organizational Analysis
2. Task Analysis
3. Person Analysis
Training Design
and Delivery
1. Training Objectives
2. Training Content
3. Training Methods
4. Learning Principles
Training Evaluation
1. Evaluation Criteria
2. Evaluation Design
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
1.3
THE APPLICATION OF THE ISD MODEL
The instructional systems design model begins when
somebody identifies a performance gap in the organization.
According to the ISD model, the recognition of a performance
gap should lead to the following sequence of activities:
1. Conduct an organizational analysis to investigate the
performance gap and determine whether training is a
possible solution (i.e., when the cause of the problem
is a lack of knowledge or skills).
2. If training is a possible solution, conduct a task
analysis to determine how the job or jobs in question
should be performed and the things that a skilled
employee must know and be able to do.
3. Conduct a person analysis to determine how employees
currently perform the job compared to how they should
perform and how best to train them (i.e., training
methods).
(continued )
NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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25
4. Design a training program using those methods
and approaches that will be most effective to train
employees who require training. Include specialists
in various media and methods to assist in developing
training material.
5. Develop and fine-tune the program. Pilot test it and
revise as needed.
6. Deliver the program to its intended audience.
7. Monitor and evaluate the program and its results
on an ongoing basis. The program is considered a
success if the original performance gap is closed or
reduced, and if correcting the problem costs less than
not correcting it.
Sources: Gordon, J., & Zemke, R. (2000, April). The attack on ISD. Training Magazine, 37(4), 42–53; Zemke, R., & Rossett, A. (2002, February).
A hard look at ISD. Training Magazine, 39(2), 26–34. Trainingmag.com
// SUMMARY AND ROAD MAP
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26
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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27
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UIFJSJOWFTUNFOUTJOUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUPWFSUIFMBTUGFXEFDBEFTBOEDPOUJOVFUPMBHCFIJOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT%PZPVUIJOLUIFZTIPVME
JODSFBTFUIFJSJOWFTUNFOUTJOUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOU 8IBUXPVMECFUIFJNQMJDBUJPOTGPSFNQMPZFFT PSHBOJ[BUJPOT BOETPDJFUZ &YQMBJOZPVSBOTXFS
4IPVMEPSHBOJ[BUJPOTSFRVJSFFNQMPZFFTUPTJHOBUSBJOJOHCPOEJOXIJDIUIFZBHSFF
UPQBZCBDLUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOUIFDPTUPGUIFUSBJOJOHUIFZSFDFJWFEJGUIFZMFBWFUIF
PSHBOJ[BUJPO &YQMBJO ZPVSBOTXFS8IBUXPVMECFZPVSSFTQPOTFJGZPVSPSHBOJ[BUJPO
PSBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOUIBUZPVXBOUFEUPXPSLGPSSFRVJSFEZPVUPTJHOBUSBJOJOHCPOE
THE GREAT TRAINING DEBATE
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH5SBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUJTUIFTJOHMFNPTUJNQPSUBOUGBDUPS
GPSUIFDPNQFUJUJWFOFTTBOETVDDFTTPGPSHBOJ[BUJPOT
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH"MMQSPWJODFTTIPVMEFOBDUUSBJOJOHMFHJTMBUJPOTJNJMBSUPUIF
USBJOJOHMBXJO2VFCFD
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH5SBJOJOHJTBOPQFSBUJOHDPTUBOETIPVMECFMJNJUFEUPPOMZ
XIBUJTSFRVJSFECZMBXBOEBCTPMVUFMZOFDFTTBSZ
%FCBUF UIF GPMMPXJOH &NQMPZFFT XIP SFDFJWF USBJOJOH GSPN UIFJS PSHBOJ[BUJPO
TIPVMECFSFRVJSFEUPTJHOBUSBJOJOHCPOEUIBUSFRVJSFTUIFNUPQBZUIFDPTUPG
UIFJSUSBJOJOHJGUIFZMFBWFUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOCFGPSFBTQFDJGJFEQFSJPEPGUJNF
EXERCISES
IN-CLASS
3FWJFXUIFUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUGBDUTJO5BCMF#FODINBSLZPVSFYQFSJFODFT
JOBDVSSFOUPSQSFWJPVTPSHBOJ[BUJPOBHBJOTUUIFTUBUJTUJDTJOUIFUBCMF#BTFEPOUIF
TUBUJTUJDTJOUIFUBCMF ZPVNJHIUDPOTJEFSUIJOHTTVDIBTUIFGPMMPXJOH)PXEPFT
ZPVSPSHBOJ[BUJPODPNQBSFUPUIF$BOBEJBOBWFSBHFTJOBSFBTTVDIBTUIFOVNCFS
PGUSBJOJOHIPVSTFNQMPZFFTSFDFJWFBZFBSBOEUIFBNPVOUTQFOUQFSFNQMPZFFPO
USBJOJOH %PFTZPVSPSHBOJ[BUJPOGBSFCFUUFSPSXPSTFUIBOUIFBWFSBHF$BOBEJBO
PSHBOJ[BUJPO 8IBUEPUIFSFTVMUTUFMMZPVBCPVUZPVSPSHBOJ[BUJPO 8IBUBSFUIF
JNQMJDBUJPOT PG ZPVS GJOEJOHT GPS ZPVS MFBSOJOH BOE KPC QFSGPSNBODF 8IBU BSF
UIFJNQMJDBUJPOTGPSZPVSPSHBOJ[BUJPO
$POTJEFSIPXUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUJTJOGMVFODFECZ BOEJOUVSODBOJOGMVFODF PUIFSIVNBOSFTPVSDFTGVODUJPOT*OQBSUJDVMBS HJWFBOFYBNQMFPGIPXUSBJOJOH
BOEEFWFMPQNFOUDBOJOGMVFODFBOECFJOGMVFODFECZFBDIPGUIFGPMMPXJOHIVNBO
SFTPVSDFTGVODUJPOTSFDSVJUNFOU TFMFDUJPO )3QMBOOJOH QFSGPSNBODFBQQSBJTBM DPNQFOTBUJPO BOEIFBMUIBOETBGFUZ
6TFUIF*4%NPEFMPGUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUUPFYBNJOFPOFPGZPVSVOJWFSTJUZ
PSDPMMFHFDPVSTFT5IBUJT XIBUEJEZPVSJOTUSVDUPSIBWFUPEPJOUFSNTPGBOFFET
BOBMZTJT )PXEJEIFPSTIFEFTJHOBOEEFMJWFSUIFDPVSTF )PXXBTUIFDPVSTF
FWBMVBUFE PSIPXTIPVMEJUCFFWBMVBUFE
28
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
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"TTVNFZPVBSFBEJSFDUPSPGUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUJOBTNBMMPSHBOJ[BUJPO*O
PSEFSUPSFEVDFFYQFOTFT UIFDPNQBOZQSFTJEFOUIBTEFDJEFEUPDVUUIFUSBJOJOH
CVEHFU JO IBMG BOE SFEVDF UIF BNPVOU PG USBJOJOH QSPWJEFE UP FNQMPZFFT 5IF
QSFTJEFOUIBTBTLFEUPNFFUXJUIZPVUPEJTDVTTUIFTFQMBOT:PVSKPCJTUPQSFQBSF
BTIPSUQSFTFOUBUJPOUPQFSTVBEFUIFQSFTJEFOUUPDIBOHFIJTPSIFSNJOE8IBUXJMM
ZPVTBZBOEXIBUDBOZPVEPUPDPOWJODFUIFQSFTJEFOUPGUIFJNQPSUBODFPGBOE
OFFEGPSNPSF OPUMFTT USBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOU
3FDBMM UIF MBTU UJNF ZPV BUUFOEFE BO PSHBOJ[BUJPOTQPOTPSFE USBJOJOH QSPHSBN
%FTDSJCFUIFPCKFDUJWFTBOEDPOUFOUPGUIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNBOEXIFUIFSZPVUIJOL
UIFQSPHSBNXBTTUSBUFHJD*OPUIFSXPSET XBTJUBOFYBNQMFPGTUSBUFHJDUSBJOJOHBOE
EFWFMPQNFOU #FTQFDJGJDBCPVUXIZZPVUIJOLJUXBTPSXBTOPUBHPPEFYBNQMF
PGTUSBUFHJDUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOU8IBUXPVMEIBWFNBEFJUNPSFTUSBUFHJD
3FDBMMUIFMBTUUJNFZPVBUUFOEFEBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOTQPOTPSFEUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN%FTDSJCF
UIFPCKFDUJWFTBOEDPOUFOUPGUIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNBOEXIFUIFSZPVUIJOLUIF*4%
NPEFMXBTVTFEUPEFWFMPQUIFQSPHSBN#FTQFDJGJDBCPVUUIFFYUFOUUPXIJDIFBDI
TUBHFPGUIFNPEFMXBTVTFEJOUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGUIFQSPHSBN)PXFGGFDUJWFXBT
UIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNJOUFSNTPGZPVSMFBSOJOHBOEJOBDIJFWJOHUIFQSPHSBNTPCKFDUJWFT #BTFEPOZPVSBOBMZTJT XIBUFMTFDPVMEIBWFCFFOEPOFUPVTFUIF*4%NPEFM
NPSFGVMMZ BOEXIBUFGGFDUNJHIUUIJTIBWFIBEPOUIFFGGFDUJWFOFTTPGUIFQSPHSBN
IN-THE-FIELD
$POUBDUUIFIVNBOSFTPVSDFEFQBSUNFOUPGZPVSPXOPSBOPUIFSPSHBOJ[BUJPOUPEJTDVTT
UIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOTUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT5SZUPMFBSOBCPVUUIFFYUFOUUPXIJDIUIFIVNBO
SFTPVSDFEFQBSUNFOUGPMMPXTUIF*4%NPEFMPGUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOU'JOEPVU
BCPVUFBDITUBHFPGUIFNPEFMBOEUIFFYUFOUUPXIJDIJUJTVTFE8IJDIBTQFDUTPGUIF
NPEFMBSFBEFRVBUFMZDBSSJFEPVUBOEXIJDIPOFTBSFOPU *GTPNFPGUIFTUBHFTBSFOPU
BEFRVBUFMZDPOEVDUFE GJOEPVUXIZUIJTJTUIFDBTFBOEXIZUIF)3EFQBSUNFOUEPFT
PSEPFTOPUSJHPSPVTMZBEIFSFUPUIF*4%NPEFM#BTFEPOUIFSFTQPOTFT XIBUBEWJDF
XPVMEZPVHJWFUIF)3EFQBSUNFOUBCPVUJUTUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUQSPHSBNT
"OVNCFSPGBTTPDJBUJPOTBOEHPWFSONFOUEFQBSUNFOUTQSPWJEFVTFGVMJOGPSNBUJPO
BOETFSWJDFTSFMBUFEUPMFBSOJOH USBJOJOH BOEEFWFMPQNFOU5PMFBSONPSFBCPVU
TPNFPGUIFTFBTTPDJBUJPOT WJTJUUIFGPMMPXJOHXFCTJUFT
www.performanceandlearning.ca 5IF*OTUJUVUFGPS1FSGPSNBODFBOE-FBSOJOH
www.td.org "TTPDJBUJPOGPS5BMFOU%FWFMPQNFOU
www.esdc.gc.ca/eng/home.shtml &NQMPZNFOUBOE4PDJBM%FWFMPQNFOU$BOBEB
8SJUFBCSJFGSFQPSUJOXIJDIZPVEFTDSJCFUIFBTTPDJBUJPOBOEUIFJOGPSNBUJPOUIBUDBO
CFPCUBJOFEGSPNFBDIXFCTJUFBCPVUMFBSOJOH FEVDBUJPO BOEUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOU
CASE INCIDENT
BEER AMBASSADORS
4FWFSBMZFBST BHP UIF#FFS4UPSFJOWFTUFENJMMJPOBTQBSUPGBQMBOUPVQEBUFJUTTUPSF
CSBOEJOH5IJTJOWPMWFECVJMEJOHOFXTUPSFTBOESFOPWBUJOHFYJTUJOHPOFT5IFQMBOXBT
UPPQFOOFXTUPSFTBDSPTT0OUBSJPBOEUPSFOPWBUFFYJTUJOHTUPSFT5IFOFXTUPSFT
BOEUIPTFSFOPWBUFEXFSFEFTJHOFEUPGJUBOFX#FFS4UPSFCSBOE
NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
29
1BSUPGUIFOFX#FFS4UPSFCSBOEXBTUPNBLFUIF TUPSFTNPSFFGGJDJFOUBOEDVTUPNFS
GSJFOEMZBOEUPJNQSPWFUIFDVTUPNFSTIPQQJOHFYQFSJFODF5PJNQSPWFUIFTIPQQJOHFYQFSJFODFUIFOFXBOESFOPWBUFETUPSFTXPVMEIBWFCFUUFSMJHIUJOHBOENVTJDBOEFNQMPZFFT
XIP XJMM CF NPSF IFMQGVM "DDPSEJOH UP #FFS 4UPSF QSFTJEFOU 5FE .PSP[ #FFS 4UPSF
DVTUPNFSTXBOUUPXBMLBSPVOEUIFTUPSFTTPUIBUUIFZDBOTFFBOEUPVDIUIFQSPEVDUT
-BSHFTUPSFTXJMMIBWFBOPQFOMBZPVUUIBUXJMMBMMPXDVTUPNFSTUPXBMLBSPVOEUIF
TUPSFBOETFFUIFQSPEVDUTBTXFMMBTTJHOTUIBUJOEJDBUFXIBUGPPETHPCFTUXJUIEJGGFSFOU
CFFST*OTNBMMTUPSFT DVTUPNFSTXJMMCFBCMFUPVTFUPVDITDSFFOTUPGJOEPVUEFUBJMT
BCPVUEJGGFSFOUCFFSTBOEUPQMBDFUIFJSPSEFST
5IFJOWFTUNFOUBMTPJODMVEFTOFXUSBJOJOHGPSFNQMPZFFTPSXIBUUIF#FFS4UPSF
SFGFSTUPBTiCFFSDPMMFHFwTPUIBUFNQMPZFFTXJMMMFBSOIPXUPQSPWJEFBHSFBUTIPQQJOH
FYQFSJFODFGPSDVTUPNFST&NQMPZFFTXJMMSFDFJWFUSBJOJOHPOEJGGFSFOUQSPEVDUTBTXFMM
BTDVTUPNFSSFMBUJPOT5IFQMBOJTUPNBLF#FFS4UPSFFNQMPZFFTCFFSiBNCBTTBEPSTw
XIPXJMMCFBCMFUPEJTDVTTEJGGFSFOUUZQFTPGCFFSXJUIDVTUPNFSTBOEXIBUGPPEHPFT
CFTUXJUIEJGGFSFOUCFFST&NQMPZFFTXJMMSFDFJWFOFXVOJGPSNTXJUIUIFOFX#FFS4UPSF
MPHPBOEWBSJPVTTMPHBOTTVDIBTi#FFS$IBNQJPOwBOEi#FFS&OUIVTJBTUw
QUESTIONS
&YQMBJO UIF DPOUFYU PG USBJOJOH BOE EFWFMPQNFOU 'JHVSF JO SFMBUJPO UP UIF
DIBOHFTBUUIF#FFS4UPSF8IBUGBDUPSTIBWFDIBOHFEBOEXIZ 8IBUBSFUIFJNQMJDBUJPOTPGUIFDIBOHFTGPSJOEJWJEVBMQFSGPSNBODFBOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMFGGFDUJWFOFTT
8IBUNBLFTUSBJOJOHTUSBUFHJD *TUIFUSBJOJOHUIBUFNQMPZFFTSFDFJWFBUUIF#FFS
4UPSFTUSBUFHJD &YQMBJOZPVSBOTXFS
%JTDVTTUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMTZTUFNTEFTJHO *4% NPEFMPGUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOU
JOSFMBUJPOUPUIFUSBJOJOHCFJOHQSPWJEFEUPFNQMPZFFTBUUIF#FFS4UPSF#FTVSF
UP JOEJDBUF UIF OFFE GPS USBJOJOH USBJOJOH DPOUFOU BOE PCKFDUJWFT BOE IPX UIF
USBJOJOHTIPVMECFFWBMVBUFE
4PVSDFT ,BSTUFOT4NJUI ( %FDFNCFS #FFS 4UPSF QPVSJOH PWFS NJMMJPO TUPSF SFOPWBUJPOTToronto Star QQ# #-FXJT . .BZ #FFSTUPSF"IJHIUFDINBLFPWFSToronto Star XXXUIFTUBSDPN "OPOZNPVT +VMZ #FFS 4UPSF JOWFTUT NJMMJPO JO SFEFTJHO Brampton
Guardian XXXNJTTJTTBVHBDPN"EBNT .* +BOVBSZ -PDBM#FFS4UPSFVOEFSHPJOHNBLFPWFS
Enterprise-Bulletin XXXUIFFOUFSQSJTFCVMMFUJODPN
CASE STUDY
FLOTATION LTD.
i(SFBU DPVSTF 4BNw TBJE UIF USBJOFFT BT UIFZ XBMLFE PVU UIFEPPS BOE IFBEFE
GPS UIF QBSLJOH MPU +VTU MJLF BMM UIF PUIFST 4BN )BSSJT B WFUFSBO USBJOFS XJUI
'MPUBUJPO-UE BNBOVGBDUVSFSPGMJGFKBDLFUTBOEPUIFSGMPUBUJPOEFWJDFT TNJMFEBT
IFHBUIFSFEIJTOPUFTUPHFUIFS
)FIBEKVTUGJOJTIFEUXPIPVSTPGXJTFDSBDLJOHBOETMJHIUMZPGGDPMPVSTUPSZUFMMJOHBTIFXPSLFEIJTXBZUISPVHIUIFUIJSETFTTJPOPGBIVNBOSFMBUJPOTDPVSTF
GPSTVQFSWJTPSTi,FFQAFNIBQQZwXBT4BNTNPUUP(JWFUIFUSPPQTXIBUUIFZ
XBOU LFFQZPVSFOSPMNFOUTVQ BOEOPPOFXJMMDPNQMBJO
4BNXBTHPPEBUJU UPP'PSZFBST IFIBEFBSOFEBOFBTZMJWJOH XPSLJOH
UIFQPMJUJDT QSPEVDJOHHPPEOVNCFSTPGUSBJOFFTGPSUIFUPQCSBTTUPCSBHBCPVU
i8FHJWFFBDIFNQMPZFFVQUPIPVSTPGUSBJOJOHFWFSZZFBSw BOEHFOFSBMMZ
QSPNPUJOHIJTTNBMMUSBJOJOHHSPVQBTBCFFIJWFPGBDUJWJUZ
30
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
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&WFSZCPEZLOFX4BNBOEFWFSZCPEZMJLFEIJN)JTDPVSTFTXFSFGVO)FIBE
OPUSPVCMFDPOWJODJOHNBOBHFSTUPTFOEUIFJSQFPQMF)FQVUPVUBDBUBMPHVFXJUI
IJTDPVSTFMJTUFWFSZZFBSJO+BOVBSZ)FIBEOUIBEBDBODFMMBUJPOJONPSF UIBO
ZFBST4PNFNBOBHFSTTBJEUIBUUSBJOJOHXBTUIFCFTUSFXBSEUIFZIBE/PX POMZUXPZFBSTGSPNSFUJSFNFOU 4BNJOUFOEFEUPDPBTUDPNGPSUBCMZJOUPQFOTJPO
MBOE"MMIJTGBWPVSJUFDPVSTFTIBEMPOHCFFOQSFQBSFE"MMIFIBEUPEPXBTNBLF
BEKVTUNFOUTIFSFBOEUIFSFBOEDSFBUFTPNFUSFOEZOFXUJUMFT
#VU UJNFT XFSF DIBOHJOH 5IF DPNQBOZ QSFTJEFOU XBT UIJOLJOH EJGGFSFOUMZ
i*OFFETPNFCPEZUPUBLFBDMPTFMPPLBUPVSUSBJOJOHGVODUJPO wIFTBJE4JUUJOH
JOUIFQSFTJEFOUTPGGJDF +FOOZ4UPQQBSE UIFOFXMZIJSFEWJDFQSFTJEFOUPGIVNBO
SFTPVSDFT XPOEFSFEXIBUIFNFBOU'MPUBUJPO-UEIBEBSFQVUBUJPOBTBDPNQBOZ
XJUIBXFMMUSBJOFEXPSLGPSDF
i8FOFFEUPJODSFBTFPVSQSPEVDUJWJUZQFSQFSTPOCZQFSDFOUPWFSUIFOFYU
UISFFZFBST wUIFQSFTJEFOUDPOUJOVFEi"OEZPVBSFHPJOHUPTQFBSIFBEUIBUFGGPSU
8FTQFOEBMPUPOUSBJOJOHBOEXFDZDMFQFPQMFUISPVHIBMPUPGDPVSTFT#VU*N
OPUTBUJTGJFEXJUIUIFCPUUPNMJOF*LOPXUIBUXIJMF%BEXBTQSFTJEFOUIFTXPSF
CZ4BNBOETBJEIFXBTUIFHSFBUFTU*EPOULOPXBOZNPSF.BZCFBXIPMFOFX
BQQSPBDIJTOFFEFE"OZXBZ *XBOUZPVUPUBLFBDMPTFMPPLBU4BNTPQFSBUJPOw
-BUFSJOUIFEBZ UIFQSFTJEFOUDBMMFE4BNJOUPIJTPGGJDFi4BN *XBOUZPVUP
NFFU+FOOZ4UPQQBSE*WFKVTUIJSFEIFSBTWJDFQSFTJEFOUPGIVNBOSFTPVSDFT4IFT
ZPVSOFXCPTT*UIJOLUIFOFYUUISFFZFBSTBSFHPJOHUPCFWFSZFYDJUJOHBSPVOE IFSF BOE+FOOZJTHPJOHUPCFBLFZQMBZFSJOUIFESJWFUPJODSFBTFPVSDPNQFUJUJWFOFTT
*XBOUZPVUPEPFWFSZUIJOHJOZPVSQPXFSUPDPPQFSBUFXJUIIFSw
QUESTIONS
$PNNFOUPO4BNTBQQSPBDIUPUSBJOJOH8PVMEZPVXBOUIJNXPSLJOHGPS
ZPVSPSHBOJ[BUJPO 8IBUBSFUIFCFOFGJUTPGIJTUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTUPFNQMPZFFT
BOEUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPO
5PXIBUFYUFOUJTUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUBU'MPUBUJPO-UETUSBUFHJD 8IBU
XPVMENBLFJUNPSFTUSBUFHJD
5PXIBUFYUFOUEPFT4BNVTFUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMTZTUFNTEFTJHO *4% NPEFMPG
USBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOU *GIFXFSFUPVTFUIF*4%NPEFMNPSFGVMMZ XIBU
XPVMEIFEP $PNNFOUPOFBDITUFQPGUIF*4%NPEFM
)PXEPFT4BNFWBMVBUFIJTUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT $PNQBSF4BNTFWBMVBUJPOUPUIF
QSFTJEFOUTPCKFDUJWFT*G4BNXFSFUPFWBMVBUFUSBJOJOHCBTFEPOUIFQSFTJEFOUT
PCKFDUJWFT XIBUXPVMEIFIBWFUPEP 8IBUEPZPVUIJOLUIFSFTVMUTNJHIUCF
5IFQSFTJEFOUIBTBTLFE+FOOZUPiUBLFBDMPTFMPPLBU4BNTPQFSBUJPOw8IBU
TIPVMETIFEP BOEXIBUTIPVMETIFSFQPSUCBDLUPUIFQSFTJEFOU
FLASH FORWARD QUESTION
8IBUEPZPVUIJOLFNQMPZFFTBSFMFBSOJOHJO4BNTUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT 8IBUBSF
TPNFQPTTJCMFMFBSOJOHPVUDPNFT *GUIFQSFTJEFOUXBOUTUPJODSFBTFQSPEVDUJWJUZ
QFSQFSTPOCZQFSDFOUPWFSUIFOFYUUISFFZFBST XIBUMFBSOJOHPVUDPNFTTIPVME
SFTVMUGSPN'MPUBUJPO-UETUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUQSPHSBNT
NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
31
REWRITE THE CASE QUESTION: THE ISD MODEL
3FXSJUFUIFDBTFTPUIBUJOTUFBE PGTUBUJOHUIBUBMMPG4BNTGBWPVSJUFDPVSTFTIBE
MPOHCFFOQSFQBSFEBOEBMMIFIBTUPEPJTNBLFBEKVTUNFOUT IFSFBOEUIFSFBOE
DSFBUFTPNFUSFOEZOFXUJUMFT JU TUBUFTIPXIFVTFT UIF*4%NPEFMGPSUSBJOJOH
BOEEFWFMPQNFOUQSPHSBNT*OPUIFSXPSET EFTDSJCFXIBU4BNEPFTJOUFSNTPG
FBDITUBHFPGUIF*4%NPEFM JF XIBUUIFOFFETBSF IPXUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTBSF
EFTJHOFEBOEEFMJWFSFE BOEIPXUIFZBSFFWBMVBUFE RUNNING CASE STUDY DIRTY POOLS
*O"VHVTU UIFToronto StarDPOEVDUFEBOJOWFTUJHBUJPOPGQPPMTBOEIPUUVCT
BUDPOEPNJOJVNT IFBMUIDMVCT BOETXJNNJOHQPPMTBDSPTTUIFDJUZPG5PSPOUP
5IFZEJTDPWFSFEUIBUNBOZQPPMTBOEIPUUVCTJO5PSPOUPIBWFSFQFBUFEMZWJPMBUFEQVCMJDIFBMUIBOETBGFUZSVMFT5IJTNFBOTUIBUCBUIFSTBSFQPUFOUJBMMZCFJOH
FYQPTFEUPJOKVSZBOEEJTFBTF
1VCMJDIFBMUIJOTQFDUPSTDPOEVDUJOTQFDUJPOTPGUIFBQQSPYJNBUFMZSFDSFBUJPOBMXBUFSGBDJMJUJFTJOUIF$JUZPG5PSPOUP&WFSZSFDSFBUJPOBMXBUFSGBDJMJUZ
JOUIFDJUZJTJOTQFDUFEBUMFBTUUXPUJNFTBZFBSBOEOPMFTTUIBOPODFFWFSZUISFF
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32
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CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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33
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34
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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35
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Psychology 61 o
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NEL
CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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37
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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CHAPTER 1 The Training and Development Process
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39
CHAPTER
2
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
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NEL
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Abbott Point of Care in Ottawa is a state-of-the-art manufacturing facility that develops, manufactures, and markets hand-held medical diagnostic and data management
products for rapid blood analysis at a patient’s bedside.
Abbott has made significant investments to help support its growth by purchasing automated equipment. Given
the advanced technical properties of the new equipment,
the company needed a highly skilled workforce to successfully and efficiently manage it, and to meet Abbott’s
rigorous safety and quality standards.
To help employees adapt and develop the specific technical skills to successfully operate the equipment, Abbott launched a microelectronics manufacturer
apprenticeship program to train its employees in-house
to become instrumentation and control technicians. The
program was created in partnership with Algonquin College
and with support from the Ontario Ministry of Training,
Colleges, and Universities.
The microelectronics manufacturer apprenticeship
program was mandatory for employees in certain positions (such as operators) and was taught in-house during
working hours at the manufacturing facility over a period of
three years. With a total of 304 hours of classes involving
19 college credit courses, apprentices learned to better
operate and monitor high-technology automated equipment while learning the necessary skills to improve processes and automation. Beyond formal academic training,
the program included essential soft-skills training such as
teamwork and adapting to change.
Participating employees also gained enhanced skills
in communication, science and mathematics, quality regulations, critical thinking, and problem solving. The apprenticeship program has been a special chance to upgrade
education for apprentices and increase their opportunity
for mobility within the company.
Courtesy of Abbott Point of Care
ABBOTT POINT OF CARE
Abbott Point of Care launched a microelectronics manufacturer
apprenticeship program to train its employees to become
instrumentation and control technicians.
Following the program’s success, Abbott introduced
an instrumentation and control technician apprenticeship
program to train employees to become instrumentation
and control technicians. This program features a customized curriculum that includes 15 college courses over three
years, which are offered free of charge to employees.
The program was awarded the Minister’s Apprenticeship
Recognition Award, which recognizes employers for their
contribution and commitment to improving the skills and
training of apprentices in Ontario.1
Sources: C. Lewis, “Keeping your employees up with the times—free
of charge,” Canadian HR Reporter, Mar. 24, 2014, Vol. 27 (6), p. 22.
Reprinted by permission of Canadian HR Reporter. © Thomson
Reuters Canada Ltd., 2014, Toronto, Ontario, 1-800-387-5164. Web:
www.hrreporter.com; “Abbott launches a new apprenticeship program
for its Ottawa-based manufacturing sector,” Abbott Point of Care,
News, http://www.abbott.ca/docs/2013_Abbott_Point_of_Care_
Apprenticeship_Release-Aug28-2013.pdf.
// INTRODUCTION
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NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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41
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// WHAT IS LEARNING?
Learning
The process of
acquiring knowledge
and skills, and a
change in individual
behaviour as a result of
some experience
Workplace learning
The process of
acquiring job-related
knowledge and skills
through formal training
programs and informal
social interactions
among employees
70–20–10 model
Seventy percent of
workplace learning
comes from on-the-job
experiences, 20 percent
from interactions with
others, and 10 percent
from formal learning
activities and events
Informal learning
Learning that occurs
naturally as part
of work and is not
planned or designed
by the organization
Formal learning
Learning that is structured and planned by
the organization
42
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// WORKPLACE LEARNING
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 2.1
FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEARNING
Formal Learning
Learning that involves formal, planned, and structured activities or the organized transfer
of work-related skills, knowledge, and information. It includes activities such as classroom
instruction, structured on-the-job programs, workshops, seminars, e-learning, and courses
offered at external institutions.
Informal Learning
Learning that occurs primarily spontaneously and outside of formal, designed activities; the
unstructured transfer of work-related skills, knowledge, and information, usually during work.
It is usually initiated by learners and it can involve asking co-workers for help, ad hoc problem
solving, incidental conversations, seeking out expert knowledge on the Internet, some types of
coaching and mentoring, group problem-solving, and lunch-and-learn sessions.
Sources: Cotsman, S., & Hall, C. (2018). Learning cultures lead the way: Learning and development outlook—14th Edition. Ottawa: The Conference
Board of Canada; Hughes, P. D., & Grant, M. (2007). Learning and development outlook 2007. Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada.
Andresr/Shutterstock.com
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Between 70 and 90 percent of what employees learn and know about their jobs is learned informally.
NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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43
TABLE 2.2
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEARNING
FACTOR
FORMAL LEARNING
INFORMAL LEARNING
Control
The control of learning rests primarily
in the hands of the organization
The control of learning rests primarily
in the hands of the learner
Relevance
Variable relevance to participants
because it is not tailored to the
individual
Highly relevant and need-specific to
the individual
Timing
There is usually a delay; what is
learned is not immediately used on
the job
What is learned tends to be used
immediately on the job
Structure
Highly structured and scheduled
Usually unstructured and occurs
spontaneously
Outcomes
Tends to have specific outcomes
May not have specific outcomes
Sources: Day, N. (1998, June). Informal learning gets results. Workforce management, 77(6), 31–35; Parker, R. O., & Cooney, J. (2005).
Learning and development outlook 2005. Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada, Ottawa.
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44
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TRAINING TODAY
2.1
INFORMAL LEARNING BEHAVIOURS
It is generally believed that 70 to 90 percent of learning
in organizations takes place informally rather than
through formal means. It is therefore important to better
understand the antecedents and outcomes of informal
learning.
First, it is necessary to make an important distinction
between informal learning and informal learning behaviours (ILBs). Informal learning refers to knowledge and
skills that are acquired through ILBs. In contrast, formal
learning refers to knowledge and skills that are acquired
through formal learning behaviours such as attending a
training program.
Informal learning behaviours (ILBs) are noncurricular behaviours and activities pursued for the purpose of
knowledge and skill acquisition that take place outside
formally designated learning contexts. Such activities are
predominantly self-directed, intentional, and field based.
Informal learning behaviours are not syllabus based, discrete, or linear. ILBs occur in the workplace outside of
formal learning and can involve various activities such
as observing a co-worker, asking questions, discussing a
problem with a supervisor, and practice. Engaging in ILBs
is essential for informal learning.
In contrast, formal learning behaviours are curricular behaviours and activities pursued for the purpose of knowledge and skill acquisition that take place
within formally designated learning contexts. Thus, they
are organizationally sanctioned, externally directed, and
are classroom and/or course based. Such activities are
prescribed or scheduled by a syllabus or instructor and
often have well-established learning objectives. They
tend to proceed in a linear fashion and have a discrete
beginning and end.
A recent study examined research on the antecedents
and outcomes of ILBs. With respect to the antecedents,
they found that personal and situational antecedents are
positively related to ILBs. Individual predispositions such
as personality variables (e.g., openness to experience),
learning-related motives (e.g., self-efficacy), and demographics (e.g., education) were positively related to ILBs.
Situational antecedents such as job/task characteristics
(e.g., control and autonomy), support (e.g., support from
supervisors and co-workers), and opportunities for learning
(e.g., potential exists for new learning) were also positively
related to ILBs.
With respect to outcomes, they found that ILBs are
related to various work outcomes. As expected, engagement in ILBs is positively related to positive work attitudes,
knowledge and skill acquisition, and performance.
These results indicate that engagement in ILBs is a
function of personal factors (e.g., personality) as well as
situational factors (e.g., support), and engaging in ILBs
results in more positive work attitudes, greater knowledge
and skill acquisition, and higher performance. Thus, it is
clearly beneficial for organizations to encourage and support informal learning behaviours.
Source: Based on Cerasoli, C. P., Alliger, G. M., Donsbach, J. S., Mathieu, J. E., Tannenbaum, S. I., & Orvis, K. A. (2018, April). Antecedents and
outcomes of informal learning behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(2), 203–230.
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NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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45
THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
2.1
FACILITATING INFORMAL LEARNING IN ORGANIZATIONS
Here are some strategies for facilitating informal learning
in organizations:
t Encourage employees to actively foster informal
learning opportunities on their own.
t Form casual discussion groups among employees
with similar projects and tasks.
t Create meeting areas and spaces where
employees can congregate and communicate with
each other (e.g., water cooler, cafeteria).
t Remove physical barriers (e.g., office walls)
that prevent employees from interacting and
communicating.
t Create overlaps between shifts so workers on different shifts or from different departments can
get to know each other and discuss work-related
issues.
t Create small teams with a specialized focus on a
product or problem.
t Allow groups to break from their routines for team
discussions.
t Provide work teams with some autonomy to
modify work processes when they find a better
way of doing things.
t Eliminate barriers to communication and give
employees the authority to take training on
themselves.
t Condense office spaces and make room for
an open gathering area for coffee breaks and
socializing.
t Match new hires with seasoned employees so
they can learn from casual interaction and explicit
teaching and mentoring.
Sources: Lavis, C. (2011). Learning and development outlook 2011: Are organizations ready for learning 2.0? Ottawa: The Conference Board of
Canada; www.vancity.com.
// LEARNING OUTCOMES
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46
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 2.3
LEARNING OUTCOMES CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES
Gagné’s Classification Scheme
Verbal information (declarative knowledge)
Intellectual skills (procedural knowledge)
Cognitive strategies (how and when to use information and knowledge)
Motor skills (physical movements)
Attitudes (internal states)
Kraiger, Ford, & Salas Classification Scheme
COGNITIVE (QUANTITY AND TYPE OF KNOWLEDGE)
t Verbal knowledge
t Knowledge organization
t Cognitive strategies
SKILL-BASED (TECHNICAL AND MOTOR SKILLS)
t Compilation (proceduralization and composition)
t Automaticity
AFFECTIVE (ATTITUDINAL AND MOTIVATIONAL)
t Attitudinal
t Motivational (goal orientation, self-efficacy, goals)
Sources: Gagné, R. M. (1984). Learning outcomes and their effects: Useful categories of human performance. American Psychologist, 39,
377–385; Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E. (1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to
new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 311–328.
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47
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ACT theory
Learning takes place in
three stages that are
known as declarative
knowledge, knowledge
compilation, and procedural knowledge or
proceduralization
Resource allocation
theory
Individuals possess
limited cognitive
resources that can
be used to learn a
new task
Declarative
knowledge
Knowledge, facts, and
information
// STAGES OF LEARNING AND RESOURCE
ALLOCATION THEORY
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48
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 2.4
THE STAGES OF LEARNING
STAGE 1
DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE
Learning: Knowledge, facts, and information
Performance: Resource dependent
STAGE 2
KNOWLEDGE COMPILATION
Learning: Integrating tasks into sequences
Performance: Fragmented and piecemeal
STAGE 3
PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
Learning: Task mastery
Performance: Automatic and habitual; resource insensitive
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XIBUJUJTMJLFXIFOZPVBSFJODMBTTBOETPNFCPEZTUBSUTUBMLJOHUPZPV:PVSMFBSOJOH
JTTFSJPVTMZBGGFDUFECFDBVTFZPVOFFEBMMPGZPVSBUUFOUJPOBOEDPHOJUJWFSFTPVSDFTGPS
UIFUBTLPGMFBSOJOH-JTUFOJOHPSUBMLJOHUPTPNFCPEZEVSJOHDMBTTXJMMSFRVJSFZPVS
BUUFOUJPO BOEZPVSMFBSOJOHXJMMTVGGFS
5IFTFDPOETUBHFPGMFBSOJOHJTDBMMFEknowledge compilation,OPXMFEHFDPNQJMBUJPO
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BDUJPO%VSJOHUIJTTUBHF QFSGPSNBODFCFDPNFTGBTUFSBOENPSFBDDVSBUF'PSFYBNQMF XIFOMFBSOJOHIPXUPESJWFBDBS ZPVBSFBCMFUPHFUJOUPUIFDBSBOECFHJOUPESJWFXJUIPVU
IBWJOHUPUIJOLBCPVUFWFSZTJOHMFUIJOH ZPVNVTUEP*OPUIFSXPSET XIBUXBTPODFNBOZ
TJOHMFBOEJOEFQFOEFOUUBTLTEVSJOHUIFEFDMBSBUJWFTUBHF FH QVUPOZPVSTFBUCFMU MPDL
UIFDBS BEKVTUUIFTFBU BEKVTUUIFNJSSPS TUBSUUIFDBS FUD JTOPXPOFTNPPUITFRVFODF
PGUBTLT:PVHFUJOUPUIFDBSBOEEPBMMPGUIFUBTLTBTQBSUPGBOJOUFHSBUFETFRVFODF
"MUIPVHIUIFBUUFOUJPOSFRVJSFNFOUTEVSJOHUIFLOPXMFEHFDPNQJMBUJPOTUBHFBSF
MPXFS UIBO JO UIF EFDMBSBUJWF TUBHF QFSGPSNBODF JT TUJMM TPNFXIBU GSBHNFOUFE BOE
QJFDFNFBM4PXIFOZPVBSF MFBSOJOHUPESJWFBDBS UIJTNJHIUNFBOQPQQJOHUIFDMVUDI
GSPNUJNFUPUJNFBOEPDDBTJPOBMMZSPMMJOHCBDLXBSETXIFOPOBOJODMJOF TUBMMJOHUIF
DBS BOETPPO
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%VSJOH UIJT TUBHF UIF MFBSOFS IBT NBTUFSFE UIF UBTL BOE QFSGPSNBODF JT BVUPNBUJD
BOEIBCJUVBM*OPUIFSXPSET UIFUBTLDBOOPXCFQFSGPSNFEXJUIPVUNVDIUIPVHIU
NEL
Knowledge
compilation
Integrating tasks into
sequences to simplify
and streamline the task
Procedural knowledge
The learner has mastered the task and performance is automatic
and habitual
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
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49
5IFUSBOTJUJPOGSPNLOPXMFEHFBDRVJTJUJPOUPBQQMJDBUJPOJTDPNQMFUF5IJTJTXIBU
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UIPVHIUBCPVUXIBUXFBSFEPJOH5IFUBTLPGESJWJOHCFDPNFTIBCJUVBMBOEBVUPNBUJD
#FDBVTF UBTLT BUUIJT TUBHF DBOCFQFSGPSNFE XJUI SFMBUJWFMZ MJUUMF BUUFOUJPO JU JT
QPTTJCMFUPEJWFSUPOFTBUUFOUJPOBOEDPHOJUJWFSFTPVSDFTUPPUIFSUBTLT TVDIBTUBMLJOH
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XJMMOPUIBWFNVDIPGBOJNQBDUPOQFSGPSNBODF
IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING 8IBU BSF UIF JNQMJDBUJPOT PG "$5 UIFPSZ GPS MFBSOJOH
BOEUSBJOJOH 'JSTU "$5UIFPSZSFDPHOJ[FTUIBUMFBSOJOHJTBTFRVFOUJBMBOETUBHFMJLF
QSPDFTTUIBUJOWPMWFTUISFFJNQPSUBOUTUBHFT4FDPOE JUJOEJDBUFTUIBUEJGGFSFOUUZQFT
PGMFBSOJOHUBLFQMBDFBUEJGGFSFOUTUBHFT"OEUIJSE NPUJWBUJPOBMJOUFSWFOUJPOTNJHIU
CFNPSFPSMFTTFGGFDUJWFEFQFOEJOHPOUIFTUBHFPGMFBSOJOH"TZPVXJMMMFBSOMBUFSJO
UIFDIBQUFS SFTFBSDIIBTTIPXOUIBUHPBMTFUUJOHDBOCFIBSNGVMUPMFBSOJOHEVSJOHUIF
FBSMZTUBHFTPGMFBSOJOH XIFOBMMPGPOFTBUUFOUJPOBOEDPHOJUJWFSFTPVSDFTBSFEFWPUFE
UPMFBSOJOH5IJTGPMMPXTGSPNSFTPVSDFBMMPDBUJPOUIFPSZ XIJDITUBUFTUIBUEVSJOHUIF
FBSMZTUBHFTPGMFBSOJOH DPHOJUJWFBCJMJUZJTNPSFJNQPSUBOUUIBONPUJWBUJPOBMTUSBUFHJFT
)PXFWFS XIFOHPBMTBSFTFUEVSJOHUIFMBUFSTUBHFT PGMFBSOJOH FH QSPDFEVSBM
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CPUI DPHOJUJWF BCJMJUZ BOE NPUJWBUJPOBM JOUFSWFOUJPOT PO MFBSOJOH BOE QFSGPSNBODF
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// LEARNING STYLES
Learning style
The way in which an
individual prefers to
learn
Kolb’s learning style
The way in which an
individual gathers
information and processes and evaluates
it during the learning
process
50
"OJNQPSUBOUBTQFDUPGMFBSOJOHJTUIFXBZJOXIJDIQFPQMFMFBSO*OEJWJEVBMTEJGGFSJO
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FODFT BSF LOPXO BT learning styles )PXFWFS UIF FYBDU NFBOJOH PG B MFBSOJOH TUZMF
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-FBSOJOHNPEFTJOWPMWFUIFXBZQFPQMFHBUIFSJOGPSNBUJPO DPODSFUFFYQFSJFODF PS$& BOEBCTUSBDUDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO PS"$ BOEUIFXBZQFPQMFQSPDFTTPSFWBMVBUF
JOGPSNBUJPO BDUJWFFYQFSJNFOUBUJPO PS"& BOESFGMFDUJWFPCTFSWBUJPO PS30 *UJT
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BSF$&UZQFT GFFMJOH 5IPTFXIPQSFGFSUPHBUIFSJOGPSNBUJPOCZUIJOLJOHBCPVUJTTVFT JEFBT BOEDPODFQUTBSF"$UZQFT UIJOLJOH *GZPVQSFGFSUPQSPDFTTJOGPSNBUJPOCZ
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NEL
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TABLE 2.5
LEARNING STYLES
LEARNING STYLE
LEARNING MODES
MEANING
CONVERGING
Abstract conceptualization (AC) and active
experimentation (AE)
Thinking and doing
DIVERGING
Concrete experience (CE) and reflective
observation (RO)
Feeling and watching
ASSIMILATING
Abstract conceptualization (AC) and
reflective observation (RO)
Thinking and watching
ACCOMMODATING
Concrete experience (CE) and active
experimentation (AE)
Feeling and doing
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NEL
Learning cycle
People use each of the
four modes of learning
in a sequence that
begins with concrete
experience followed by
reflective observation,
abstract conceptualization, and active
experimentation
Fleming’s learning
style
An individual’s preferred
ways of gathering,
organizing, and thinking
about information
VARK
Visual, aural/auditory,
read/write, and
kinesthetic
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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51
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MFBSOJOHDZDMF $&30"$"& "U$BQJUBM0OF'JOBODJBM$PSQ BGUFSFNQMPZFFTBSF
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MFBSOJOHUIFPSJFT
52
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// LEARNING THEORIES
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DPOEJUJPOJOHUIFPSZBOETPDJBMDPHOJUJWFUIFPSZ
CONDITIONING THEORY
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PGBEFTJSFECFIBWJPVS
FIGURE 2.1
CONDITIONING THEORY
Stimulus
events or cues
in the environment
attract our attention
NEL
Behaviour
a response or
set of responses
Consequence
s positive reinforcement
s negative reinforcement
s no consequence
s punishment
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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53
*UJTJNQPSUBOUUPSFBMJ[FUIBUOFHBUJWFSFJOGPSDFNFOUJTOPUUIFTBNFBTQVOJTINFOU XIJDIJOWPMWFTUIFBQQMJDBUJPOPGBOFHBUJWFDPOTFRVFODFJOSFTQPOTFUPBOVOEFTJSBCMF
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THE CONDITIONING PROCESS
Shaping
The reinforcement of
each step in a process
until it is mastered
Chaining
The reinforcement of
entire sequences of
a task
Generalization
The conditioned
response occurs in
circumstances different
from those during
learning
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generalizationShapingSFGFSTUPUIFSFJOGPSDFNFOUPGFBDITUFQJOUIFQSPDFTTVOUJMJUJT
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UJPO 'VSUIFSNPSF USBJOJOHUBTLTTIPVMECFCSPLFOJOUPNFBOJOHGVMQBSUTTPUIBUUSBJOFFT
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54
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
*GZPVUIJOLBCPVUIPXZPVMFBSO ZPVXJMMSFBMJ[FUIBUMFBSOJOHEPFTOPUKVTUPDDVSBT
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DPHOJUJWFUIFPSZ
5IFDFOUSBMQSFNJTFPGTPDJBMDPHOJUJWFUIFPSZJTsocial learning XIJDIJOWPMWFT
MFBSOJOH UISPVHIJOUFSBDUJPOT XJUIPUIFST4PDJBMMFBSOJOH DBOCFFJUIFS GPSNBM FH
NFOUPSJOHQSPHSBNT PSJOGPSNBM FH DPMMBCPSBUJWFXPSL 35"DDPSEJOHUPTPDJBMDPHOJ
UJWFUIFPSZ QFPQMFMFBSOCZPCTFSWJOHUIFCFIBWJPVSPGPUIFST NBLJOHDIPJDFTBCPVU
EJGGFSFOUDPVSTFTPGBDUJPOUPQVSTVF BOENBOBHJOHUIFJSPXOCFIBWJPVSJOUIFQSPDFTT
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PCTFSWFBOESFQSPEVDFUIFBDUJPOTBOEBUUJUVEFTPGPUIFST
4PDJBMDPHOJUJWFUIFPSZJOWPMWFTUISFFLFZDPNQPOFOUTPCTFSWBUJPO TFMGFGGJDBDZ
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Social learning
Learning through interactions with others
OBSERVATION
"TZPVIBWFQSPCBCMZFYQFSJFODFEJOZPVSTFMGBOEPUIFST QFPQMFMFBSOCZobservation
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MJLFMZUPCFJNJUBUFE5IFJNJUBUJPOXJMMPDDVSQBSUJDVMBSMZJGUIFSPMFNPEFMJTSFJOGPSDFE
GPSUIFCFIBWJPVS/FXSFDSVJUTXBUDIUIFJOUFOTFXPSLIPVSTPGUIFTFOJPSTUBGG5IFZ
UIFOXPSLUIFTBNFMPOHIPVST JOUIFFYQFDUBUJPOUIBUUIFZ UPP XJMMCFSFXBSEFEXJUI
QSPNPUJPOTBOEQBZSBJTFT
'PVSLFZFMFNFOUTBSFDSJUJDBMGPSPCTFSWBUJPOBMMFBSOJOHUPUBLFQMBDFBUUFOUJPO
SFUFOUJPO SFQSPEVDUJPO BOESFJOGPSDFNFOU-FBSOFSTNVTUGJSTUBUUFOEUPUIFCFIBWJPVS
JF CFBXBSFPGUIFTLJMMTUIBUBSFPCTFSWBCMF 4FDPOE UIFZNVTUSFNFNCFSXIBUUIFZ
PCTFSWFEBOEFODPEFJUJOUIFJSPXOSFQFSUPJSFTPUIBUUIFZDBOSFDBMMUIFTLJMMT5IJSE UIFZNVTUUIFOUSZPVUUIFTLJMM JF USZUPSFQSPEVDFJU UISPVHIQSBDUJDFBOESFIFBSTBM
'PVSUI JGUIFSFQSPEVDUJPOSFTVMUTJOQPTJUJWFPVUDPNFT JF JUJTSFJOGPSDFE UIFOUIF
MFBSOFSJTMJLFMZUPDPOUJOVFUPSFQSPEVDFUIFCFIBWJPVSBOESFUBJOUIFOFXTLJMMT
.BOZUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTVTFTPDJBMDPHOJUJWFUIFPSZDPODFQUTJOXIJDIBNPEFMJT
VTFEUPFYIJCJUEFTJSFECFIBWJPVSUIBUJTUIFOGPMMPXFECZPQQPSUVOJUJFTGPSQSBDUJDF
BOEQPTJUJWFSFJOGPSDFNFOU4PNFPSHBOJ[BUJPOTBTTJHOOFXSFDSVJUTUPNFOUPSTPSTFOJPS
DPXPSLFSTTPUIBUUIFZDBOMFBSOCZPCTFSWJOHUIFN5IFGJOBODJBMTFSWJDFTGJSN&EXBSE
+POFTIBTBNFOUPSJOHQSPHSBNJOXIJDIOFXJOWFTUNFOUSFQSFTFOUBUJWFTBSFQBJSFEXJUI
NPSFFTUBCMJTIFEPOFT/FXFNQMPZFFTTIBEPXUIFJSNFOUPSGPSUISFFXFFLTUPMFBSO
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Observation
Learning by observing
the actions of others
and the consequences
SELF-EFFICACY
8IJMF PCTFSWBUJPO NBZ QSPWJEF UIF PCTFSWFS XJUI JOGPSNBUJPO OFDFTTBSZ UP JNJUBUF
UIFPCTFSWFECFIBWJPVS XFLOPXUIBUQFPQMFEPOPUBMXBZTBUUFNQUUPEPUIJOHTUIFZ
PCTFSWFPUIFSQFPQMFEPJOH'PSFYBNQMF BOPWJDFTLJFSNJHIUPCTFSWFIJTGSJFOETNBLF
UIFJSXBZEPXOBTUFFQIJMMCVUSFGVTFUPJNJUBUFUIFJSCFIBWJPVSBOEGPMMPXUIFNEPXO
NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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55
Christophe Testi/Shutterstock.com
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Self-efficacy
Self-efficacySFGFSTUPCFMJFGTUIBUQFPQMFIBWFBCPVUUIFJSBCJMJUZUPTVDDFTTGVMMZ
Beliefs that people
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have about their ability
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to successfully perform
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a specific task
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4FMGFGGJDBDZ JT JOGMVFODFE CZ GPVS TPVSDFT PG JOGPSNBUJPO *O PSEFS PG JNQPS
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UIFZEFWPUFUPBUBTL UIFJSBGGFDUJWFBOETUSFTTSFBDUJPOT BOE
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JOWPMWFT TUSFOHUIFOJOH USBJOFFT TFMGFGGJDBDZ UP QFSGPSN UIF
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Self-efficacy influences the activities people choose to perform
UBTLQFSGPSNBODF
and the amount of effort and persistence they devote to a task.
SELF-REGULATION
Self-regulation
Managing one’s own
behaviour through
a series of internal
processes
Self-regulated
learning
The use of affective,
cognitive, and behavioural processes during
a learning experience
to reach a desired level
of achievement
56
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QMBOGPSMFBSOJOH EFWFMPQMFBSOJOHTUSBUFHJFT GPDVTUIFJSBUUFOUJPOPOMFBSOJOH NPOJUPS
UIFJSMFBSOJOHPVUDPNFT BOENPEJGZUIFJSCFIBWJPVSTPWFSUJNF445IVT TFMGSFHVMBUJPO
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QFSGPSNBODFHPBMT HPBMTFUUJOH QSBDUJTJOHBOESFIFBSTJOHOFXBOEEFTJSFECFIBWJPVST Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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LFFQJOHUSBDLPGPOFTQSPHSFTTBOEQFSGPSNBODF DPNQBSJOHQFSGPSNBODFXJUIPOFT
HPBMT TFMGFWBMVBUJPO BOESFXBSEJOHPOFTFMGGPSHPBMBDIJFWFNFOU TFMGSFJOGPSDFNFOU 45
4FMGSFHVMBUJPO IBT CFFO GPVOE UP CF SFMBUFE UP DPHOJUJWF BGGFDUJWF BOE CFIBW
JPVSBM PVUDPNFT *U IBT BMTP CFFO TIPXO UP CF BO FGGFDUJWF NFUIPE PG USBJOJOH 'PS
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IPXUPQSPNQUUSBJOFFTFMGSFHVMBUJPOEVSJOHUSBJOJOH TFF5IF5SBJOFST/PUFCPPL i1SPNQUJOH4FMG3FHVMBUJPOw
THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
Self-regulation
prompts
Asking trainees
questions about
their learning, goals,
and goal progress
to encourage selfregulation during
training
2.2
PROMPTING SELF-REGULATION
The following questions can be used during training to
prompt self-regulation. Trainees should be asked these
questions periodically throughout a training program. They
can respond using a 5-point scale with anchors 1 5 not at
all to 5 5 definitely. Trainees should be given the following
message before they begin the training:
Research has shown that asking yourself questions
about whether you are concentrating on learning the training
material will increase how much you learn during training.
The training program will periodically ask you questions
about where you are directing your mental resources and
whether you are making progress toward learning the
(continued )
NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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57
training material. Respond honestly to these questions and
use your responses to direct your learning during training.
t Am I concentrating on learning the training material?
t Do I understand all of the key points of the training
material?
t Are the study strategies I’m using helping me learn
the training material?
t Have I spent enough time reviewing to remember
the information after I finish the course?
t Am I setting goals to help me remember the material after I finish the course?
t Would I do better on the next quiz if I studied
more?
t Am I focusing my mental effort on the training
material?
t Do I need to continue to review to ensure I will
remember the material after I finish the course?
t Are the study tactics I have been using effective
for learning the training material?
t Do I know enough about the training material to
remember the material after I finish the course?
t Am I setting goals to ensure I have a thorough
understanding of the training material?
t Do I know enough about the training material to
answer all of the questions correctly on the quiz
for this module?
Sources: Sitzmann, T., & Ely, K. (2010). Sometimes you need a reminder: The effects of prompting self-regulation on regulatory process, learning,
and attrition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 132–144.
// ADULT LEARNING THEORY
Andragogy
An adult-oriented
approach to learning
that takes into account
the differences
between adult and
child learners
Pedagogy
The traditional
approach to learning
used to educate children and youth
58
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 2.6
TEACHING CHILDREN VERSUS ADULTS
FACTOR
CHILDREN
ADULTS
PERSONALITY
Dependent
Independent
MOTIVATION
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
ROLES
Student
Employee
Child
Parent, volunteer, spouse,
citizen
OPENNESS TO CHANGE
Open
Ingrained habits and attitudes
BARRIERS TO CHANGE
Few
Negative self-concept
Limited opportunities
Time
Inappropriate teaching
methods
EXPERIENCE
Limited
Vast
ORIENTATION TO LEARNING
Subject-centred
Problem-centred
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CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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59
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
2.3
IMPLICATIONS OF ADULT LEARNING THEORY FOR TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
t Adult trainees should be informed about the
importance, relevance, and benefits of training.
t Adult trainees should be involved and have input
into the planning and design of training programs.
t Adult trainees should be involved in the needs
analysis and have input into training objectives,
training content, and training methods.
t The designers of training programs should consider the needs and interests of adult trainees.
t The training content should be meaningful and
relevant to adult trainees’ work-related needs,
concerns, and problems.
t Trainers should be aware of adult trainees’ experiences and use them as examples.
t Adult trainees can learn independently and may
prefer to do so.
t Adult trainees are motivated by both intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards.
t Adult trainees should be given safe practice
opportunities.
t Adult trainees should be involved in the evaluation of training and re-diagnosis of training needs
// MOTIVATION
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60
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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The degree of persistent
effort that one directs
toward a goal
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
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For more information see
Chapter 1, pp. 6–7
Goal
The object or aim of an
action
PROXIMAL AND DISTAL GOALS
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JUEJGGJDVMUGPSJOEJWJEVBMTUPLOPXIPXUIFZBSFEPJOHBOEUPBEKVTUUIFJSTUSBUFHJFT55
NEL
Distal goal
A long-term or end
goal
Proximal goal
A short-term goal or
sub-goal
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
61
1SPYJNBMHPBMTBSFFTQFDJBMMZJNQPSUBOUGPSDPNQMFYUBTLT3FTFBSDIIBTGPVOEUIBU
EJTUBMHPBMTDBOIBWFBOFHBUJWFFGGFDUPOUIFQFSGPSNBODFPGBDPNQMFYUBTL)PXFWFS XIFOEJTUBMHPBMTBSFBDDPNQBOJFEXJUIQSPYJNBMHPBMT UIFZIBWFBTJHOJGJDBOUQPTJUJWF
FGGFDUPOUIFEJTDPWFSZBOEVTFPGUBTLSFMFWBOUTUSBUFHJFT TFMGFGGJDBDZ BOEQFSGPSNBODF56
"TUVEZPGQSPWJODJBMBOEGFEFSBMHPWFSONFOUNBOBHFSTXIPBUUFOEFEBTFMGBXBSFOFTT
USBJOJOHQSPHSBNGPVOE UIBUUSBJOFFTXIPTFUEJTUBMBOEQSPYJNBMPVUDPNFHPBMTBUUIFFOE
PGUIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNXFSFNPSFMJLFMZUPBQQMZXIBUUIFZMFBSOFEJOUSBJOJOHPOUIFKPC
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BSFFGGFDUJWFGPSMFBSOJOHBOFXUBTLPOMZXIFOUIFZBSFBDDPNQBOJFE CZQSPYJNBMHPBMT
GOAL ORIENTATION
Goal orientation
A dispositional or
situational goal preference in achievement
situations
Learning goal
orientation (LGO)
A focus on developing competence by
acquiring new skills
and mastering new
tasks
Prove performance
goal orientation
(PPGO)
A focus on favourable
judgments from others
for one’s performance
outcomes
Avoid performance
goal orientation
(APGO)
A focus on avoiding
negative judgments
from others for one’s
performance outcomes
Learning goals
Process-oriented
goals that focus on
the learning process
Performance goals
Outcome-oriented
goals that focus on the
achievement of specific
performance outcomes
62
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'PSFYBNQMF TPNFJOEJWJEVBMTIBWFBlearning goal orientation (LGO) XIJDINFBOT
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*OEJWJEVBMTXIPBSFNPTUDPODFSOFEBCPVUBWPJEJOHOFHBUJWFKVEHNFOUTGSPNPUIFSTBCPVU
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UPMFBSOJOHBOEQFSGPSNBODF
"MUIPVHI JOEJWJEVBMT EJGGFS JO UIFJS HPBM PSJFOUBUJPOT HPBM TFUUJOH DBO JOWPMWF
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NFOUPGTQFDJGJDQFSGPSNBODFPVUDPNFT
"TJOEJDBUFEFBSMJFS DIBMMFOHJOHBOETQFDJGJDHPBMTUIBUBSFBDDPNQBOJFECZQFS
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QFSGPSNBODF HPBMT BSF OPU BMXBZT UIF NPTU FGGFDUJWF 'PS FYBNQMF SFDBMM GSPN UIF
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JOUFSGFSFXJUIMFBSOJOHCFDBVTFUIFZGPSDFUSBJOFFTUPGPDVTPOUIFPVUDPNFTPGUIFJS
FGGPSUSBUIFSUIBOPOMFBSOJOH5IJTJTFTQFDJBMMZBDPODFSOGPSMFBSOJOHDPNQMFYUBTLT
JOTJUVBUJPOTJOXIJDIUSBJOFFTMBDLUIFLOPXMFEHFBOETLJMMUPQFSGPSNUIFUBTLBOE
SFRVJSFBMMPGUIFJSDPHOJUJWFSFTPVSDFTGPSMFBSOJOH4FUUJOHBIJHIQFSGPSNBODFHPBMJT
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-FBSOJOHHPBMT IPXFWFS BSFFTQFDJBMMZJNQPSUBOUGPSMFBSOJOHOFXUBTLTCFDBVTF
JOEJWJEVBMTNVTUGJSTUBDRVJSFLOPXMFEHFBOEMFBSOTUSBUFHJFTOFFEFEUPQFSGPSNBUBTL
8IFOMFBSOJOHUPQFSGPSNBOFXUBTL TFUUJOHBEJGGJDVMUQFSGPSNBODFPVUDPNFHPBMIBT
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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CFFOGPVOEUPCFEFUSJNFOUBMGPSQFSGPSNBODF5IJTJTCFDBVTFQFSGPSNBODFHPBMTDBO
EFUSBDUBUUFOUJPOGSPNMFBSOJOH5IVT EVSJOHUIFMFBSOJOHQSPDFTTBTQFDJGJD EJGGJDVMU
MFBSOJOHHPBMTIPVMECF TFU BTUIJTIBTCFFOTIPXOUP SFTVMUJOIJHIFSTFMGFGGJDBDZBOE
QFSGPSNBODF0ODFBOJOEJWJEVBMIBTBDRVJSFEUIFLOPXMFEHFBOETLJMMTOFDFTTBSZUP
QFSGPSNBOFXUBTL IFTIFDBOGPDVTPOQFSGPSNBODFHPBMT
IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING (PBMTFUUJOHUIFPSZIBTBOVNCFSPGJNQMJDBUJPOTGPSUSBJOJOH
'PSFYBNQMF QSJPSUPBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNUSBJOFFTTIPVMEIBWFTQFDJGJDBOEDIBMMFOHJOH
HPBMT GPS MFBSOJOH BOE UIFZ TIPVME CF HJWFO GFFECBDL EVSJOH BOE BGUFS UIF USBJOJOH
QSPHSBNTPUIBUUIFZLOPXXIFUIFSUIFZIBWFBDIJFWFEUIFJSHPBMT4FUUJOHTQFDJGJDBOE
DIBMMFOHJOHHPBMTTIPVMEJNQSPWFUSBJOFFTNPUJWBUJPOUPMFBSOBTXFMMBTUIFJSQFSGPS
NBODFPOUIFUSBJOJOHUBTL5IVT BTEFTDSJCFEJO$IBQUFS JOQSBDUJDFJUJTJNQPSUBOU
UPTFU4."35HPBMT
)PXFWFS JUTIPVMECFLFQUJONJOEUIBUTFUUJOHIJHIQFSGPSNBODFHPBMTEVSJOHUIF
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5IFSFGPSF TQFDJBMBUUFOUJPOOFFETUPCFHJWFOUPUIFTUBHFBUXIJDIHPBMTBSFTFUBOEUIF
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POTLJMMEFWFMPQNFOUBSFQBSUJDVMBSMZJNQPSUBOUGPSMFBSOJOH FTQFDJBMMZGPSJOEJWJEVBMT
XIP IBWF B QFSGPSNBODF HPBM PSJFOUBUJPO BOE OFFE UP CF BTTJHOFE MFBSOJOH HPBMT
5IVT USBJOFSTTIPVMEFNQIBTJ[FUIFJNQPSUBODFPGMFBSOJOHBOEUIFOFFEUPGPDVTPO
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GPSDIBMMFOHJOHUBTLTBOEXIFOOFXTLJMMTNVTUCFMFBSOFE4FUUJOHIJHIQFSGPSNBODF
HPBMTGPSBUBTLUIBUJTTUJMMCFJOHMFBSOFEDBOCFEFUSJNFOUBMGPSMFBSOJOHBOEQFSGPS
NBODF5IFSFGPSF MFBSOJOHHPBMTTIPVMECFTFUGPSMFBSOJOHOFXUBTLTBOEQFSGPSNBODF
HPBMTGPSNPUJWBUJOHQFSGPSNBODFPODFMFBSOJOHBOEUBTLNBTUFSZIBWFCFFOBDIJFWFE
// TRAINING MOTIVATION
"TJOEJDBUFEFBSMJFS MFBSOJOHBOEUIFFGGFDUJWFOFTTPGUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTJTJOGMVFODFE
CZNPUJWBUJPO*OGBDU NPUJWBUJPOJTBOJNQPSUBOUQSFEJDUPSPGUBTLQFSGPSNBODF KPC
QFSGPSNBODF MFBSOJOH BOEUIFFGGFDUJWFOFTTPGUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT*OUIJTTFDUJPO XF
GPDVTPOUIFSPMFPGNPUJWBUJPOJOUSBJOJOH*OQBSUJDVMBS XFJOUSPEVDFUIFDPODFQUPG
training motivationBOEEFTDSJCFUIFQSFEJDUPSTBOEDPOTFRVFODFTPGUSBJOFFTNPUJWB
UJPOUPMFBSO
Training motivation BMTPLOPXOBTNPUJWBUJPOUPMFBSO SFGFSTUPUIFEJSFDUJPO JOUFOTJUZ BOEQFSTJTUFODFPGMFBSOJOHEJSFDUFECFIBWJPVSJOUSBJOJOHDPOUFYUT3FTFBSDI
IBTGPVOEUIBUUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOQSFEJDUTMFBSOJOHBOEUSBJOJOHPVUDPNFT BOEJUJT
JOGMVFODFECZJOEJWJEVBMBOETJUVBUJPOBMGBDUPST62
"NPOHUIFJOEJWJEVBMGBDUPSTUIBUQSFEJDUUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO QFSTPOBMJUZWBSJBCMFT
BOEGBDUPSTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIPOFTKPCBOEDBSFFSBSFJNQPSUBOU1FSTPOBMJUZWBSJBCMFTUIBU
QSFEJDUUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOJODMVEFMPDVTPGDPOUSPM BDIJFWFNFOUNPUJWBUJPO BOYJFUZ
BOEDPOTDJFOUJPVTOFTT
Locus of controlSFGFSTUPQFPQMFTCFMJFGTBCPVUXIFUIFSUIFJSCFIBWJPVSJTDPO
USPMMFENBJOMZCZJOUFSOBMPSFYUFSOBMGPSDFT1FSTPOTXJUIBOJOUFSOBMMPDVTPGDPOUSPM
NEL
Training motivation
The direction, intensity, and persistence
of learning-directed
behaviour in training
contexts
Locus of control
People’s beliefs
about whether their
behaviour is controlled
mainly by internal or
external forces
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
63
Achievement
motivation
The desire to perform
challenging tasks
Conscientiousness
The degree to
which a person is
responsible and
achievement-oriented
Job involvement
The degree to which
an individual identifies
psychologically with
work, and the importance of work to their
self-image
CFMJFWFUIBUUIFPQQPSUVOJUZUPDPOUSPMUIFJSPXOCFIBWJPVSSFTJEFTXJUIJOUIFNTFMWFT
1FSTPOTXJUIBOFYUFSOBMMPDVTPGDPOUSPMCFMJFWFUIBUFYUFSOBMGPSDFTEFUFSNJOFUIFJS
CFIBWJPVS 5IVT JOUFSOBMT QFSDFJWF TUSPOHFS MJOLT CFUXFFO UIF FGGPSU UIFZ QVU JOUP
TPNFUIJOHBOEUIFPVUDPNFPSQFSGPSNBODFMFWFMUIFZBDIJFWF1FSTPOTXJUIBOJOUFSOBM
MPDVTPGDPOUSPMUFOEUPIBWFIJHIFSMFWFMTPGUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO
*O BEEJUJPO QFSTPOT XIP BSF IJHI JO achievement motivation PS UIF EFTJSF UP
QFSGPSNDIBMMFOHJOHUBTLTBOEIJHIPOconscientiousness SFTQPOTJCMFBOEBDIJFWFNFOU
PSJFOUFE BMTPUFOEUPIBWFIJHIUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO1FSTPOTXJUIIJHIFSBOYJFUZ IPX
FWFS UFOEUPIBWFMPXFSUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO4FMGFGGJDBDZJTBMTPQPTJUJWFMZSFMBUFEUP
USBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO
4FWFSBMKPCBOEDBSFFSWBSJBCMFTBSFBMTPSFMBUFEUPUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO'PSFYBNQMF FNQMPZFFTXJUIIJHIFSjob involvement‰PSUIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIBOJOEJWJEVBMJEFOUJ
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IJHIFS USBJOJOH NPUJWBUJPO 0SHBOJ[BUJPOBM DPNNJUNFOU BOE DBSFFS QMBOOJOH BOE
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TVDIBTTVQFSWJTPSTVQQPSU QFFSTVQQPSU BOEBQPTJUJWFDMJNBUFBMTPQSFEJDUUSBJOJOH
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5SBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOIBTCFFOGPVOEUPCFSFMBUFE UPNBOZUSBJOJOHPVUDPNFT'PS
FYBNQMF USBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOJTQPTJUJWFMZSFMBUFEUPEFDMBSBUJWFLOPXMFEHF TLJMMBDRVJ
TJUJPO USBJOFFTSFBDUJPOTUPUSBJOJOH BOEUIFMJLFMJIPPEUIBUUSBJOFFTBQQMZPOUIFKPC
XIBUUIFZMFBSOJOUSBJOJOH JF USBOTGFSPGUSBJOJOH 8IBUTNPSF USBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO
QSFEJDUTUSBJOJOHPVUDPNFTCFZPOEUIFFGGFDUTPGDPHOJUJWFBCJMJUZ63
*OTVNNBSZ USBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOJTBOJNQPSUBOUGBDUPSJOUIFUSBJOJOHQSPDFTTUIBU
JTSFMBUFEUPNBOZUSBJOJOHPVUDPNFT5SBJOJOHJTNPSFMJLFMZUPCFFGGFDUJWFBOESFTVMU
JOMFBSOJOH TLJMMBDRVJTJUJPO BOEJNQSPWFEKPCQFSGPSNBODFXIFOUSBJOFFTIBWFIJHI
MFWFMTPGUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO
IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING 5IFSFBSFTFWFSBMUIJOHTUIBUUSBJOFSTBOENBOBHFSTDBOEPUP
FOTVSFUIBUUSBJOFFTUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOJTIJHI'JSTU UIFZDBOBTTFTTUSBJOFFQFSTPOBMJUZ
UP EFUFSNJOF XIFUIFSUSBJOFFT BSFIJHIPO UIFQFSTPOBMJUZ GBDUPSTUIBUBSF SFMBUFEUP
USBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO FH MPDVTPGDPOUSPM 4FDPOE UIFZDBOBTTFTTUSBJOFFNPUJWBUJPO
QSJPSUPBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNUPFOTVSFUIBUUSBJOFFTBSFNPUJWBUFEUPMFBSO BOETFMFDU
UIPTFUSBJOFFTXJUIIJHIUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOUPBUUFOEBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN*OGBDU UIJT
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USBJOJOHQSPHSBN64
5SBJOFSTTIPVME BMTPDPOTJEFSJOGMVFODJOHTPNFPGUIFGBDUPSTUIBUQSFEJDUUSBJOJOH
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MPXFS USBJOFFT BOYJFUZ JODSFBTF TFMGFGGJDBDZ BOE JNQSPWF USBJOFF BUUJUVEFT 'JOBMMZ USBJOFSTTIPVMEDPOTJEFSTJUVBUJPOBMGBDUPSTUIBUJOGMVFODFUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOBOEFOTVSF
UIBU TVQFSWJTPST BOE QFFST QSPWJEF USBJOFFT XJUI TVQQPSU BOEUIBU UIFSF JTB QPTJUJWF
DMJNBUFGPSMFBSOJOHBOEUSBJOJOH
// A MODEL OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS
*OUIJTGJOBMTFDUJPOPGUIFDIBQUFS XFQSFTFOUB NPEFMPGUSBJOJOHFGGFDUJWFOFTTUIBU
IJHIMJHIUTUIFMJOLBHFTCFUXFFOUSBJOJOHBOEMFBSOJOHBOECFUXFFOMFBSOJOHBOEJOEJ
WJEVBMQFSGPSNBODFBOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMFGGFDUJWFOFTT
64
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
'JHVSFQSFTFOUTBNPEFMPGUSBJOJOHFGGFDUJWFOFTT3FDBMMGSPN$IBQUFSUIBU
trainingJOWPMWFTUIFBDRVJTJUJPOPGLOPXMFEHF TLJMMT BOEBCJMJUJFTUPJNQSPWFQFSGPS
NBODFPOPOFTDVSSFOUKPC BOEdevelopmentJOWPMWFTUIFBDRVJTJUJPOPGLOPXMFEHF TLJMMT BOEBCJMJUJFTSFRVJSFEUPQFSGPSNGVUVSFKPCSFTQPOTJCJMJUJFT5IVT UIFGJSTUJNQPSUBOU
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JOEJWJEVBMGBDUPSTUIBUJOGMVFODFMFBSOJOH"NPOHUIFNPTUJNQPSUBOUJTDPHOJUJWFBCJMJUZ
Cognitive abilityJTTJNJMBSUPJOUFMMJHFODF*USFGMFDUTBOJOEJWJEVBMTCBTJDJOGPSNBUJPO
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SVMFTBOEQSPDFEVSFT BOETPPO$PHOJUJWFBCJMJUZ WFSCBMDPNQSFIFOTJPO RVBOUJUBUJWF
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3FDBMMUIFFBSMJFSEJTDVTTJPOPG"$5UIFPSZBOESFTPVSDFBMMPDBUJPOUIFPSZ JOXIJDI
JUXBTOPUFEUIBUDPHOJUJWFBCJMJUZJTQBSUJDVMBSMZJNQPSUBOUEVSJOHUIFFBSMZTUBHFTPG
MFBSOJOH *O GBDU SFTFBSDI IBT DPOTJTUFOUMZ TIPXO UIBU HFOFSBM DPHOJUJWF BCJMJUZ JT B
For more information see
Chapter 1, p. 7
Cognitive ability
An individual’s basic
information-processing
capacities and cognitive
resources
FIGURE 2.2
MODEL OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS
Job
Attitudes
Cognitive
Ability
Training
and
Development
Training
Motivation
Self-Efficacy
Learning
and Retention
Individual
Behaviour
and Performance
Organizational
Effectiveness
Personality
Characteristics
Goal
Orientation
NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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65
Core self-evaluations
(CSE)
An individual’s selfappraisal of their worthiness, competence,
and capability as a
person that consists
of four specific traits
(general self-efficacy,
self-esteem, locus of
control, and emotional
stability)
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// SUMMARY
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66
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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BOEQFSGPSNBODF BOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMFGGFDUJWFOFTT
KEY TERMS
BDIJFWFNFOUNPUJWBUJPOQ
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BOESBHPHZQ
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DIBJOJOHQ
DPHOJUJWFBCJMJUZQ
DPOTDJFOUJPVTOFTTQ
DPSFTFMGFWBMVBUJPOT $4& Q
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MFBSOJOHQ
MFBSOJOHDZDMFQ
MFBSOJOHHPBMPSJFOUBUJPO -(0 Q
MFBSOJOHHPBMTQ
MFBSOJOHTUZMFQ
MPDVTPGDPOUSPMQ
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PCTFSWBUJPO Q
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QSPDFEVSBMLOPXMFEHFQ
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QSPYJNBMHPBMQ
SFTPVSDFBMMPDBUJPOUIFPSZQ
TFMGFGGJDBDZQ
TFMGSFHVMBUFEMFBSOJOHQ
TFMGSFHVMBUJPOQ
TFMGSFHVMBUJPOQSPNQUTQ
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TPDJBMMFBSOJOH Q
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7"3,Q
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NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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67
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
(JWFOUIFJNQPSUBODFPGNPUJWBUJPOGPSMFBSOJOHBOEUSBJOJOHPVUDPNFT XIBUTIPVME
USBJOFSTEPUPFOTVSFUIBUUSBJOFFTBSFNPUJWBUFEUPMFBSO 8IBUTIPVMENBOBHFST
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%JTDVTT,PMCTBOE'MFNJOHTNPEFMTPGMFBSOJOHTUZMFTBOEUIFJSJNQMJDBUJPOTGPS
UIFEFTJHOPGUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT8IBUBSFUIFTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFO
UIF UXP NPEFMT 6TJOH FBDI NPEFM EFTDSJCF IPX USBJOJOH QSPHSBNT TIPVME CF
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8IBUBSFUIFTPVSDFTPGJOGPSNBUJPOUIBUJOGMVFODFTFMGFGGJDBDZ )PXDBOUSBJOFST
JNQSPWFUSBJOFFTTFMGFGGJDBDZ )PXDBOTVQFSWJTPSTJNQSPWFUSBJOFFTTFMGFGGJDBDZ 8IBUDBOUSBJOFFTEPUPJNQSPWFUIFJSPXOTFMGFGGJDBDZ
8IBUBSFUIFUISFFTUBHFTPGMFBSOJOHBDDPSEJOHUP"$5UIFPSZ (JWFBOFYBNQMF
PGIPXBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNNJHIUCFEFTJHOFEBDDPSEJOHUP"$5UIFPSZ
*GBOJOTUSVDUPSPGPOFPGZPVSDPVSTFTXBOUFEUPNBYJNJ[FTUVEFOUMFBSOJOH XIBU
TIPVMEIFTIFEPBDDPSEJOHUPDPOEJUJPOJOHUIFPSZ TPDJBMDPHOJUJWFUIFPSZ BOE
BEVMUMFBSOJOHUIFPSZ *GIFTIFXBOUFEUPNPUJWBUFTUVEFOUTUPBUUFOEDMBTTBOE
MFBSO XIBUTIPVMEIFTIFEPBDDPSEJOHUPHPBMTFUUJOHUIFPSZ
%JTDVTTIPXHPBMTFUUJOHUIFPSZDBOCFVTFEUPJNQSPWFUSBJOFFMFBSOJOHJOBUSBJOJOH
QSPHSBN8IBULJOEPGHPBMTIPVMECFTFUGPSUSBJOFFT %JTDVTTUIFSFMFWBODFPGUBTL
DPNQMFYJUZ HPBMPSJFOUBUJPO BOEUZQFPGHPBM QSPYJNBMBOEEJTUBM $PNQBSFBOEDPOUSBTUUIFUXPMFBSOJOHPVUDPNFTDMBTTJGJDBUJPOTDIFNFTJO5BCMF
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QSPHSBNJTEFTJHOFEUPBDIJFWF 8IBUBDUJWJUJFTBSFCFJOHVTFEUPBDIJFWFFBDIMFBSOJOH
PVUDPNF 6TFCPUIDMBTTJGJDBUJPOTDIFNFTJO5BCMFUPBOTXFSUIJTRVFTUJPO
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NJHIUUIJTIBWFPOUSBJOFFT
8IBUBSFUIFTJYDPSFQSJODJQMFTPGBEVMUMFBSOJOHUIFPSZBOEXIBUBSFUIFJNQMJDB
UJPOTPGFBDIPGUIFNGPSUIFEFTJHOPGUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUQSPHSBNT
8IBUJTUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOGPSNBMBOEJOGPSNBMMFBSOJOH BOEXIBUDBOPSHBOJ[B
UJPOTEPUPGBDJMJUBUFJOGPSNBMMFBSOJOH 8IBUBSFUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFT
PGGPSNBMBOEJOGPSNBMMFBSOJOH
THE GREAT TRAINING DEBATE
%FCBUF UIF GPMMPXJOH (JWFO UIBU DPHOJUJWF BCJMJUZ PS USBJOJOH NPUJWBUJPO JT B
TUSPOH QSFEJDUPS PG MFBSOJOH POMZ USBJOFFT XJUI IJHI DPHOJUJWF BCJMJUZ PS IJHI
USBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO TIPVMECFBMMPXFEUPBUUFOEUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT TJODFUIPTF
XJUIMPXDPHOJUJWFBCJMJUZ PSMPXUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO BSFOPUMJLFMZUPMFBSOPS
CFOFGJUGSPNUSBJOJOH
68
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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JOGPSNBMMFBSOJOHBOESFEVDFUIFJSTQFOEJOHPOGPSNBMUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT
EXERCISES
IN-CLASS
:PVIBWFBGSJFOEXIPTFHSBOENPUIFSJTBCPVUUPBUUFOEBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNPOIPX
UPVTFDPNQVUFST BOETIFIBTWFSZMPXTFMGFGGJDBDZBCPVUIFSBCJMJUZUPMFBSOBOE
UPVTFBDPNQVUFS%FTDSJCFTPNFPGUIFUIJOHTZPVSGSJFOETIPVMEEPQSJPSUPUIF
USBJOJOHQSPHSBNUPJODSFBTFIFSHSBOENPUIFSTTFMGFGGJDBDZ
$POTJEFS,PMCTGPVSMFBSOJOHNPEFTBOETUZMFTBOEIPXUIFZNJHIUBQQMZUPZPVS
DPVSTFPOUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUPSBOPUIFSDPVSTFZPVBSFUBLJOH)PXTIPVME
UIF DPVSTF CF EFTJHOFE TP JU GPMMPXT ,PMCT MFBSOJOH DZDMF DPODSFUF FYQFSJFODF SFGMFDUJWFPCTFSWBUJPO BCTUSBDUDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO BOEBDUJWFFYQFSJNFOUBUJPO #F
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DZDMF/PXDPOTJEFS'MFNJOHT7"3,NPEFM)PXTIPVMEUIFDPVSTFCFEFTJHOFE
TPUIBUJUJTNVMUJNPEBM
6TJOHUIFNBUFSJBMPOHPBMTFUUJOHUIFPSZ TFUBHPBMGPSZPVSUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQ
NFOUDPVSTF5IBUJT TFUBTQFDJGJDBOEDIBMMFOHJOHHPBMUIBUZPVXJMMCFDPNNJUUFE
UP*OBEEJUJPO EFUFSNJOFIPXBOEXIFOZPVXJMMCFBCMFUPPCUBJOGFFECBDL#F
TVSFUPBMTPTFUBMFBSOJOHHPBM BQFSGPSNBODFHPBM BQSPYJNBMHPBM BOEEJTUBMHPBM
0ODFZPVIBWFTFUZPVSHPBMT NFFUXJUIBOPUIFSNFNCFSPGUIFDMBTTUPSFWJFX
BOEFWBMVBUFFBDIPUIFSTHPBMTGPSUIFDPVSTF
$POTJEFSBDPVSTFZPVBSFDVSSFOUMZUBLJOHBOEFYBNJOFJUJOUFSNTPGBEVMUMFBSOJOH
UIFPSZ5PXIBUFYUFOUEPFTZPVSDPVSTFJODPSQPSBUFUIFQSJODJQMFTPGBEVMUMFBSOJOH
UIFPSZ 8IJDIBTQFDUTPGUIFDPVSTFJODPSQPSBUFBEVMUMFBSOJOHUIFPSZBOEXIJDI
BTQFDUTEPOPU *GZPVXFSFUPSFEFTJHOUIFDPVSTFUPNBLFJUNPSFDPOTJTUFOUXJUI
UIFQSJODJQMFT PGBEVMU MFBSOJOH UIFPSZ XIBU BSFTPNF PGUIFUIJOHT ZPVXPVME
DIBOHF
5SBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOJTBOJNQPSUBOUQSFEJDUPSPGUSBJOJOHPVUDPNFT TPJUJTJNQPS
UBOUUIBUUSBJOFSTFOTVSFUSBJOFFTUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOJTIJHI:PVNJHIUIBWFOPUJDFE
IPXZPVSPXOUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOJOGMVFODFTZPVSMFBSOJOHBOEQFSGPSNBODFJO
BDPVSTFPSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN8IBUBSFTPNFPGUIFUIJOHTUIBUBUSBJOFSPSDPVSTF
JOTUSVDUPSTIPVMEEPTPUIBUUSBJOFFTUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPOJTIJHI #FTVSFUPDPOTJEFS
JOEJWJEVBMBOETJUVBUJPOBMGBDUPST
3FWJFX UIF NPEFM PG USBJOJOH FGGFDUJWFOFTT JO 'JHVSF "TTFTT ZPVS QPUFOUJBM
MFBSOJOHBOESFUFOUJPOPGBDPVSTFZPVBSFDVSSFOUMZUBLJOHCZFWBMVBUJOHZPVSTFMGBT
CFTUZPVDBOPOFBDIPGUIFQSFEJDUPSTJOUIFNPEFM JF DPHOJUJWFBCJMJUZ BUUJUVEFT TFMGFGGJDBDZ HPBMPSJFOUBUJPO QFSTPOBMJUZDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT BOEUSBJOJOHNPUJWBUJPO #BTFEPOZPVSBTTFTTNFOU IPXTVDDFTTGVMXJMMZPVSMFBSOJOHBOESFUFOUJPOPGUIF
DPVSTFNBUFSJBMCF 8IBUQSFEJDUPSTDBOZPVUSZUPDIBOHFUPFOIBODFZPVSMFBSOJOH
BOESFUFOUJPOPGUIFDPVSTFNBUFSJBM
NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
69
3FWJFXUIFNBUFSJBMPOTFMGSFHVMBUJPOJOUIFDIBQUFSBOEUIFOEFTJHOBTFMGSFHVMBUJPO
USBJOJOHQSPHSBNUPIFMQZPVMFBSOBOEJNQSPWFBTLJMMPSCFIBWJPVSUIBUZPVXBOUUP
JNQSPWF JF NBLJOHQSFTFOUBUJPOT UJNFNBOBHFNFOU FYFSDJTJOH RVJUUJOHTNPLJOH FUD 0ODFZPVIBWFDIPTFOBTLJMMPSCFIBWJPVS QSFQBSFBTFMGSFHVMBUJPOQSPHSBN
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CFIBWJPVSPGPUIFSTTFUTQFDJGJDHPBMTXIFOZPVXJMMQSBDUJTFBOESFIFBSTFUIFEFTJSFE
CFIBWJPVSTIPXZPVXJMMLFFQUSBDLPGZPVSQSPHSFTTBOEIPXZPVXJMMSFXBSEZPVS
TFMGGPSHPBMBDIJFWFNFOU 0ODFZPVIBWFQSFQBSFEZPVSQSPHSBN NFFUXJUIBOPUIFS
NFNCFSPGUIFDMBTTUPSFWJFXBOEFWBMVBUFFBDIPUIFSTTFMGSFHVMBUJPOQSPHSBN
5FDIOPDFMM $BOBEB 5$$ JT B TVCTJEJBSZ PG UIF (FSNBO HSPVQ 'FMJY 4DIPFMMFS
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70
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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CASE INCIDENT
MANAGEMENT TRAINING AT IKEA
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NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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71
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QUESTIONS
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CASE STUDY
THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL TRAINING PROGRAM
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72
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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73
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FLASHBACK QUESTIONS
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REWRITE THE CASE QUESTION: KOLB’S LEARNING CYCLE
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74
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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RUNNING CASE STUDY DIRTY POOLS
QUESTIONS
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// REFERENCES
-FXJT $ .BSDI ,FFQJOHZPVSFNQMPZFFTVQXJUIUIF
UJNFT‰'SFFPGDIBSHFCanadian HR Reporter 27 "CCPUU "VHVTU "CCPUUMBVODIFTBOFXBQQSFOUJDFTIJQQSPHSBNGPSJUT
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of industrial and organizational psychology QQo 4LPLJF *-3BOE
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MFBSOJOHPOMFBSOJOHPVUDPNFTBOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMQFSGPSNBODFHuman
Resource Development Quarterly 22 o
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CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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75
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77
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78
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CHAPTER 2 Learning and Motivation
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79
CHAPTER
3
THE NEEDS ANALYSIS
PROCESS
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
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Several years ago, TD Bank became concerned about
the growing number of robberies at its branches. It was
clear that something had to be done to protect employees
and customers. The first thing they did was conduct a
needs analysis that included focus groups, interviews,
and surveys.
The needs analysis revealed the need to design a
training program that would focus not just on robbery
prevention but also on what happens afterward. An outline
was developed for a training program that centred on
three areas: the most common types of robberies, what
happens during robbery attempts, and what processes
and behaviours are considered best practices in the financial sector.
The objectives of the training program were to reduce
the number of robberies, enhance risk-management practices, improve robbery prevention, and reduce financial
losses. The instructional designers worked with external
subject-matter experts and networks to determine learning
objectives. They also partnered with the RCMP and an
armed robbery association in the United States to ensure
there was a good North America–wide perspective.
The various components were designed, reviewed,
deployed, and tested, and the program was piloted with
trainers; a train-the-trainer leader’s guide was developed,
followed by train-the-trainer sessions.
The course content includes strategy tools; tactics
for robbery prevention; procedures and actions to follow
during a robbery; employee and customer safety standards
procedures; documentation and communication strategies;
and tips, tactics, and tools for dealing with trauma.
The training program uses a blended learning
approach that includes e-learning, in-branch training
sessions, and ongoing coaching. The e-learning course
focuses on what to do before, during, and after a robbery,
and it includes video clips. The e-learning takes about
30 minutes and has to be completed before the in-branch
training. Employees also take a test that requires them
to achieve a score of 80 percent to receive credit for the
course.
NEL
Colin Mcconnell/Toronto Star/Getty Images
TD BANK
TD Bank’s Robbery Prevention and Awareness training program
won a silver award for training excellence from the Institute for
Performance and Learning.
The in-branch training program reviews the key
learning points from the e-learning training, and includes
role plays and debriefing sessions. A second in-branch
session is provided six months later. In addition, each year
employees are required to review the e-learning course,
including a “What’s New” section. Once the training is
completed, participants and stakeholders give quantitative
and qualitative formal evaluations.
More than 21 000 employees have completed the
Robbery Prevention and Awareness training program and
are now better prepared to face a robbery situation. TD has
seen a reduction in the number of robberies, enhanced
risk management practices and procedures, improved
prevention through ongoing vigilance, and improved the
safety of customers and employees. In addition, there was
a 41 percent reduction in cash losses and an 11 percent
decrease in the number of robberies. In addition, TD’s
Robbery Prevention and Awareness training program won
a silver award for training excellence from the Institute for
Performance and Learning.1
Source: Dobson, S. (2010, November 29). Learning to avoid the bad
guys. Canadian HR Reporter, 23(21), p. 24. Reprinted by permission
of Canadian HR Reporter. © Copyright Thomson Reuters Canada Ltd.,
2010, Toronto, Ontario, 1-800-387-5164. Web: www.hrreporter.com.
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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81
// INTRODUCTION
For more information see
Chapter 1, pp. 23–26
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// WHAT IS A NEEDS ANALYSIS?
Needs analysis
A process to identify
gaps or deficiencies in
employee and organizational performance
Need
A gap between current
and desired results
82
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// THE NEEDS ANALYSIS PROCESS
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For more information see
Chapter 1, p. 25
FIGURE 3.1
THE NEEDS ANALYSIS PROCESS
Concern
Important?
Yes
No
Terminate
Consult Stakeholders
Collect Information
Organizational
Analysis
1. Strategic alignment
2. Environment
3. Resource analysis
4. Organizational context
Task Analysis
Person Analysis
1. Identify target jobs
2. Obtain description
3. Develop rating scales
4. Survey incumbents
5. Analyze and interpret
information
6. Provide feedback
1. Define desired
performance
2. Determine gap
3. Identify obstacles
Outcomes
1. Performance gaps
2. Solutions to performance gaps
3. Where training is needed
4. The type of training needed
5. Who needs to be trained
6. Specification of learning objectives
7. How training should be designed and delivered
8. The development of criteria for evaluation
NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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83
STEP ONE: A CONCERN
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84
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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85
// ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
Organizational
analysis
The study of the entire
organization, including
its strategy, environment, resources, and
context
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STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT
For more information see
Chapter 1, p. 20
Strategic training and
development (ST&D)
The alignment of an
organization’s training
needs and programs
with an organization’s
strategy and objectives
86
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TRAINING TODAY
3.1
STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT AT MILLERCOORS
During the past few years, tastes in beer and alcohol have
continued to evolve. Consumer choices have increased
dramatically and competition from other beverages such
as craft beers, wines, and spirits has risen.
To keep up with increasingly sophisticated palettes
and consumers looking for more flavours, MillerCoors,
which is a business unit in the United States of Molson
Coors Brewing Company, created a new strategy to market
current brands and find space for new products. The
results led to a new learning and development strategy
for the company’s marketers.
The strategy included four 90-minute learning modules
and two full-day work sessions disseminated over 10 weeks
to 160 marketers. Train-the-trainer sessions for subjectmatter experts were provided, and new strategies were
applied in a risk-free environment. These modules culminated
in a three-day live academy during which the new strategy
became part of the company’s brand plan for the future.
To gain consumer preference in a fragmented
market, MillerCoors also worked to solve the challenges
it has experienced in restaurants and bars. Some of the
company’s brands were seeing declining volume due to
the increased competition. To strengthen those brands,
MillerCoors moved from a tactical selling approach to a
strategic one. The company then created a development
track to support execution. Sales staff learned how to personalize their approach, working to understand customer
needs. That approach coupled with leveraging innovative
technology allowed them to come up with unique selling
solutions.
Better recruiting practices, training and education
programs, and equipping sales staff with the necessary
skills and customer-centric mindset have paid off. Not
only are several MillerCoors flagship brands showing
momentum, but the organization was rated the number 1
supplier in the Tamarron Survey, which is voted on by U.S.
beer, wine, and liquor distributors. In addition, MillerCoors
was rated one of the best organizations for talent development by the Association for Talent Development in
2016.
Source: Republished with permission of the Association of Talent Development (ATD), from Anonymous. (2016, October). Building talent: The very
best of 2016—MillerCoors. TD Magazine, 70(10), p. 41. Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
ENVIRONMENT
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NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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87
Zorandim/Shutterstock.com
Compliance training
Training programs that
are mandated by government legislation and
regulations as well as
industry and organization policies
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RESOURCE ANALYSIS
In Ontario, all workers and supervisors who are subject
to the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA) must
complete a mandatory health and safety awareness
training program.
88
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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"resource analysisJOWPMWFTJEFOUJGZJOHUIFSFTPVSDFTBWBJMBCMFJOUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPO
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IBTUIFSFTPVSDFTSFRVJSFEGPSUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUJGJUJTOFFEFE
Resource analysis
The identification of
the resources available
in an organization that
might be required to
design and implement
training and development programs
ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT
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NEL
Organizational
climate
The collective attitudes
of employees toward
work, supervision, and
company goals, policies, and procedures
Training transfer
climate
Characteristics in the
work environment that
can either facilitate or
inhibit the application
of training on the job
Learning culture
The attitudes and
practices within the
organization regarding
the importance placed
on organizational
learning and employee
development
Continuous learning
culture
A culture in which
members of an organization believe that
knowledge and skill
acquisition are part of
their job responsibilities and that learning
is an important part
of work life in the
organization
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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89
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
3.1
CONTINUOUS LEARNING CULTURE DIAGNOSIS
The following is a survey to determine whether an organization has a continuous learning culture. Use the scale
to answer each of the statements below about your
organization.
t Employees are rewarded for learning new things.
t Employees are given opportunities on the job to
apply what they have learned.
t Employees feel that they work in a place where
innovation is encouraged.
t Employees receive excellent on-the-job training.
t Supervisors give employees recognition and credit
when they use new knowledge and skills to do
their job.
t Supervisors openly express their support of continuous learning.
t Co-workers encourage each other to use new
knowledge and skills on the job.
15 Strongly disagree
2 5 Disagree
3 5 Neither agree nor disagree
4 5 Agree
5 5 Strongly agree
t Acquiring knowledge and skills is an essential part
of the job.
t Assignments are challenging and are designed to
help employees develop new skills.
t Co-workers help each other to learn by sharing
their job knowledge and helping to understand
how jobs are interconnected.
Total your scores for all 10 items. Your total score can
range from 10 to 50. Higher scores indicate a stronger
learning culture.
Source: Copyright © 1995 by the American Psychological Association. Tracey, J. Bruce, Tannenbaum, S. I., & Kavanagh, M. J. (April 1995). Applying
trained skills on the job: The importance of the work environment, Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(2), 239–252. The use of APA information does
not imply endorsement by APA.
Task analysis
The process of
obtaining information
about a job by determining the duties,
tasks, and activities
involved and the
knowledge, skills,
and abilities (KSAs)
required to perform
the tasks
90
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// TASK ANALYSIS
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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Job description
A statement of the
tasks, duties, and
responsibilities of a job
Competency
A cluster of related
knowledge, skills, and
abilities that enables
the job holder to
perform effectively
DEVELOP RATING SCALES TO RATE THE IMPORTANCE AND DIFFICULTY OF EACH TASK AND THE
FREQUENCY WITH WHICH IT IS PERFORMED 3BUJOHTDBMFTBSFEFWFMPQFEUPSBUFUIFJNQPSUBODF
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NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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91
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TABLE 3.1
SAMPLE TASK ANALYSIS SURVEY
For each of the following tasks, please make three ratings. Looking at your own job, assess
the importance of the task by circling a number from 1 (not important) to 5 (very important)
and the difficulty of the task by circling a number from 1 (not very difficult) to 5 (very difficult).
Then, consider how frequently you perform the task and rate it from 1 (very infrequently) to
5 (very frequently).
92
Task
Importance
Difficulty
Frequency
Knowledge: Explain technical
information to co-workers
12345
12345
12345
Control: Develop procedures to monitor
and evaluate activities
12345
12345
12345
Planning: Schedule time, tasks, and
activities efficiently
12345
12345
12345
Coaching: Provide verbal feedback
to assist in the development of more
effective ways of handling situations
12345
12345
12345
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// COGNITIVE TASK ANALYSIS
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Cognitive task
analysis (CTA)
A set of procedures
that focuses on understanding the mental
processes and skills
required for performing
a job
Team task analysis
An analysis of tasks
as well as the teambased competencies
(knowledge, skills, and
attitudes) associated
with the tasks
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NEL
think4photop/Shutterstock.com
// TEAM TASK ANALYSIS
A team task analysis identifies the knowledge and
team-related skills required to work in a group.
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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93
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// PERSON ANALYSIS
Person analysis
The process of
studying employee
behaviour and performance to determine
whether performance
meets standards
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of training do they need?
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94
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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IDENTIFY THE OBSTACLES TO EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE 8IFO B HBQ FYJTUT CFUXFFO UIF
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QSPCMFN*OUIFOFYUTFDUJPO XFEFTDSJCFUIFQSPDFTTPGEFUFSNJOJOHTPMVUJPOTUPQFS
GPSNBODFQSPCMFNT
For more information see
Chapter 2, pp. 65–66
// DETERMINING SOLUTIONS TO PERFORMANCE
PROBLEMS
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TABLE 3.2
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE
HUMAN
TECHNICAL
INFORMATION
STRUCTURAL
Lack of knowledge
Poor job design
Ill-defined goals/
objectives
Overlapping roles
and responsibilities
Lack of skills
Lack of tools/
equipment
Lack of performance
measurements
Lack of flexibility
Lack of motivation
Lack of standardized
procedures
Raw data, not normative
or comparative data
Lack of control
systems
Counterproductive
reward systems
Rapid change in
technology
Resources
sub-optimized
Organizational
political climate
Group norms
Ineffective feedback
Informal leaders
Source: Republished with permission of International Society for Performance Improvement, from R. Chevalier, “Analyzing performance
discrepancies with Line Managers,” Performance Improvement, Vol. 29, No. 10, p. 23; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance
Center, Inc.
NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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95
Contingency
management
Practices based on the
belief that every act
has a consequence
and if the consequence
is a reward, then the
act will be repeated
96
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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FIGURE 3.2
Whose Performance Is
Concerning You?
A
NO
NO
Done
NO
Can We Apply
Fast Fixes?
Provide
Feedback
NO
NO
Provide
Resources
NO
Provide
Feedback
Provide
Practice
YES
Performance
Quality Visible?
YES
Problem
Sufficiently
Solved?
YES
Can Task Be
Made Easier?
Done
Any Other
Obstacles?
YES
Remove
Punishment
YES
Person
Has Potential
to Change?
Remove
Rewards
Remove
Obstacles
NO
Replace
Person
Select
Best
Solution(s)
Draft
Action
Plan
YES
NO
Are
Performance
Consequences Used
Effectively?
YES
NO
NO
Is Poor
Performance
Rewarding?
Simplify
Task
Are There
More Clues?
Is Desired
Performance
Punishing?
YES
NO
NO
Are Consequences
Appropriate?
YES
Used
Often?
Clarify
Expectations
YES
Resources
Adequate?
Did It in
the Past?
YES
YES
Expectations
Clear?
YES/
NOT SURE
NO
Describe
Discrepancy
Worth
Pursuing?
Genuine
Skill Deficiency?
Do They Already
Know How?
Is It Worth
Solving?
What’s the
Problem?
MAGER AND PIPE’S PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS FLOWCHART FOR DETERMINING SOLUTIONS TO PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS
Train
NO
Provide/
Rearrange
Consequences
YES
NO
To A
Calculate
Costs
Implement
and
Monitor
YES
Done
Select and Implement
Solutions
Problem
Sufficiently Solved?
Source: © 2012 Mager Associates, Inc. Adapted from Mager, R. F., & Pipe, P. (1997). Analyzing performance problems (3rd ed.).
NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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97
For more information see
Chapter 2, p. 53
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
3.2
THE TRAINING SOLUTION CHECKLIST
Trainers are often asked to provide training to correct a
performance problem. However, training is not always
the best solution, and trainers should ask the following
questions to determine whether training is an appropriate
solution:
1. What are the performance (or operating) problems?
Don’t ask, “What is the training need?”
2. Describe the current performance and desired
performance.
3. Could employees perform as desired if they had
to? Did they ever perform as expected in the
past?
98
4. If employees have performed as expected in the past,
do they need practice, feedback, or specific and challenging goals?
5. If employees perform as you want them to, what are
the consequences for them? Are they rewarded for
good performance and goal accomplishment?
6. Are there any other reasons why employees might
not be performing as desired?
7. If we find a solution to the performance problem, how
will we know that the problem has been solved? What
behaviours, skills, or results will change?
8. Is training the solution?
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 3.3
PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS AND TRAINING
Training is often the best solution to performance problems under the following conditions:
t The task is performed frequently.
t The task is difficult.
t Correct performance is critical.
t The employee does not know how to perform as required (cannot do it).
t Performance expectations and goals are clear, and employees receive feedback on their
performance.
t There are (or will be) positive consequences for correct work behaviour; there are not
negative consequences for performing as required.
t Other solutions (such as coaching) are ineffective or too expensive (e.g., terminating
employees and rehiring those with required skills).
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// NEEDS ANALYSIS METHODS
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NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
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99
TABLE 3.4
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NINE BASIC NEEDS ANALYSIS METHODS
METHODS
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
t can be as technical as time–motion
studies or as functionally or behaviourally specific as observing a new
board or staff member interacting
during a meeting
t minimizes interruption of routine
work flow or group activity
t requires a highly skilled observer
with both process and content
knowledge (unlike an interviewer,
who needs, for the most part, only
process skills)
t may be as unstructured as walking
through an agency’s offices on the
lookout for evidence of communication barriers
t generates in situ data, highly
relevant to the situation affected
by response to identified training
needs/interests will impact
t carries limitations that derive from
being able to collect data only within
the work setting (the other side
of the first advantage listed in the
preceding column)
t can be used normatively to distinguish between effective and ineffective behaviours, organizational
structures, and/or process
t (when combined with a feedback
step) provides for important comparison checks between inferences
of the observer and the respondent
t holds potential for respondents to
perceive the observation activity as
“spying”
t may be in the form of surveys
or polls of a random or stratified
sample of respondents, or an enumeration of an entire “population”
t can reach a large number of
people in a short time
t make little provision for free
expression of unanticipated
responses
t can use a variety of question formats: open ended, projective, forced
choice, priority ranking
t are relatively inexpensive
t require substantial time (and
technical skills, especially in survey
mode) for development of effective
instruments
t can take alternative forms such
as Q-sorts, or slip-sorts, rating
scales, either predesigned or selfgenerated by respondent(s)
t give opportunity for expression
without fear of embarrassment
t are of limited utility in getting at
causes of problems or possible
solutions
t may be self-administered (by mail)
under controlled or uncontrolled
conditions, or may require the presence of an interpreter or assistant
t yield data easily summarized and
reported
t suffer low return rates (mailed),
grudging responses, or unintended
and/or inappropriate respondents
t is relatively simple and
inexpensive to conduct
t carries a built-in bias, since it is
based on views of those who tend
to see training needs from their
own individual or organizational
perspective
OBSERVATION
QUESTIONNAIRES
KEY CONSULTATION
t secures information from those persons who, by virtue of their formal
or informal standing, are in a good
position to know what the training
needs of a particular group are:
100
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 3.4 (Continued)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NINE BASIC NEEDS ANALYSIS METHODS
a. board chairman
b. related service providers
c. members of professional
associations
d. individuals from the service
population
t permits input and interaction of a
number of individuals, each with
his or her own perspectives of
the needs of the area, discipline,
group, etc.
t may result in only a partial picture
of training needs due to the typically
nonrepresentative nature (in a
statistical sense) of a key informant
group
t establishes and strengthens
lines of communication between
participants in the process
PRINT MEDIA
t can include professional journals,
legislative news/notes, industry
“rags,” trade magazines, in-house
publications
t is an excellent source of information for uncovering and clarifying
normative needs
t can be a problem when it comes
to the data analysis and synthesis
into a usable form (use of clipping
service or key consultants can make
this type of data more usable)
t provides information that is
current, if not forward-looking
t is readily available and is apt to
have already been reviewed by the
client group
INTERVIEWS
t can be formal or casual, structured
or unstructured, or somewhere in
between
t may be used with a sample of
a particular group (board, staff,
committee) or conducted with
everyone concerned
t can be done in person, by phone, at
the work site, or away from it
t are adept at revealing feelings,
causes of, and possible solutions to problems that the client
is facing (or anticipates); provide
maximum opportunity for the client
to represent himself spontaneously
on his own terms (especially when
conducted in an open-ended,
non-directive manner)
t are usually time-consuming
t can be difficult to analyze and
quantify results (especially from
unstructured formats)
t unless the interviewer is skilled, the
client(s) can easily be made to feel
self-conscious
t relies for success on a skillful
interviewer who can generate data
without making client(s) feel selfconscious, suspicious, etc.
t permits on-the-spot synthesis of
different viewpoints
t is time-consuming (therefore initially
expensive) both for the consultant
and the agency
GROUP DISCUSSION
t resembles face-to-face interview
technique, e.g., structured or
unstructured, formal or informal, or
somewhere in between
NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
101
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TABLE 3.4 (Continued)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NINE BASIC NEEDS ANALYSIS METHODS
t can be focused on job (role) analysis, group problem analysis, group
goal setting, or any number of group
tasks or themes, e.g., “leadership
training needs of the board”
t builds support for the particular
service response that is ultimately
decided on
t uses one or several of the familiar
group facilitating techniques:
brainstorming, nominal group
process, force fields, consensus
rankings, organizational mirroring,
simulation, and sculpting
t decreases client’s “dependence
response” toward the service provided, since data analysis is
(or can be) a shared function
t can produce data that are difficult
to synthesize and quantify (more of
a problem with the less structured
techniques)
t helps participants become
better problem analysts, better
listeners, etc.
TESTS
t are a hybridized form of
questionnaire
t can be especially helpful in
determining whether the cause
of a recognized problem is a
deficiency in knowledge, skill,
or—by elimination—attitude
t the availability of a relatively small
number of tests that are validated
for a specific situation
t can be very functionally oriented
(like observations) to test a board,
staff, or committee member’s
proficiency
t results are easily quantifiable
and comparable
t do not indicate whether measured
knowledge and skills are actually
being used in the on-the-job or
“back home group” situation
t can consist of organizational
charts, planning documents, policy
manuals, audits, and budget reports
t provide excellent clues to trouble
spots
t causes of problems or possible
solutions often do not show up
t employee records (grievances,
turnover, accidents, etc.)
t provide objective evidence of the
results of problems within the
agency or group
t carry perspectives that generally
reflect the past situation rather than
the current one (or recent changes)
t includes minutes of meetings,
weekly/monthly program reports,
memoranda, agency service
records, program evaluation studies
t can be collected with minimum
effort and interruption of work
flow, since they already exist at
the work site
t need a skilled data analyst if clear
patterns and trends are to emerge
from such technical and diffuse
raw data
t may be used to sample learned
ideas and facts
t can be administered with or without
the presence of an assistant
RECORDS AND REPORTS
102
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 3.4 (Continued)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NINE BASIC NEEDS ANALYSIS METHODS
WORK SAMPLES
t are similar to observation but in
written form
t carry most of the advantage of
records and reports data
t case study method will take time
away from actual work of the
organization
t can be products generated in the
course of the organization’s work,
e.g., ad layouts, program proposals,
market analyses, letters, training
designs, or
t are the organization’s data
(its own output)
t need specialized content analysts
t written responses to a hypothetical
but relevant case study provided by
the consultant
t analyst’s assessment of strengths/
weaknesses disclosed by samples
can be challenged as “too subjective”
Source: Adapted with permission of the Association for Talent Development (ATD), from Steadham, S. V. (1980, January). Learning to select a needs assessment strategy. Training and
Development Journal, 34(1), 58. Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
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NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
103
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
Rapid needs analysis
A quick and inexpensive needs analysis
that involves gathering
available information
and using data that
already exist
3.3
HOW TO CONDUCT A RAPID NEEDS ANALYSIS
t Ask a series of questions. When a manager
demands a training course for employees, the
trainer should start by asking questions related
to the nature of the problem and its impact on the
business. Some trainers even agree to conduct a
training course, as per the manager’s demand, and
then renegotiate the assignment as information
emerges from interviews with employees before
the course. Managers may be receptive to the
emerging data, recognizing the need to design
solutions that solve the problem.
t Use existing information. Surveys, interviews,
and observations are expensive data-collection
methods. But most organizations keep customer
complaint letters, grievance files, exit interviews,
and sales data, which can be re-assessed for
needs analysis purposes.
t Speed up data collection. Use the company
intranet to survey employees. Start discussion
groups about issues, concerns, and problems.
t Link assessment and delivery. Rather than conduct
a lengthy needs analysis and then design a training
program, some trainers attempt to join the two
together, in small steps. For example, if there are
star performers, bring them together in a forum with
poorer performers to discuss effective techniques.
The poorer performers can compare performance
and learn how to improve at the same time.
Source: Adapted from Zemke, R. (1998). How to do a needs assessment when you think you don’t have time. Training Magazine, 35(3), 38–44.
Trainingmag.com
// SUMMARY
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NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
105
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KEY TERMS
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
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UIFLJOETPGJOGPSNBUJPOUIBUNJHIUFYJTUJOBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOBOEIPXJUNJHIUCF
VTFGVMGPSBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOBM BUBTL BOEPSBQFSTPOBOBMZTJT
*GOFFETBOBMZTJTJOGPSNBUJPOIBTOPUCFFOVTFEBTUIFCBTJTGPSUIFEFTJHOBOEEFMJWFSZ
PG B USBJOJOH QSPHSBN XIBU BSF TPNF PG UIF SFBTPOT UIBU PSHBOJ[BUJPOT QSPWJEF
USBJOJOH "SFUIFTFHPPESFBTPOTGPSJOWFTUJOHJOUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUQSPHSBNT
%JTDVTTUIFSFBTPOTXIZPSHBOJ[BUJPOTEPOPUBMXBZTDPOEVDUBOFFETBOBMZTJTBOEXIBU
BUSBJOFSNJHIUEPUPPWFSDPNFOFFETBOBMZTJTPCTUBDMFT8IBUBSFUIFJNQMJDBUJPOTPG
EFTJHOJOHBOEJNQMFNFOUJOHBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNXJUIPVUDPOEVDUJOHBOFFETBOBMZTJT
%JTDVTTUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGUIFEJGGFSFOUTPVSDFTPGOFFETBOBMZTJTJOGPS
NBUJPO8IBUTPVSDFTBSFCFTUGPSBQFSTPO BUBTL BOEBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMOFFETBOBMZTJT
%JTDVTTUIFQSPDFTTJOWPMWFEJOEFUFSNJOJOHTPMVUJPOTUPQFSGPSNBODFQSPCMFNT
8IFOJTUSBJOJOHMJLFMZUPCFBHPPETPMVUJPO 8IFOJTUSBJOJOHOPUMJLFMZUPCFB
HPPETPMVUJPO
8IBUJTUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOBUSBJOJOHUSBOTGFSDMJNBUFBOEBDPOUJOVPVTMFBSOJOH
DVMUVSF 8IZTIPVMEBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOPCUBJOJOGPSNBUJPOBCPVUUIFUSBOTGFSDMJNBUFBOE
DPOUJOVPVTMFBSOJOHDVMUVSFCFGPSFEFTJHOJOHBOEJNQMFNFOUJOHBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN
8IBUJTUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOBUBTLBOBMZTJT BDPHOJUJWFUBTLBOBMZTJT BOEBUFBN
UBTLBOBMZTJT %JTDVTTXIFOBOEIPXFBDIUZQFPGOFFETBOBMZTJTTIPVMECFDPOEVDUFE
*OSFDFOUZFBST UIF5PSPOUP5SBOTJU$PNNJTTJPO 55$ IBTCFFODSJUJDJ[FEGPSJUTQPPS
DVTUPNFSTFSWJDFBOEDPNQMBJOUTBCPVUEJTDPVSUFPVTFNQMPZFFT&YQMBJOIPXZPVDPVME
VTFUIFOFFETBOBMZTJTQSPDFTT 'JHVSF UPBEESFTTUIFTFQSPCMFNT*OPUIFSXPSET EJTDVTTUIFDPODFSO JUTJNQPSUBODF DPOTVMUJOHTUBLFIPMEFST BOEDPMMFDUJOHJOGPSNBUJPO
8IBUDBOXFMFBSOBCPVUUIF55$BOEJUTQSPCMFNTGSPNUIFOFFETBOBMZTJTQSPDFTT
106
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
THE GREAT TRAINING DEBATE
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH/FFETBOBMZTJTJTBXBTUFPGUJNF8IBUJTNPTUJNQPSUBOUJT
HFUUJOHFNQMPZFFTUSBJOFEBTTPPOBTQPTTJCMFSBUIFSUIBOXBTUJOHUJNFBOESFTPVSDFT
UPGJOEPVUJGUSBJOJOHJTOFFEFE
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH5SBJOJOHJTDPTUMZBOEUJNFDPOTVNJOHGPSPSHBOJ[BUJPOTBOE
TIPVMEPOMZCFDPOTJEFSFEBGUFSPUIFS MFTTDPTUMZJOUFSWFOUJPOTIBWFGBJMFE
EXERCISES
IN-CLASS
5IJOLPGBQSPCMFNZPVIBEPSXFSFBXBSFPGBUBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOUIBUZPVXPSLFE
GPS%FTDSJCFUIFQSPCMFNBOEUIFOVTF.BHFSBOE1JQFTGMPXDIBSUGPSEFUFSNJOJOH
TPMVUJPOT UP QFSGPSNBODF QSPCMFNT 'JHVSF UP EFUFSNJOF UIF CFTU TPMVUJPO
$POTJEFSFBDITPMVUJPOJOUIFGJHVSFBOEFYQMBJOXIZJUXPVMEPSXPVMEOPUCF
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BCPVUUIFQSPCMFN EFTDSJCFXIBUJUEJEBOEXIFUIFSJUXBTBOFGGFDUJWFTPMVUJPO
$POTJEFSZPVSKPCBOEQFSGPSNBODFBTBTUVEFOUBOEDPOEVDUFBDIPGUIFGPMMPXJOH
UZQFTPGOFFETBOBMZTJT B UBTLBOBMZTJT C DPHOJUJWFUBTLBOBMZTJT D UFBNUBTL
BOBMZTJT BOE E QFSTPOBOBMZTJT#BTFEPOZPVSSFTVMUT JOEJDBUFUIFDSJUJDBMUBTLT
PG B TUVEFOU IPX XFMM ZPV QFSGPSN FBDI UBTL BOE PO XIJDI UBTLT ZPV OFFE UP
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*NBHJOF UIBU ZPV BSF B USBJOFS JO BO PSHBOJ[BUJPO UIBU QSJEFT JUTFMG PO QSPWJEJOH
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TPPOBTQPTTJCMFBOEEPFTOPUXBOUZPVUPTQFOEUJNFBOENPOFZDPOEVDUJOHBOFFET
BOBMZTJT)FPSTIFXBOUTZPVUPEFWFMPQBOBDUJPOQMBOGPSUIFEFTJHOBOEEFMJWFSZPG
UIFQSPHSBNBOEQSFTFOUJUJOPOFXFFL)PXXJMMZPVIBOEMFUIFOFFETBOBMZTJTJTTVF
BOEXIBUXJMMZPVSFDPNNFOE 1SFQBSFZPVSQSFTFOUBUJPOBOEQSFTFOUJUUPUIFDMBTT
NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
107
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
3FWJFXUIFDIBQUFSPQFOJOHWJHOFUUFPO5%#BOLT3PCCFSZ1SFWFOUJPOBOE"XBSF
OFTTUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNBOEBOTXFSUIFGPMMPXJOHRVFTUJPOT
B 8IBUXBTUIFDPODFSO
C 8IZ XBT B OFFET BOBMZTJT DPOEVDUFE
D )PXXBTUIFOFFETBOBMZTJTDPOEVDUFE
E 8IBU XFSF UIF PCKFDUJWFT PG UIF USBJOJOH QSPHSBN
F 8IBUXBTUIFDPOUFOUPGUIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN
G 8IBU USBJOJOH NFUIPET XFSF VTFE
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IN-THE-FIELD
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IVNBOSFTPVSDFTTUBGGPGBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOBOESFRVFTUBOJOUFSWJFXBCPVUOFFETBOBMZTJT
*O QBSUJDVMBS GJOE PVU XIFUIFS UIF TUBGG DPOEVDU PSHBOJ[BUJPOBM UBTL BOE QFSTPO
BOBMZTJTUIFLJOETPGJOGPSNBUJPOUIFZHBUIFSXIFOUIFZDPOEVDUFBDIMFWFMPGOFFET
BOBMZTJTXIBUNFUIPETBOETPVSDFTUIFZVTFUPHBUIFSUIFJOGPSNBUJPOBOEXIBUUIFZ
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*GUIFZEPOPUDPOEVDUOFFETBOBMZTFT GJOEPVUXIZBOEIPXUIFZEFUFSNJOFUSBJOJOH
OFFET:PVTIPVMEDPNFUPDMBTTQSFQBSFEUPQSFTFOUUIFSFTVMUTPGZPVSJOUFSWJFX
5PGJOEPVUIPXPSHBOJ[BUJPOTEFUFSNJOFXIFUIFSUSBJOJOHJTUIFTPMVUJPOUPQFSGPSNBODF
QSPCMFNT DPOUBDUUIFIVNBOSFTPVSDFTTUBGGPGBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOBOESFRVFTUBOJOUFS
WJFXBCPVUUIFJSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT*OQBSUJDVMBS GJOEPVUXIBUUIFQSPCMFNXBTUIBU
BQBSUJDVMBSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNXBTEFTJHOFEGPSBOEIPXUIFZEFUFSNJOFEUIBUUSBJOJOH
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JO .BHFS BOE 1JQFT GMPXDIBSU GPS EFUFSNJOJOH TPMVUJPOT UP QFSGPSNBODF QSPCMFNT
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CFTUTPMVUJPOUPUIFQSPCMFNBOEXIFUIFSUIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNEJE JOGBDU TPMWFUIF
QSPCMFN:PVTIPVMEDPNFUPDMBTTQSFQBSFEUPQSFTFOUUIFSFTVMUTPGZPVSJOUFSWJFX
CASE INCIDENT
THE ASTHMA ATTACK
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"DDPSEJOHUPBDVTUPNFSXIPXJUOFTTFEUIFJODJEFOU BOFNQMPZFFBTLFEi8IBUEP
ZPVXBOU wLJOEPGSVEFMZBOEBMMUIFCPZDPVMETBZXBTi)FMQwBOEi1IPOFw&NQMPZFFT
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108
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
5IFDVTUPNFSXIPXJUOFTTFEUIFJODJEFOUDBMMFEBOETUBZFEXJUIUIFCPZVOUJM
QBSBNFEJDTBSSJWFE)PXFWFS XIFOUIFZBSSJWFEUIFZGPVOEUIFNTFMWFTBU BOFYJUPOMZ
EPPS5IFFNQMPZFFTEJEOPUPQFOUIFEPPSUPMFUUIFNJO TPUIFQBSBNFEJDTIBEUP
QSZUIFEPPSPQFOUPHFUUPUIFCPZBOEUBLFIJNUPUIFIPTQJUBM
QUESTIONS
3VOUIFBTUINBBUUBDLJODJEFOUUISPVHIUIFOFFETBOBMZTJTQSPDFTT 'JHVSF 8IBU
JTUIFQFSGPSNBODFQSPCMFNBOEJTJUJNQPSUBOU 8IPBSFUIFTUBLFIPMEFST 8IBU
JOGPSNBUJPOXPVMEZPVDPMMFDUCZEPJOHPSHBOJ[BUJPOBM UBTL BOEQFSTPOBOBMZTJT 8IBUBSFTPNFPGUIFPVUDPNFTUIBUXPVMESFTVMUGSPNUIFOFFETBOBMZTJTQSPDFTT
*G5JN)PSUPOTXBTUPDPOEVDUBOFFETBOBMZTJTGPMMPXJOHUIFBTUINBBUUBDL XIBU
NFUIPETBOETPVSDFTTIPVMEUIFZVTF &YQMBJOUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFT
PGFBDINFUIPEBOETPVSDF
%PZPVUIJOLUSBJOJOHJTOFFEFEUPTPMWFUIFQFSGPSNBODFQSPCMFN $POTJEFSTPNF
PUIFSTPMVUJPOTUPQFSGPSNBODFQSPCMFNTBOEXIFUIFSUIFZXPVMECFBQQSPQSJBUF
)PXXPVMEZPVLOPXJGUSBJOJOHXBTUIFCFTUTPMVUJPOUPUIFQFSGPSNBODFQSPCMFN
4PVSDFT 4JMMJLFS " "QSJM 8JMM ZPVS TUBGG IFMQ JG DVTUPNFS GBMMT JMM Canadian HR Reporter 26 %VCJOTLJ , .BSDI 5JN )PSUPOT EFOJFT QIPOF UP UFFO IBWJOH BTUINB BUUBDL
The London Free Press IUUQXXXMGQSFTTDPNUJNIPSUPOTEFOJFTQIPOFUPUFFOIBWJOH
BTUINBBUUBDL $BOBEJBO 1SFTT .BSDI 5JN )PSUPOT TUBGG MPPLFE PO BT CPZ IBE BTUINB BUUBDL
JO -POEPO 0OU TUPSF DVTUPNFS TBZT National Post IUUQOFXTOBUJPOBMQPTUDPN
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CASE STUDY
THE INCIDENT AND APOLOGY
0OB4BUVSEBZOJHIUJOUIFGBMMPG BXPNBOXBTBUUFOEJOHBDIBSJUZFWFOU
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IFSXJUIBMBSHFUBCMFDMPUIUPTIJFMEIFSGSPNWJFXCFDBVTFPGDPNQMBJOUTGSPNQFPQMF
XIPEJEOPUXBOUUPTFFIFSCSFBTUGFFEJOHXIJMFUIFZXFSFFBUJOH4IFXBTUPMEUIBU
TIFXBTWJTJCMFUPQBUSPOTJOBNFNCFSTPOMZEJOJOHBSFB"MUIPVHITIFXBTTFBUFEJO
BDIBJSJOUIFDPSOFSPGUIFIBMMXBZ TIFXBTUPMEUIBUTIFXBTTUJMMWJTJCMFUPQBUSPOT
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UPMEUIBUTIFXPVMECFiNPSFDPNGPSUBCMFUIFSF wBNPWFUIBUTIFGFMUXBTBOBUUFNQU
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CSFBTUBOEDPWFSFEVQBOEIFMFENFEPXOTUBJSTUPUIFCBTFNFOU wTIFTBJE
i5IFXBZJUXBTIBOEMFE *XBTTMJHIUMZFNCBSSBTTFECFDBVTFIFNBEFNFGFFMMJLF
JUXBTBTIBNFGVMUIJOHCZTPSUPGDPWFSJOHNFVQBOETBZJOHQFPQMFEJEOUXBOUUPTFF
JUw4IFEJEOPUTBZBOZUIJOHUPUIFNBOBHFSBUUIFUJNFCFDBVTFTIFXBTTPTVSQSJTFE
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IBQQFOFEIFSF "OEXIZEJEOU*LJOEPGTUBOEVQGPSNZTFMGBUUIFUJNF w4IFMFGU
TIPSUMZBGUFSBOEUIFDIBSJUZTPSHBOJ[FSTTBJEUIFZXPVMETQFBLXJUIUIFHPMGDMVC
NEL
CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
109
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5IFXPNBOTQBSUOFSUPPLBQIPUPPGIFSCSFBTUGFFEJOHBOEQPTUFEJUBOEB
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TBHFTPGTVQQPSUBOEPVUSBHFPWFSUIFJODJEFOU5IFQPTUBMTPQSPNQUFEBCBDLMBTI
GSPNQBSFOUTBOEQBUSPOTPGUIFDMVC#Z4VOEBZBGUFSOPPO UIFQBHFXBTGVMMPG
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PGGFSFECZSFTUBVSBOUT DBGFT TUPSFT BOEBUQBSLTNVTUCFQSPWJEFEUPCSFBTUGFFEJOH
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HVFTUTBSFFOUJUMFEUPCSFBTUGFFEUIFJSDIJMESFOXJUIPVUDPWFSJOHVQBOETIPVMEOPU
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
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CHAPTER 3 The Needs Analysis Process
111
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// REFERENCES
%PCTPO 4 /PWFNCFS -FBSOJOH UP BWPJE UIF CBE HVZT Canadian
HR Reporter 23 3FQSJOUFE CZ QFSNJTTJPO PG Canadian HR Reporter
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8FC XXXISSFQPSUFSDPN
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PG QSPHSFTT Annual Review of Psychology 52 o
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5SBDFZ +# 5BOOFOCBVN 4* ,BWBOBHI .+ "QQMZJOHUSBJOFE
TLJMMTPOUIFKPC5IFJNQPSUBODFPGUIFXPSLFOWJSPONFOUJournal of Applied
Psychology 80 o
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CHAPTER
4
TRAINING DESIGN
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
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Mindfulness training is all the rage these days. With many
employees stressed out, overworked or overwhelmed,
more employers are offering the training as a way for
people to learn how to relax, rewind, and rejuvenate.
“It’s about employee engagement; it’s about employee
wellness and employee productivity—there’s so many different angles to it,” says Geoff Soloway, training director
at MindWell Canada.
“It’s a training that supports the person and the profession, so the person is more focused, less stressed.
That’s going to benefit the employee personally – they’re
going to be happier . . . and they’re going to do their work
better.
It’s cultivating awareness in our lives at a very basic
level.”
But one of the challenges with the training is traditionally it’s offered over six to eight weeks, with two hours per
week. For that reason, MindWell Canada launched a pilot
program that is 30 days long and available online.
“One of the biggest barriers to mindfulness training
thus far is that it’s typically run in a multi-week structure . . .
and that’s logistically and financially difficult for organizations, for busy people,” says Soloway.
Moving the program online will make it more accessible, as will shifts in the language and type of practices
taught, he says.
“We’re trying to broaden that stroke so more people
are interested in taking the training.”
The online training will also ask participants to invite a
buddy to accompany them in the training because people
are more likely to follow through if they have a workout
buddy in physical exercise, and this is a mental exercise,
says Soloway.
The pilot program, which will look at impacts on
areas such as productivity, retention, stress reduction, and
conflict management—will ideally start with in-person
workshops to familiarize people with the program.
“The 30-Day Challenge was designed using similar
principles to the eight-week course so that participants
learn new skills and are able to integrate them into daily
life with daily support and guidance, yet the content is
available anytime, anywhere, and on any device, making it
more relevant and accessible to a wider population, many
of whom can’t sign up for a weekly course because of their
work schedules,” he says.
116
University of British Columbia
UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
The University of British Columbia participated in a 30-day online
mindfulness training program.
The University of British Columbia signed on for the
30-day pilot program after going through a research study
on mindfulness at work back in 2014. That six-week program involved 84 participants led by Soloway for two hours
each week, as well as a four-hour mini-retreat between
weeks four and five.
The mindfulness-based stress reduction program
consisted of practices such as yoga, body scans, focused
awareness and open awareness, mindful eating and
walking, and meditation. Participants could access the
mindfulness practices using smartphone applications or the
Internet. They were asked to complete a 10- to 20-minute
daily practice outside of work, as well as a three- to fiveminute daily practice at work.
They were also to complete weekly readings, reflective exercises and weekly logs, participate as a learning
partner with another participant on a weekly basis, and
received a weekly email from the instructor reviewing
homework for the week.
In the end, the researchers found the Mindfulness@
Work program increased participants’ overall levels of
mindfulness; creativity increased in the training groups;
participants were less likely to report feeling powerless and
withdraw from conflict situations; and there were significant
improvements in emotional regulation, according to Soloway.
The self-reported increases after the program were
in people’s ability to handle stress, personal resiliency
when faced with challenges, and workplace productivity,
says Miranda Massie, health promotions co-ordinator,
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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health, well-being and benefits, human resources at UBC
in Vancouver.
The 30-day on-line Mindfulness Challenge program
as well as in-person mindfulness training is now available
on an annual basis for the UBC community.1
Source: Dobson, S. (2015, July 13). Taking mindfulness
online. Canadian HR Reporter, 28(12), 15. Reprinted by
permission of Canadian HR Reporter. © Copyright Thomson
Reuters Canada Ltd., (2015), Toronto, Ontario, 1-800-387-5164.
Web: www.hrreporter.com
// INTRODUCTION
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Training design
The process of
preparing and planning
events to facilitate
learning
Learner engagement
The extent to which
learners are cognitively,
physically, and emotionally immersed in
the training content and
the learning process
TABLE 4.1
TRAINING DESIGN ACTIVITIES
1.
Write training objectives.
2.
Decide to purchase or design a training program.
3.
Create a request for proposal (RFP) to purchase training services and programs.
4.
Determine the training content.
5.
Decide on the training methods.
6.
Incorporate active practice and conditions of practice into the training program.
7.
Consider design elements for active learning if adaptive expertise is required.
NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
117
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// TRAINING OBJECTIVES
Training objective
A statement of what
trainees are expected
to be able to do after
a training program
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TABLE 4.2
PURPOSES OF TRAINING OBJECTIVES
Training objectives serve a number of purposes for trainers, trainees, and managers.
TRAINERS
1.
Trainees can be assessed prior to training to determine if they have mastered any
of the objectives. Depending on the results, trainees can either omit certain sections
of a training program or undertake additional training to master the prerequisites.
2.
The selection of training content and methods is simplified by objectives. The choice
of content and methods is guided by the need to achieve certain objectives.
3.
Learning objectives enable trainers to develop measures for evaluation, to determine
how to evaluate a training program, and how to calculate the benefits of a program.
TRAINEES
4.
Objectives inform trainees of the goals of a training program and what they will be
expected to learn and do at the end of a training program.
5.
Objectives allow trainees to focus their energies on achieving specific goals, rather
than waste energy on irrelevant tasks or on trying to figure out what is required of
them.
6.
Objectives communicate to employees that training is important and that they will be
accountable for what they learn in training.
MANAGERS
118
7.
Objectives communicate to managers, professional groups, and others what the
trainee is expected to have learned by the end of a training program and what the
trainee should be able to do.
8.
Management and supervisors know exactly what is expected of trainees and can
reinforce and support newly trained knowledge and skills on the job.
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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WRITING TRAINING OBJECTIVES
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NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
119
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TABLE 4.3
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.0
Remember: Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
1.1 Recognizing
1.2 Recalling
2.0
Understand: Determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral,
written, and graphic communication.
2.1 Interpreting
2.2 Exemplifying
2.3 Classifying
2.4 Summarizing
2.5 Inferring
2.6 Comparing
2.7 Explaining
3.0
Apply: Carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation.
3.1 Executing
3.2 Implementing
4.0
Analyze: Breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the parts
relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose.
4.1 Differentiating
4.2 Organizing
4.3 Attributing
5.0
Evaluate: Making judgments based on criteria and standards.
5.1 Checking
5.2 Critiquing
6.0
Create: Putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or make an
original product.
6.1 Generating
6.2 Planning
6.3 Producing
Source: Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 212–218. Reprinted by
permission of the publisher Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com
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120
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// THE PURCHASE-OR-DESIGN DECISION
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Outsourcing
The use of an external
supplier to provide
training and development programs and
services
PURCHASE DECISION FACTORS
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NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
121
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// REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL (RFP)
Request for proposal
(RFP)
A document that
outlines to potential
vendors and consultants
an organization’s
training and project
needs
122
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
4.1
AN EFFECTIVE REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL (RFP)
Creating an effective RFP is a difficult and time-consuming
task. However, a good RFP will ensure that an organization
gets the training program and systems it needs from the
right vendor at an appropriate cost. Here are eight things
to consider when creating an RFP.
t Have a clear vision of your overall learning
strategy. There must be a master strategy that is
based on the primary needs of the various departments involved.
t Create proper scope for the project. Set a budget
and align the most critical needs with project
requirements.
t Develop a vendor pre-qualification checklist. Write
a pre-qualification checklist before writing the RFP
so that vendors can quickly decide if they can
provide the required products and services. The
checklist should have between 10 and 20 items
and indicate the qualifications for the most critical
needs.
t Create a vendor scorecard. Create a scorecard to
grade vendors before writing the RFP to ensure
that you request the necessary information in the
RFP. The evaluators should rate each item on the
scorecard on a scale of zero to five.
t Use a template. Use a template to create the RFP
if one exists in the organization. Even one used for
non-training purchases can be helpful in creating
an RFP.
t Don’t overstate the positive or understate the
negative. Be candid about the project so vendors
can adequately determine their suitability for it.
t Design a request-for-information questionnaire.
The questionnaire should be designed to obtain
additional information about a vendor’s products,
services, experience, and background. Most of the
questions should be directly related to the needs
of the project and the vendor’s ability to provide
a solution that meets the organization’s needs.
t Allow sufficient time for responses. Provide at
least two to three weeks for most standard projects so that vendors can carefully analyze the
requirements and prepare a detailed response.
Source: Chapman, B. (2004). Creating the ideal RFP. Training Magazine, 41(1), 40. Trainingmag.com
// TRAINING CONTENT
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CHAPTER 4 Training Design
Meaningfulness
Training content that is
rich in associations and
is easily understood by
trainees
123
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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John Tapley/Ingersoll Times. Material republished with the express permission of: Ingersoll Times,
a division of Postmedia Network Inc.
The Ontario Provincial Police provides its forces with a three-day Crisis Intervention training program.
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
4.2
TRAINING CONTENT FOR PRIVACY TRAINING
Although the content of a privacy training program depends
on an organization’s activities, policies, and procedures,
as well [as] the privacy laws that it must abide by, the
following are some common areas that should be part of
the content of a privacy training program:
t some privacy-related background information that
provides context for the training
t a discussion of key terms
t a brief review of applicable privacy laws
t an examination of key privacy concepts
t a description of the organization’s ongoing dealings with, and holdings of, personal information
or personal health information
t a review of the organization’s policies and procedures that relate to privacy and data security
t an introduction to the organization’s privacy
officer or team, and a description of her roles and
responsibilities
t a reminder of each staff member’s personal
responsibilities relating to privacy/data security
Source: Shields, R. (2014, May 5). Training around privacy. Canadian HR Reporter, p. 12. Reprinted by permission of Canadian HR Reporter.
© Copyright Thomson Reuters Canada Ltd., (2014), Toronto, Ontario, 1-800-387-5164. Web: www.hrreporter.com
NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
125
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// TRAINING METHODS
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active practice.
Practice
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rehearsal of a task, skill,
or knowledge in order
to achieve some level of
proficiency in performing
the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge
126
// ACTIVE PRACTICE
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TRAINING TODAY
Active practice
Providing trainees
with opportunities to
practise performing a
training task or using
knowledge during
training
Conditions of practice
Practice conditions
that are implemented
before and during
training to enhance the
effectiveness of active
practice and maximize
learning and retention
4.1
DESIGNING TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR OLDER WORKERS
One of the most important demographic changes occurring
in North America and Europe is the aging of the workforce.
Besides the fact that the workforce is getting older, workers
are staying longer in the workforce, returning to work after
retirement, and working past the typical retirement age. In
addition, the nature and types of jobs available for older
workers is also changing, which means that many older
workers will need to learn new skills to remain employed.
Thus, there are and there will continue to be a greater percentage of older workers (those over 50) than ever before. As
a result, the need to effectively train older workers has never
been greater. The question, however, is How do you design
training programs to be most effective for older workers?
The starting point for answering this question is an
awareness of some of the differences between older and
younger workers. It is well known that there are many
physical and cognitive changes that occur over the adult
lifespan. For example, aging impacts cognitive processing,
which can result in slower reaction time and longer times
required to process information. Slower processing speeds
can make it difficult to acknowledge, encode, and act upon
novel information. Age can also influence the maintenance
and manipulation of information that is necessary for comprehension and learning. In addition, attentional resources
can diminish with age, and this can affect one’s ability
to coordinate and integrate information. There are also
(continued )
NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
127
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motivational changes associated with aging. For example,
there is some evidence that motivation to learn and selfefficacy decline with age.
So how should training programs be designed for
older workers? There are two approaches that address
this question. First, age-specific training is designed specifically for older trainees and aims to minimize or limit
cognitive (or physical or motivational) limitations. This might
involve presenting the training material at a slower rate or
in smaller chunks of information. However, age-specific
training in which older workers receive their own special
training program runs the risk of stigmatizing them and
reinforcing negative stereotypes of older workers that can
result in negative consequences.
In contrast, age-general training involves designing
training programs that will be effective for and benefit
trainees of all ages. Indeed the research indicates that sound
instructional principles have positive effects on young and
older trainees. Furthermore, well-designed training programs
based on sound instructional principles should be particularly
beneficial for older trainees. For example, advance organizers
have been found to be more beneficial for older trainees,
although they are also beneficial for younger trainees.
So what approach is better – age-specific training or
age-general training? According to Kurt Kraiger, the answer
is both. Age-general training because best practices should
be incorporated into the design of all training programs and
sound instructional principles will be effective for trainees
of all ages. At the same time, there is no reason why small
or reasonable changes to accommodate older trainees
should not also be incorporated into the design of training
programs. Thus, the best solution is to combine elements
of age-specific and age-general training in the design of
training programs that include older trainees.
With respect to training design principles that might be
especially effective for older employees, Kraiger suggests
several practices. For example, training should be framed
as an intrinsic benefit and training assignments should
appeal to motives such as greater autonomy, greater selfdetermination, and positive relationships with co-workers
and supervisors. It is also important to be clear about the
purpose and relevance of the training. Pre-training practices
might also include some instruction on cognitive strategies
to enhance learning and training performance.
In addition, the training content should be organized
into well-defined units in which each successive lesson
builds on prior ones. The use of behaviour modelling, a
training method that involves the observation of models
performing training tasks, is also recommended as it has
been found to be especially effective for older trainees.
Several studies have also found that increasing the total
training time and allowing self-pacing during training are
also beneficial for older trainees’ learning. There should also
be some accommodations to the training environment such
as providing comfortable furniture, proper lighting, loud
enough audio, and avoiding extraneous outside distractions.
Thus, when it comes to training design for older
workers, the best approach incorporates best practices in
instructional design that maximize the learning of trainees
of all ages, combined with several specific training practices that are particularly effective for the learning of older
trainees.
Source: Based on Kraiger, K. (2017). Designing effective training for older workers. In E. Parry & J. McCarthy (Eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Age
Diversity and Work (Chapter 26, pp. 639–667). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Pre-training
interventions
Activities or material
provided before a
training program or
practice session to
improve the potential
for learning as well
as the efficiency and
effectiveness of practice during training
128
PRE-TRAINING INTERVENTIONS
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 4.4
THE CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE
The following conditions of practice can be implemented before and during training to
enhance the effectiveness of practice and maximize trainee learning and retention.
PRE-TRAINING INTERVENTIONS
1.
Attentional advice. Providing trainees with information about the task process and
general task strategies that can help them learn and perform a task.
2.
Metacognitive strategies. Ways in which trainees can be instructed to self-regulate
their learning of a task.
3.
Advance organizers. Activities that provide trainees with a structure or framework to
help them assimilate and integrate information acquired during practice.
4.
Goal orientation. The type of goal that is set during training (learning or performance).
5.
Preparatory information. Providing trainees with information about what they can
expect to occur during practice sessions.
6.
Pre-practice briefs. Sessions in which team members establish their roles and
responsibilities and establish performance expectations prior to a team practice session.
CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE DURING TRAINING
1.
Massed or distributed practice. How the segments of a training program are divided
and whether the training is conducted in a single session or divided into several
sessions with breaks or rest periods between them.
2.
Whole or part learning. Whether the training material is learned and practised at one
time or one part at a time.
3.
Overlearning. Continued practice even after trainees have mastered a task so that the
behaviour becomes automatic.
4.
Task sequencing. Dividing training material into an organized and logical sequence of
sub-tasks.
5.
Feedback and knowledge of results. Providing trainees with information and
knowledge about their performance on a training task.
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NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
Attentional advice
Providing trainees
with information about
the task process and
general task strategies
that can help them learn
and perform a task
Metacognition
A self-regulatory
process that helps
people guide
their learning and
performance
129
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For more information see
Chapter 2, p. 47
Metacognitive
strategies
Strategies trainees can
use to self-regulate
their learning of a task
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Structures or frameworks to help trainees
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training content
For more information see
Chapter 2, pp. 62–63
Goal orientation
The type of goal
(learning goal or performance goal) that is
set during training
130
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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PREPARATORY INFORMATION
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CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE DURING TRAINING
1SBDUJDF DPOEJUJPOT UIBU DBO CF JNQMFNFOUFE EVSJOH USBJOJOH JODMVEF NBTTFE PS
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Preparatory
information
Information about what
trainees can expect to
occur during practice
sessions so that they
can develop strategies
to overcome performance obstacles
Pre-practice briefs
Sessions in which team
members establish
their roles, responsibilities, and performance
expectations prior to a
team practice session
Massed versus
distributed practice
How the segments of
a training program are
divided and whether
the training is conducted in a single
session (massed) or
is divided into several
sessions with breaks or
rest periods between
them (distributed)
MASSED VERSUS DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE
Massed practice or practice with no rest periods is not very
effective for retention and performance.
NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
Pressmaster/Shutterstock.com
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131
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WHOLE VERSUS PART LEARNING
Whole versus part
learning
Whether the training
material is learned and
practised at one time
or one part at a time
Overlearning
Continued practice
even after trainees
have mastered a task
so that the behaviour
becomes automatic
Automaticity
The performance of
a skill to the point
at which little attention from the brain is
required to respond
correctly
For more information see
Chapter 2, p. 48
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TASK SEQUENCING
Task sequencing
Dividing training material into an organized
and logical sequence
of sub-tasks
132
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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FEEDBACK AND KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
Feedback and
knowledge of results
Providing trainees
with feedback and
information about
their performance on
a training task
Corrective feedback
Feedback that is meant
to correct behaviour
and performance
4.3
HOW TO GIVE TRAINING FEEDBACK
Feedback during training can be very effective for learning
and changing behaviour if the feedback is perceived as
being constructive rather than critical. Here are some tips
on how to give effective training feedback.
t Timing. Try to provide the feedback immediately
after the behaviour or performance is observed.
t Be specific. Feedback works best when it is specific. Don’t say “You moved the arm wrong”; say
“You have the arm tilted at 30 degrees.”
NEL
t Correct performance. After discussing what was
incorrectly done, provide guidance and demonstrate the correct performance. (“You had the arm
tilted at a 30-degree angle; you will find it easier
or quicker to tilt it 90 degrees.”)
t Reinforce correct performance. Provide positive
feedback and reinforcement following correct performance: “Good, you have the correct 90-degree
angle.”
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
133
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// ACTIVE LEARNING
Routine expertise
The ability to reproduce
specific behaviours in
similar settings and
situations
Adaptive expertise
The ability to use
knowledge and skills
across a range of
tasks, settings, and
situations
Active learning
An approach to training
that gives trainees
control over their own
learning experience
Exploratory/discovery
learning
Trainees are given the
opportunity to explore
and experiment with
the training tasks to
infer and learn the
rules, principles, and
strategies for effective
task performance
Proceduralized
instruction
Trainees are provided
with step-by-step
instructions on how to
perform a task and the
rules, principles, and
strategies for effective
performance.
Emotion control
A strategy to help
trainees control their
emotions during active
learning
134
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// ERROR-MANAGEMENT TRAINING (EMT)
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NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
Error-management
training (EMT)
Training that explicitly
encourages trainees
to make errors during
training and to learn
from them
Error-avoidant
Training that is highly
structured and provides
trainees with detailed
step-by-step instructions on how to perform
a task so they are less
likely to make errors
Error-management
instructions
Statements that errors
are a necessary and
natural part of learning
and emphasize the
positive function of
errors
135
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Adaptive tasks
Tasks that differ from
those worked on during
training and require
different solutions
Analogical tasks
Tasks that are similar
to those worked on
during training
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// MODEL OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS—
TRAINING DESIGN
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136
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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FIGURE 4.1
MODEL OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS
Learning
and Retention
Organizational
Effectiveness
Training Design
1. Training methods
2. Active practice
3. Conditions of practice
4. Active learning
5. Error management
training
// SUMMARY
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UFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOH $IBQUFS NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
137
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KEY TERMS
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
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BUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN
138
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
139
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140
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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IN-THE-FIELD
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CASE INCIDENT
WE ID 25
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NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
141
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4PVSDFT (PSEPO " 'FCSVBSZ 3JTJOH UP B NJOPS DIBMMFOHF Toronto Star QQ - - XXX
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CASE STUDY
TRAINING THE SALES FORCE
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142
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 4 Training Design
143
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FOR PROPOSAL
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RUNNING CASE STUDY DIRTY POOLS
QUESTIONS
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// REFERENCES
%PCTPO 4 +VMZ 5BLJOHNJOEGVMOFTTPOMJOFCanadian HR
Reporter, 28 #SPXO ,( 4JU[NBOO 5 5SBJOJOHBOEFNQMPZFFEFWFMPQNFOU
GPSJNQSPWFEQFSGPSNBODF*O4;FEFDL &E Handbook of industrial and
organizational psychology 7PM QQo 8BTIJOHUPO %$"NFSJDBO
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,SBJHFS , .BUUJOHMZ 71 $PHOJUJWFBOEOFVSBMGPVOEBUJPOTPG
MFBSOJOH*O,(#SPXO &E The Cambridge handbook of workplace training
and employee development QQo /FX:PSL$BNCSJEHF6OJWFSTJUZ
,JCMFS 3+ #BSLFS -- .JMFT %5 Behavioral objectives and
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,SBUIXPIM %3 "SFWJTJPOPG#MPPNTUBYPOPNZ"OPWFSWJFX
Theory into Practice, 41 o
-BJSE % Approaches to training and development OEFE 3FBEJOH .""EEJTPO8FTMFZ
$PUTNBO 4 )BMM $ Learning cultures lead the way: Learning &
development outlook—14th edition.0UUBXB5IF$POGFSFODF#PBSEPG$BOBEB
+PIOTPO ( 5PPVUTPVSDFPSOPUUPPVUTPVSDFUIBUJTUIFRVFT
UJPOTraining Magazine, 41 o
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)BZT 4 #BTJDTLJMMTUSBJOJOHWorkforce Management, 78 o
(BO[FM 3 8IBUTFYVBMIBSBTTNFOUUSBJOJOHSFBMMZQSFWFOUTTraining
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/BEMFS - /BEMFS ; The handbook of human resource development
OEFE /FX:PSL+PIO8JMFZBOE4POT
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$BNQCFMM +1 5SBJOJOHEFTJHOGPSQFSGPSNBODFJNQSPWFNFOU*O
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Frontiers of industrial and organizational psychology QQo 4BO
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"LLFSNBO & 4FQUFNCFS i-FUTHPUPUIF&Y wCanadian HR
Reporter, 27 ,JSLQBUSJDL %- Evaluating training programs: The four levels Q 4BO'SBODJTDP $"#FSSFUU,PFIMFS1VCMJTIFST
$BNQCFMM +1 8BYFS $ #BOLPG.POUSFBMPQFOTJUTDIFDLCPPLJOUIFOBNFPG
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.BSDI $SJTJTJOUFSWFOUJPOUSBJOJOHHJWFTQPMJDFCFUUFSVOEFS
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$BNQCFMM +1 $BNQCFMM +1 5IPNT 1 ,MFJO )+ 1BSUJDJQBUJPOBOEFWBMVBUJWFPVUDPNFTJO
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.FTNFS.BHOVT7JTXFTWBSBO .FTNFS.BHOVT7JTXFTWBSBO .FTNFS.BHOVT7JTXFTWBSBO .FTNFS.BHOVT7JTXFTWBSBO $BOOPO#PXFSTFUBM #BMEXJO 55 'PSE +, 5SBOTGFSPGUSBJOJOH"SFWJFXBOEEJSFD
UJPOTGPSGVUVSFSFTFBSDIPersonnel Psychology, 41 o
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Applied Psychology, 84 o
#BTT #. 7BVHIO +" Training in industry: The management of
learning.#FMNPOU $"8BETXPSUI%POPWBO3BEPTFWJDI #BMEXJO'PSE #BMEXJO'PSE #BMEXJO'PSE :FMPO 4 #FSHF ; 1SBDUJDFDFOUFSFEUSBJOJOHPerformance &
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CHAPTER
5
OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING
METHODS
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
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At Queen’s University, the Faculty of Health Sciences
includes the schools of medicine, nursing, and rehabilitative therapy. To improve the training of its residents in
surgery and resuscitation, a New Medical Building includes
an 8000 square feet [approximately 750 square metres]
clinical simulation centre that was built to provide state-ofthe art mannequins and manipulative computer programs.
In the past, much of the learning was done at the
bedside with real patients says Bob McGraw, director of
the clinical simulation centre. However, this is not always
the best approach for the resident or patient and it does
not provide enough opportunities for learning. “You really
need to have a focused, repetitive practice of skills to
get good at something, and trying to do this in a hospital
or clinic-based setting really isn’t efficient and you really
can’t take your learner as far as you want to take them,”
he says. “The educational philosophy of a centre like this,
the bottom line is that practice makes perfect and the more
you practice any skill, the better you get at it—particularly
if it’s under a supervised setting.”
New technologies allow the faculty to closely mimic
real situations. For instance, a piece of plastic skin can be
draped over a board and used for suturing practice. More
complex simulators allow a resident to practice removing
a gall bladder by seemingly cutting specific vessels, doing
cautery and controlling the bleeding. Working off a video
screen, they have instruments connected to a computer
that can track where the instruments are moving relative to the patient and push back and resist—known as
haptic feedback—to make it feel as if the instruments are
touching a real person.
Residents are able to practise their technique many
times, such as several times on a weekend instead of once
per week or month, says McGraw. Computers track the
performance of each resident and generate reports that tell
the faculty how long it took a resident to do a procedure,
if there were any complications, and how the instruments
were moving during the procedure. “What we’re focused
on is a level of competency that we want to get all residents up to, so they do it as many times as they need to
demonstrate that they’re where we need them to be, and
this is all before we let them into the operating room.”
150
Courtesy of Queen’s University, Faculty of Health Sciences
QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES
Students in the Faculty of Health Sciences at Queen’s University
learn to perform medical procedures in a new state-of-the art
clinical simulation centre.
And because certain events like a cardiac arrest
do not happen very often in a hospital, it is difficult for
residents to get experience working together as a team
in an emergency situation. However, thanks to the clinical
simulation centre, on any given Friday morning the residents can participate in 10 or 20 emergency simulations.
According to McGraw, “We can make sure that they are
exposed to certain important rescue cases.”
The school also provides training on resuscitation and
the managing of critically ill patients, such as defibrillation. The training uses very sophisticated mannequins that
produce vital signals such as a heart rate, blood pressure,
and dilated pupils.
Although the mannequins and computer programs are
not exactly the same as real patients, students are able to
suspend reality and buy into the situation, says McGraw.
“It’s not precise but it does accomplish what we want it to
accomplish—we can create complex scenarios, we can
engage our students so that they’re completely focused
on the problem. And we have no problem having them
suspend reality—this is the real thing.”1
Source: Dobson, S. (2013, February 11). Repetitive practice makes
close to perfect. Canadian HR Reporter, 26(3), 13. Reprinted by
permission of Canadian HR Reporter. © Thomson Reuters Canada Ltd.,
(2010), Toronto, Ontario, 1-800-387-5164. Web: www.hrreporter.com
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// INTRODUCTION
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Instructional methods
The techniques used to
stimulate learning
TABLE 5.1
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
1. Lecture. The trainer presents to trainees the content to be learned.
2. Discussion. Two-way communication between the trainer and the trainees as well as
among trainees.
3. Case study. Trainees discuss, analyze, and solve problems based on a real situation.
4. Case incident. A problem, concept, or issue is presented for analysis.
5. Behaviour modelling training. Trainees observe a model performing a task and then
attempt to imitate the observed behaviour.
6. Role play. Trainees practise new behaviours in a safe environment.
7. Simulations. The use of operating models of physical or social events designed to
represent reality.
8. Games. Structured competition that allows employees to learn specific skills.
9. Action learning. Trainees study and solve real-world problems and accept responsibility
for the solution.
NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
151
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// LECTURE METHOD
Lecture
A training method
in which the trainer
presents to trainees the
content to be learned
Flipped classroom
Training content is
delivered outside of the
classroom via a video
lecture and activities
that usually take place
outside of the classroom are worked on in
the classroom
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
Lectures are most effective for learning declarative knowledge.
152
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// DISCUSSION METHOD
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Discussion method
Two-way communication between the
trainer and trainees as
well as among trainees
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
153
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// CASE STUDY METHOD
Case study
A training method in
which trainees discuss,
analyze, and solve problems based on a real
situation
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154
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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// CASE INCIDENT METHOD
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NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
Case incident
A training method in
which one problem,
concept, or issue is
presented for analysis
155
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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// BEHAVIOUR MODELLING TRAINING
For more information see
Chapter 2, pp. 55–56
Behaviour modelling
training (BMT)
A training method in
which trainees observe
a model performing a
task and then attempt
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behaviour
156
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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For more information see
Chapter 2, p. 54
TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
Mixed modelling
strategy
BMT that shows
trainees what should
be done (a positive
model) and what
should not be done
(a negative model)
157
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For more information see
Chapter 4, pp. 132–133
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
5.1
IMPLEMENTING BEHAVIOUR MODELLING TRAINING
1. Describe to trainees a set of well-defined behaviours
(skills) to be learned.
2. Provide a model or models displaying the effective
use of those behaviours.
3. Provide opportunities for trainees to practise using
those behaviours.
4. Provide feedback and social reinforcement to trainees
following practice.
5. Take steps to maximize the transfer of those behaviours to the job.
Source: Taylor, P. J., Russ-Eft, D. F., & Chan, D. W. L. (2005). A meta-analytic review of behavior modeling training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90,
692–709.
// ROLE PLAY
Role play
A training method in
which trainees are
given the opportunity to
practise new behaviours
in a safe environment
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
159
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Role plays provide the opportunity to practise new behaviours in a
BCPVUUIFN
safe environment.
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
5.2
STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE ROLE PLAYS
1. Consider role plays when the training involves communication or interpersonal skills.
2. Define the learning outcomes of the session.
3. Study the relevant organizational roles.
4. Create the role-play scripts—one with a general context, and the other that’s specific to the role.
5. Prepare the observation sheets with pertinent points
to be observed.
6. See that the setting is right for the role play—stage,
A/V tools, light, and so on.
7. Call for volunteers.
8. Facilitate and debrief after the role play.
9. Do not leave any issue unresolved.
Source: Republished with permission of the Association for Talent Development (ATD), from Karve, S. (2011). Setting the stage for effective role
plays. T+D, 65(11), 76–77. Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
// SIMULATIONS
Simulations
The use of operating
models of physical or
social events designed
to represent reality
160
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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pcruciatti/Shutterstock.com
A good example of an equipment simulator is a flight simulator used to train pilots.
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NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
Equipment simulators
Mechanical devices that
are similar to those
that employees use on
the job
161
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
Physical fidelity
The similarity of the
physical aspects of
a simulation (e.g.,
equipment, tasks, and
surroundings) to the
actual job
Psychological fidelity
The similarity of
the psychological
conditions of the
simulation to the actual
work environment
TRAINING TODAY
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5.1
SIMULATIONS FOR SALES SUCCESS
B. Braun Medical Inc. is a manufacturer of infusion therapy
and pain management products. In 2007, the sales of
one of B. Braun’s flagship products, the Introcan Safety IV
catheter, had slowed to 1.5 percent despite a concerted
investment of staff and company resources. In addition,
customer trial-to-conversions came in at 25 percent, with
retention rates measured at only 40 percent six months
post-conversion.
The sales representatives didn’t believe they had the
clinical expertise necessary to establish credibility with
their customers or correctly set expectations for use of the
IV catheter. A learning-style survey showed that the sales
force collectively held a variety of learning styles, which
led B. Braun to create a new blended training program.
B. Braun designed the program to include product
training via learning modules, peer coaching, and a teachback component, followed by hands-on didactic training
during live classroom sessions. Then, in September 2010,
they launched a two-day simulation training program. The
goal was for reps to repetitively practise placing the IV
catheter through scenario-based simulation training so
they could understand what clinicians experienced when
they used the product.
On the first day of the simulation, participants take a
pre-test to determine their current knowledge of venipuncture. Part of this assessment includes the reps’ immersion
in a real-life scenario. They are asked to place an IV catheter
using a “demo arm” with blood pressure and fake blood.
(continued )
162
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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Participants receive grades based on a 30-point checklist.
Following the pre-test, a nurse teaches a venipuncture
certification course.
On the second day of the simulation, participants are
placed on a computer simulator with a haptics device
(which allows them to “feel” the virtual IV catheter insertion) to practise the process of placing the IV catheter. The
reps coach one another and engage in clinical discussions
while completing the scenarios.
The training concludes with a real-life scenario in
which participants work on a patient who is wearing a
demo arm. The reps are assigned a scenario and tasked
with selecting the correct supplies and placing the IV
catheter. An observer uses the 30-point checklist to
grade the reps’ performance improvement. Participants
also complete a written post-training test to measure their
knowledge gain.
B. Braun has documented a 22 to 25 percent increase
in participants’ knowledge and skills. Since the company
re-launched the Introcan Safety IV catheter with the new
training program, customer trial-to-conversion rates have
increased to 95 percent and customer retention rates
have increased to better than 85 percent six months
post-conversion.
Source: Adapted with permission of the Association for Talent Development (ATD), from Anonymous, “Simulations for selling success,” T+D,
January 2012, 66(1), p. 80; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
// GAMES
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NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
Games
Training methods that
involve structured
competition that allows
trainees to learn specific skills
163
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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// ACTION LEARNING
Problem-based
learning
Training methods that
require trainees to solve
real or simulated openended problems
Action learning
A training method in
which trainees solve
real-world problems and
accept responsibility for
the solution
For more information see
Chapter 2, pp. 58–60
164
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"DUJPOMFBSOJOHJODPSQPSBUFTNPSFPGUIFBEVMUMFBSOJOHQSJODJQMFTUIBOBOZPUIFS
NFUIPE PG USBJOJOH 3FDBMM GSPN $IBQUFS UIBU BEVMUT BSF QSPCMFN DFOUSFE JO UIFJS
BQQSPBDIUPMFBSOJOHBOEQSFGFSUPCFTFMGEJSFDUFEBOEUPMFBSOJOEFQFOEFOUMZ
5IFNBKPSJUZPGUIFUJNFTQFOUJOBDUJPOMFBSOJOHJTEFEJDBUFEUPEJBHOPTJOHQSPCMFNT
JOUIFGJFME5IFQSPCMFNTBOEUIFJOIFSFOUWBMVFTZTUFNTTVQQPSUJOHUIFQSPCMFNTBSF
BTTFTTFEBOEDIBMMFOHFE5IJTXPSLJTBMXBZTEPOFJOHSPVQT BOEMFBSOJOHPVUDPNFT
JODMVEFHSPVQBOEJOUFSQFSTPOBMTLJMMT SJTLUBLJOH SFTQPOTJCJMJUZ BOEBDDPVOUBCJMJUZ
.BOZ QSPGFTTJPOT VTF BDUJPO MFBSOJOH UP USBJO BOE TPDJBMJ[F UIFJS TUVEFOUT 'PS
FYBNQMF TUVEFOUTJOTPDJBMXPSLBSFPGUFOTFOUUPXPSLXJUIUIFIPNFMFTTPSXFMGBSF
SFDJQJFOUT5IFTFTUVEFOUTBSFFODPVSBHFEUPBQQMZUIFJSUIFPSFUJDBMLOPXMFEHFJOUIF
GJFME 0SHBOJ[BUJPOT BSF VTJOH UIF QSFDFQUT PG BDUJPO MFBSOJOH XIFO FNQMPZFFT UBLF
SFTQPOTJCJMJUZGPSRVBMJUZJNQSPWFNFOUQSPKFDUT
"DUJPOMFBSOJOHSFRVJSFTBDPNNJUNFOUPGFOFSHZBOEUJNFGSPNQBSUJDJQBOUTBOE
UIFJSNBOBHFST4PMWJOHSFBMPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMQSPCMFNTDBOCFTUSFTTGVMGPSUSBJOFFT5IF
EJGGJDVMUJFT PGXPSLJOHJOUFBNTPOSFBMQSPCMFNTDBOMFBE UPDPOGMJDUBOEJODSFBTFE
BOYJFUZBOETUSFTT
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QSPHSBNT'PSFYBNQMF 5%#BOL'JOBODJBM(SPVQIBTBMFBEFSTIJQEFWFMPQNFOUQSPHSBNJOXIJDIBDUJPOMFBSOJOHQMBZTBOJOUFHSBMQBSU5IFCBOLTTFOJPSNBOBHFSTBUUFOE
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
B UISFFEBZ DPVSTF UP MFBSO BCPVU UIF DPNQFUFODJFT UIBU DPNQSJTF B OFX MFBEFSTIJQ
QSPGJMF5IFOUIFZNVTUVTFUIFMFBSOJOHUPTPMWFBOBDUJPOMFBSOJOHPQQPSUVOJUZUIBU
UIFZJEFOUJGJFECFGPSFBUUFOEJOHUIFQSPHSBN
5&-64IBTBOBDUJPOMFBSOJOHQSPHSBNGPSJUTEJSFDUPSMFWFMNBOBHFST5IFDPNQBOZ
QBSUOFSFEXJUITFWFSBMVOJWFSTJUJFTUPEFMJWFSDPVSTFTJOTFWFSBMLFZBSFBT"GUFSUBLJOH
UIFDPVSTFT QBSUJDJQBOUTBSFFYQFDUFEUPVTFUIFMFBSOJOHUPTPMWFXPSLSFMBUFEQSPCMFNT
BOEUIFZBSFIFME BDDPVOUBCMFGPSBQQMZJOHUIFMFBSOJOHBOENBLJOHDIBOHFT
"VUPNBUJD %BUB 1SPDFTTJOH *OD "%1 POF PG UIF XPSMET MBSHFTU QSPWJEFST PG
CVTJOFTTPVUTPVSDJOHTPMVUJPOT IBTUFBNTPGQBSUJDJQBOUTBEESFTTSFBMCVTJOFTTPQQPSUVOJUJFTPSDIBMMFOHFTBOEUIFOQSFTFOUSFDPNNFOEBUJPOTUPUIFJSFYFDVUJWFTQPOTPS T BOETFOJPSMFBEFST
TIPS FOR TRAINERS
"DUJPOMFBSOJOHQSPKFDUTNVTUCFDIBMMFOHJOHBOEEFBMXJUISFBMPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMDPODFSOT
5SBJOFFTTIPVMECVZJOUPUIFJNQPSUBODFPGUIFQSPKFDUBOEUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMQSPCMFN
BOESFDFJWFTPNFSFMFBTFUJNFUPXPSLPOUIFQSPKFDU*OBEEJUJPO TPNFUSBJOJOHJOHSPVQ
TLJMMTUPFOBCMFDPMMBCPSBUJPONJHIUBMTPCFOFDFTTBSZ5IFHSPVQXPSLJOHPOUIFQSPKFDU
TIPVMECFTNBMMFOPVHI GPVSUPTFWFONFNCFST UPEFWFMPQUSVTUCVUDPOUBJOBEJWFSTF
TFUPGTLJMMTUPFOBCMFDSFBUJWFTPMVUJPOT5IFMFBSOJOHQSPDFTTTIPVMECFNPOJUPSFEBOE
UIFUSBJOFFTIFMEBDDPVOUBCMFGPSUIFJSQSPQPTFETPMVUJPOT
// INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
*OBEEJUJPOUPJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET UIFEFTJHOPGUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUQSPHSBNT
JOWPMWFTDIPPTJOHJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFEJB XIJDITIPVMECFEJTUJOHVJTIFEGSPNUIFUSBJOJOH
DPOUFOUBOEJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET
Instructional mediaSFGFSTUPUIFNFEJVNPSNFEJBVTFEUPEFMJWFSUIFUSBJOJOH
DPOUFOUBOENFUIPETUPUSBJOFFT'PSFYBNQMF BMFDUVSFDBOCFEFMJWFSFEGBDFUPGBDF
JOBDMBTTSPPNPSUISPVHIUIFVTFPGWBSJPVTNFEJBTVDIBTPOMJOFWJEFPPS%7%
*OTUSVDUJPOBMNFEJBDBOBMTPCFVTFEXJUINPTUPGUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET"HPPE
FYBNQMFPGUIJTJTBVEJPWJTVBMNFUIPET
Audio-visual methodsSFGFSUPWBSJPVTGPSNTPGNFEJBUIBUUSBJOFSTDBOVTFJOUIF
DMBTTSPPNUPJMMVTUSBUFLFZQPJOUTPSEFNPOTUSBUFDFSUBJOBDUJPOTPSCFIBWJPVST5SBJOFST
PGUFOVTFTMJEFT WJEFPT BOE%7%TUPTVQQMFNFOUMFDUVSFTBOEEJTDVTTJPOT
4MJEFTBSFPGUFOVTFEUPIJHIMJHIUJNQPSUBOUQBSUTPGBMFDUVSFPSBEJTDVTTJPO BMMPXJOH
USBJOFFTUPSFNFNCFSLFZQPJOUT"WJEFPJTPGUFOVTFEUPJMMVTUSBUFIPXUPCFIBWFJOB
DFSUBJOTJUVBUJPOPSUPEFNPOTUSBUFFGGFDUJWFBOEJOFGGFDUJWFCFIBWJPVST
'PSFYBNQMF BUQIBSNBDFVUJDBMDPNQBOZ/ZDPNFE$BOBEB BQFSGPSNBODFNBOBHFNFOUUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNGPSNBOBHFSTVTFTWJEFPTPG QFSGPSNBODFNBOBHFNFOUTDFOBSJPT
UPHVJEFNBOBHFSTUISPVHIUIFQSPDFTTBOETIPXUIFNIPXUPIBOEMFEJGGFSFOUJTTVFT
.BOZNBOBHFSTIBWFMFBSOFEDPSSFDUJOUFSWJFXJOHUFDIOJRVFTUISPVHIWJEFPT
0OFBEWBOUBHFPGBVEJPWJTVBMNFUIPETJTUIFBCJMJUZUPDPOUSPMUIFQBDFPGUSBJOJOH
" TMJEF PS B WJEFP DMJQ DBO CF VTFE UP DMBSJGZ B DPODFQU 5SBJOFFT SFDFJWF DPOTJTUFOU
JOGPSNBUJPOGSPNUIFTFNFUIPETOPNBUUFSXIFSFPSIPXPGUFOUIFUSBJOJOHJTHJWFO
.PTUJNQPSUBOU BWJEFPDBOTIPXBTJUVBUJPOUIBUJTEJGGJDVMUGPSBUSBJOFSUPEFTDSJCF TVDIBTBIPTUJMFDVTUPNFSPSBEBOHFSPVTNBMGVODUJPOJOFRVJQNFOU
NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
Instructional media
The medium or media
used to deliver the
training content and
methods to trainees
Audio-visual methods
Various forms of
media that are used to
illustrate key points or
demonstrate certain
actions or behaviours
165
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
7JEFPBMMPXTBUSBJOFSUPTIPXDPNQMFYBOEEZOBNJDTJUVBUJPOTJOBSFBMJTUJDNBOOFS
5IFVTFPGWJEFPTIBTCFFONBEFFBTJFSXJUIUIF*OUFSOFU TJODFUSBJOFSTDBOOPXGJOE
SFMFWBOUWJEFPDMJQTPOMJOFUIBUDBOCFTIPXOEVSJOHUSBJOJOH/PUTVSQSJTJOHMZ WJEFPT
SFNBJOPOFPGUIFNPTUQPQVMBSGPSNTPGJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFEJB
TIPS FOR TRAINERS
8IFOVTJOHJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFEJB TVDIBTBWJEFP UPTVQQMFNFOUBOJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPE UIFUSBJOFSTIPVMEEJTDVTTUIFMFBSOJOHPCKFDUJWFTBOEUIFLFZQPJOUT BOEJOTUSVDUUSBJOFFT
UPQBZQBSUJDVMBSBUUFOUJPOUPDFSUBJOLFZQBSUT5SBJOFFTTIPVMEVOEFSTUBOEIPXUIF
WJEFPGJUTJOUPUIFSFTUPGUIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNBOECFHJWFOTVGGJDJFOUHVJEBODFTPUIBU
UIFZLOPXXIBUUPMPPLGPSBOEXIBUUIFZTIPVMEGPDVTPO
4MJEFTTIPVMEOPUPWFSXIFMNUSBJOFFTXJUIJOGPSNBUJPO BOEUIFZTIPVMECFFBTZUP
SFBEBOEGPMMPX5PPNVDIJOGPSNBUJPOPSQSJOUUIBUJTUPPTNBMMBOEEJGGJDVMUUPSFBE
DBOVOEFSNJOFUIFJSVTFGVMOFTT'JOBMMZ JUJTJNQPSUBOUUPLFFQJONJOEUIBUUIFVTF
PGJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFEJBTIPVMECFHVJEFECZUIFUSBJOJOHDPOUFOUBOEUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBM
NFUIPETCFJOHVTFE
// CHOOSING AN INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
*OUIJTDIBQUFS XFIBWFEFTDSJCFETPNFPGUIFNPTUDPNNPOJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET
PG USBJOJOH *O $IBQUFS ZPV XJMM MFBSO BCPVU POUIFKPC USBJOJOH NFUIPET BOE JO
$IBQUFSZPVXJMMGJOEPVUBCPVUUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHNFUIPET8JUITPNBOZ
JOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETBWBJMBCMF JUJTOBUVSBMUPBTL i8IBUNFUIPEJTCFTU wBOEi)PX
EPFT B USBJOFS DIPPTF BO JOTUSVDUJPOBM NFUIPE w 5IFSF JT OP FBTZ PS TUSBJHIUGPSXBSE
BOTXFSUPUIJTRVFTUJPO)PXFWFS XFXJMMUSZUPQSPWJEF TPNFHVJEFMJOFTGPSNBLJOH
UIJTJNQPSUBOUEFDJTJPO
5XPMBSHFTVSWFZTPGUSBJOJOH EJSFDUPSTGPVOEUIBUOJOFUSBJOJOHNFUIPETXFSFFGGFDUJWFJOBDIJFWJOHEJGGFSFOUUZQFTPGUSBJOJOHHPBMT'PSFYBNQMF UIFDBTFTUVEZNFUIPE
XBTSBUFENPTUFGGFDUJWFGPSQSPCMFNTPMWJOHTLJMMT BOEDPNQVUFSCBTFEJOTUSVDUJPOXBT
SBUFECFTUGPSLOPXMFEHFSFUFOUJPO5IFSPMFQMBZNFUIPEXBTFWBMVBUFECFTUGPSDIBOHJOH
BUUJUVEFTBOEEFWFMPQJOHJOUFSQFSTPOBMTLJMMT)PXFWFS UIFTFBSFPOMZJOEJWJEVBMQFSDFQUJPOT BOEUIFZEPOPUQSPWJEFJOGPSNBUJPOPOBDUVBMUSBJOJOHPVUDPNFT
*UJTJNQPSUBOUUPSFBMJ[FUIBUUIFFGGFDUJWFOFTTPGBOJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPEEFQFOET
POUIFUSBJOJOHPCKFDUJWFTBOEMFBSOJOHPVUDPNFT5IVT UIFDIPJDFPGXIJDINFUIPE
UPVTFGPSBQBSUJDVMBSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTIPVMETUBSUXJUIUIFQSPHSBNTPCKFDUJWFT'PS
FYBNQMF JGUIFPCKFDUJWFJTGPSUSBJOFFTUPMFBSOEFDMBSBUJWFLOPXMFEHF ZPVNJHIUDIPPTF
UIFMFDUVSFNFUIPE)PXFWFS JGUIFPCKFDUJWFJTUIFBDRVJTJUJPOPGJOUFSQFSTPOBMTLJMMT ZPVNJHIUXBOUUPVTFUIFSPMFQMBZNFUIPE
*O HFOFSBM UIF MFDUVSF NFUIPE JT NPTU FGGFDUJWF XIFO ZPV XBOU UP JNQBSU MBSHF
BNPVOUTPGJOGPSNBUJPORVJDLMZBOEBUMPXDPTUUPMBSHFHSPVQTPGUSBJOFFT5PUFBDI
JOUFSQFSTPOBMTLJMMTTVDIBTJOUFSWJFXJOHPSOFHPUJBUJPOT UIFNPTUFGGFDUJWFNFUIPETBSF
CFIBWJPVSNPEFMMJOHUSBJOJOHBOESPMFQMBZJOH
*OBEEJUJPOUPUSBJOJOHPCKFDUJWFT PUIFSGBDUPSTUIBUTIPVMECFDPOTJEFSFEXIFO
DIPPTJOH BO JOTUSVDUJPOBM NFUIPE JODMVEF DPTU BOE SFTPVSDF BWBJMBCJMJUZ POUIFKPC
BQQMJDBUJPO USBJOFSTLJMMBOEQSFGFSFODFT BOEUSBJOFFQSFGFSFODFTBOEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT
8FXJMMOPXCSJFGMZEJTDVTTFBDIPGUIFTFGBDUPST
166
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
COST AND RESOURCE AVAILABILITY
"OJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPENJHIUCFFYUSFNFMZFGGFDUJWFGPSBDIJFWJOHBQSPHSBNTPCKFDUJWFT CVUJUNJHIUCFUPPDPTUMZUPEFTJHOBOEEFMJWFS'PSFYBNQMF BTJNVMBUJPONJHIU
CFBQQSPQSJBUFGPSBUSBJOJOHPCKFDUJWFCVUWFSZFYQFOTJWF5IVT USBJOFSTNVTUDPOTJEFS
UIFDPTUBOESFTPVSDFTBWBJMBCMFGPSEFTJHOJOHBOEEFMJWFSJOHJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET
ON-THE-JOB APPLICATION
"OPUIFSJNQPSUBOUGBDUPSUPDPOTJEFSJTPOUIFKPCBQQMJDBUJPOT5SBJOFSTXJMMDIPPTF
TPNFNFUIPETPWFSPUIFSTJGUSBJOFFTBSFFYQFDUFE UPBQQMZUIFOFXMZBDRVJSFELOPXMFEHF
BOETLJMMTPOUIFKPC'PSFYBNQMF BMFDUVSFJTOPUBHPPEDIPJDFJGUIFPCKFDUJWFJTPO
UIFKPCBQQMJDBUJPO*GUSBJOFFTBSFFYQFDUFEUPBQQMZOFXLOPXMFEHFBOETLJMMTPOUIF
KPC UIFOBSPMFQMBZ TJNVMBUJPO PSCFIBWJPVSNPEFMMJOHUSBJOJOHXJMMCFNPSFFGGFDUJWF
TRAINER SKILL AND PREFERENCES
" USBJOFS NJHIU CF NPSF TLJMMFE BU VTJOH TPNF NFUIPET BOE NJHIU IBWF B QFSTPOBM
QSFGFSFODFGPSVTJOHDFSUBJONFUIPET'PSFYBNQMF JGBUSBJOFSJTOPUFYQFSJFODFEPS
DPNGPSUBCMFDPOEVDUJOHSPMFQMBZTPSVTJOHBDBTFTUVEZ UIFOUIFTFNFUIPETNJHIUOPU
CFDPOTJEFSFE5IVT UIFDIPJDFPGBOJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPEBMTPEFQFOETPOUIFTLJMMT
BOEQSFGFSFODFTPGUSBJOFST
TRAINEE PREFERENCES AND CHARACTERISTICS
8IFODIPPTJOHBOJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPE UIFUSBJOFSTIPVMEDPOTJEFSXIBUJTCFTUGPS
USBJOFFT XJUI SFTQFDU UP UIFJS QSFGFSFODFT BOE DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT 'PS TUBSUFST ZPV NJHIU
SFDBMMUIFEJTDVTTJPOPGMFBSOJOHTUZMFTJO$IBQUFS-FBSOJOHTUZMFSFGFSTUPUIFXBZ
JOEJWJEVBMTQSFGFSUPMFBSO5SBJOFFTXJUIEJGGFSFOUMFBSOJOHTUZMFTBSFMJLFMZUPQSFGFS
EJGGFSFOUJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET FH MFDUVSFWFSTVTSPMFQMBZJOH BOEEJGGFSFOUNFUIPET
XJMMNBYJNJ[FUIFJSMFBSOJOH
"MTPJNQPSUBOUJTBUSBJOFFTBCJMJUZUPCFOFGJUGSPNBQBSUJDVMBSNFUIPEPGJOTUSVDUJPO5IFSFJTTPNFFWJEFODFUIBUUSBJOJOHNFUIPETIBWFEJGGFSFOUJBMFGGFDUTPOUSBJOFFT
BT BSFTVMUPGEJGGFSFODFTJOUSBJOFFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOEBQUJUVEFT FH BCJMJUJFT TLJMMT BOE
LOPXMFEHF 5IJTJTLOPXOBTBOBQUJUVEFoUSFBUNFOUJOUFSBDUJPO
"Oaptitude–treatment interaction (ATI)SFGFSTUPTJUVBUJPOTJOXIJDIUIFFGGFDU
PGBUSBJOJOHNFUIPEPOUSBJOFFTEFQFOETPOUSBJOFFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT FH BQUJUVEF TFMG
FGGJDBDZ BOEEFNPHSBQIJDT 'PSFYBNQMF TPNFNFUIPETPGUSBJOJOHNJHIUCFNPSFPS
MFTTFGGFDUJWFEFQFOEJOHPOBUSBJOFFTBQUJUVEF
"OaptitudeJTCSPBEMZEFGJOFEBTBOZDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUSBJOFFTUIBUBGGFDUTUIFJS
BCJMJUZUPMFBSOGSPNUIFUSBJOJOHNFUIPE'PSFYBNQMF UIFSFJTTPNFFWJEFODFUIBUIJHI
BCJMJUZUSBJOFFTCFOFGJUNPSFGSPNQSPHSBNTXJUIMFTTTUSVDUVSFBOE HSFBUFSDPNQMFYJUZ XIJMFMPXBCJMJUZUSBJOFFTCFOFGJUNPSFGSPNFYQMJDJUBOETUSVDUVSFEQSPHSBNT5IFSF
JTBMTPFWJEFODFUIBUTFMGQBDJOHNFUIPETBSFFTQFDJBMMZFGGFDUJWFGPSPMEFSUSBJOFFT
"OPUIFSFYBNQMFPGBOBQUJUVEFoUSFBUNFOUJOUFSBDUJPOXBTEFTDSJCFEFBSMJFSJOUIF
DIBQUFSJOUIFTFDUJPOPOCFIBWJPVSNPEFMMJOHUSBJOJOH XIFOJUXBTOPUFEUIBUBNJYFE
NPEFMTUSBUFHZJTNPTUFGGFDUJWF GPSUSBJOFFTXJUIBMFBSOJOHHPBMPSJFOUBUJPO5IVT JUJT
NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
For more information see
Chapter 2, pp. 50–52
Aptitude–treatment
interaction (ATI)
Situations in which
the effect of a training
method depends on
trainee characteristics
Aptitude
Any characteristic of
trainees that affects
their ability to learn
from a training method
167
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
JNQPSUBOUUIBUUIF USBJOJOHNFUIPETDIPTFOBSFTVJUBCMFGPSBOENBUDIFEUPUSBJOFFT
BQUJUVEFTBOEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT
BLENDED TRAINING
Blended training
The use of a combination of methods
to training, such as
classroom training,
on-the-job training, and
computer technology
"MUIPVHIXFIBWFCFFOEJTDVTTJOHJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETBTJGPOMZPOFDBOCFVTFE
JOBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN JOSFBMJUZUSBJOFSTNJYBOEDPNCJOFUIFN FH DBTFTUVEJFTXJUI
MFDUVSJOH *O GBDU ZPV NJHIU SFDBMM UIBU JO $IBQUFS XF EFGJOFE blended training
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"CMFOEFEEFMJWFSZBQQSPBDIIBTBOVNCFSPGCFOFGJUT*UBMMPXTQBSUJDJQBOUTUPMFBSOJO
XBZTUIBUBSFNPTUTVJUBCMFUPUIFJSOFFET TUZMFT BOEQSFGFSFODFT BMMPXTNVMUJQMFMFBSOJOH
PVUDPNFTUPCFBDIJFWFE BOEJODSFBTFTUIFQPTTJCJMJUZUIBUUIFUSBJOJOHXJMMCFBQQMJFE
POUIFKPC5IFSFGPSF USBJOFSTNVTUCFTLJMMFEJOBWBSJFUZPGJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET
*ODPODMVTJPO XIFOJUDPNFTUPDIPPTJOHBOJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPE FBDINFUIPE
IBTJUTQMBDFBOEUIFSFBSFNBOZGBDUPSTUPDPOTJEFS6MUJNBUFMZ NJYJOH DPNCJOJOH BOE
CMFOEJOHJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET JTUIFCFTUBQQSPBDIGPSNBYJNJ[JOHUSBJOFFFOHBHFNFOU MFBSOJOH SFUFOUJPO BOEPOUIFKPCBQQMJDBUJPO
// SUMMARY
5IJTDIBQUFSEFTDSJCFEOJOFPGUIFNPTUDPNNPOJOTUSVDUJPOBMUSBJOJOHNFUIPET5IF
BEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGFBDINFUIPEXFSFEFTDSJCFE BTXFMMBTTVHHFTUJPOTGPS
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BOEIPXJUDBOCFVTFEXJUIJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET5IFDIBQUFSDPODMVEFEXJUIBEJTDVTTJPOPGUIFGBDUPSTUPDPOTJEFSXIFODIPPTJOHJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET1BSUJDVMBSFNQIBTJT
XBTHJWFOUPBQUJUVEFoUSFBUNFOUJOUFSBDUJPOTBOEUIFOFFEUPDPOTJEFSUSBJOFFBQUJUVEFT
BOEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTXIFODIPPTJOHBOJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPE5IFJNQPSUBODFPGDPNCJOJOH
JOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETBOEVTJOHBCMFOEFEEFMJWFSZBQQSPBDIXBTBMTPEJTDVTTFE
KEY TERMS
BDUJPOMFBSOJOHQ
BQUJUVEFQ
BQUJUVEFoUSFBUNFOUJOUFSBDUJPO "5* Q
BVEJPWJTVBMNFUIPETQ
CFIBWJPVSNPEFMMJOHUSBJOJOH #.5 Q
CMFOEFEUSBJOJOHQ
DBTFJODJEFOUQ
DBTFTUVEZQ
EJTDVTTJPONFUIPEQ
FRVJQNFOUTJNVMBUPSTQ
GMJQQFEDMBTTSPPNQ
168
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
HBNFTQ
JOTUSVDUJPOBMNFEJBQ
JOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETQ
MFDUVSFQ
NJYFENPEFMMJOHTUSBUFHZQ
NVMUJQMFSPMFQMBZQ
QIZTJDBMGJEFMJUZQ
QSPCMFNCBTFEMFBSOJOHQ
QTZDIPMPHJDBMGJEFMJUZQ
SFWFSTFSPMFQMBZ Q
SPMFQMBZQ
TJNVMBUJPOTQ
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
8IBUJTUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOBSPMFQMBZBOECFIBWJPVSNPEFMMJOHUSBJOJOH BOE
XIBU BSF UIF BEWBOUBHFT BOE EJTBEWBOUBHFT PG FBDI NFUIPE 8IFO XPVME JU CF
QSFGFSBCMFUPVTFPOFPSUIFPUIFS 8IBUNFUIPEEPZPVQSFGFS BOEXIZ
3FWJFXUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETMJTUFEJO5BCMFBOEEJTDVTTUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOE
EJTBEWBOUBHFTPGVTJOHFBDINFUIPEUPUSBJOBJSQPSUQBTTFOHFSBOECBHHBHFTDSFFOFST
8IBUNFUIPETEPZPVUIJOLXPVMECFNPTUFGGFDUJWF BOEXIZ
8IBUBSFUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGFBDIPGUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET
MJTUFEJO5BCMF BOEXIFOXPVMEJUCFCFTUUPVTFFBDINFUIPE 8IBUNFUIPE
EPZPVQSFGFS BOEXIZ
8IBUBSFUIFNBJOGBDUPSTBUSBJOFSTIPVMEDPOTJEFSXIFODIPPTJOHBOJOTUSVDUJPOBM
NFUIPE &YQMBJOIPXFBDIGBDUPSXJMMTVHHFTUTPNFNFUIPETPWFSPUIFST
8IBUJTUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOQIZTJDBMGJEFMJUZBOEQTZDIPMPHJDBMGJEFMJUZ BOEIPX
XPVMEZPVEFTJHOBTJNVMBUJPOUPIBWFCPUI
8IBUJTBOBQUJUVEFoUSFBUNFOUJOUFSBDUJPO BOEIPXJTJUSFMFWBOUGPSDIPPTJOHBO
JOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET
8IBU JT B CMFOEFE USBJOJOH QSPHSBN BOE XIBU BSF UIF JNQMJDBUJPOT PG CMFOEFE
USBJOJOHGPSUSBJOFSTBOEUSBJOFFT
8IBUJTUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOHBNFTBOETJNVMBUJPOT BOEXIBUBSFUIFBEWBOUBHFT
BOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGFBDINFUIPE 8IFOXPVMEJUCFCFTUUPVTFBHBNFWFSTVT
BTJNVMBUJPO
&YQMBJOIPXUIFGPVSLFZFMFNFOUTPGPCTFSWBUJPOBMMFBSOJOH BUUFOUJPO SFUFOUJPO SFQSPEVDUJPO BOESFJOGPSDFNFOU BSFSFMFWBOUUPCFIBWJPVSNPEFMMJOHUSBJOJOH
8IBU BSF UIF BEWBOUBHFT BOE EJTBEWBOUBHFT PG UIF MFDUVSF NFUIPE 8IBU DBO B
USBJOFSEPUPNBLFBMFDUVSFNPSFJOUFSFTUJOHBOEFOHBHJOH
THE GREAT TRAINING DEBATE
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH-FDUVSFTBSFOPUBWFSZFGGFDUJWFNFUIPEPGUSBJOJOHBOEUIFZ
TIPVMEOFWFSPSTFMEPNCFVTFEGPSUSBJOJOH
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH/PTJOHMFJOTUSVDUJPOBMUSBJOJOHNFUIPEJTCFTU BOEBMMUSBJOJOH
QSPHSBNTTIPVMEVTFBCMFOEFEBQQSPBDI
NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
169
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH(BNFTNJHIUNBLFBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNGVOGPSUSBJOFFTCVU
UIFZBSFBXBTUFPGUJNFBOENPOFZXIFOJUDPNFTUPMFBSOJOH POUIFKPCCFIBWJPVS BOEKPCQFSGPSNBODF
EXERCISES
IN-CLASS
1SFQBSFBGJWFNJOVUFMFDUVSFPOBUPQJDPGZPVSDIPJDFVTJOHUIFJOGPSNBUJPOPO
MFDUVSFTEFTDSJCFEJOUIFUFYU'JOEBQBSUOFSJOZPVSDMBTTBOESFWJFXFBDIPUIFST
MFDUVSF*GUJNFQFSNJUT HJWFZPVSMFDUVSFUPUIFDMBTTPSBTNBMMHSPVQBOEEJTDVTT
JUTFGGFDUJWFOFTT8IBUXPVMENBLFZPVSMFDUVSFNPSFFGGFDUJWF
$IPPTFBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNZPVIBWFUBLFOUIBUZPVSFBMMZMJLFEBOEPOFUIBUZPV
EJEOPUMJLF'PSFBDIPOF JOEJDBUFUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETUIBUXFSFVTFE TFF
5BCMF BOEIPXUIFZXFSFVTFE8IBUFGGFDUEJEUIFNFUIPETIBWFPOZPVSTBUJTGBDUJPOXJUIUIFQSPHSBNBOEZPVSMFBSOJOH 8IBUNFUIPETNJHIUIBWFJNQSPWFE
ZPVSTBUJTGBDUJPOBOEMFBSOJOH
5IJOLPGBXPSLTJUVBUJPOZPVIBWFFJUIFSFYQFSJFODFEPSPCTFSWFEUIBUXPVMEMFOE
JUTFMGUPBSPMFQMBZ FH BDVTUPNFSDPNQMBJOJOHUPBOFNQMPZFF %FTJHOBSPMFQMBZ
JOXIJDIZPVEFTDSJCFBTDFOBSJPBOEUIFSPMFPGUXPSPMFQMBZFST#FDMFBSBCPVU
UIFQVSQPTFPGUIFSPMFQMBZ‰JUTPCKFDUJWFTBOEXIBUUIFSPMFQMBZFSTBSFFYQFDUFE
UPMFBSO#FTVSFUPJODMVEFJOTUSVDUJPOTUPQBSUJDJQBOUTBCPVUUIFTDFOBSJPBOEUIF
SFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOUIFDIBSBDUFST5IFJOTUSVDUPSDBOIBWFZPVEFTDSJCFZPVSSPMF
QMBZUPUIFDMBTTBOEPSIBWFDMBTTNFNCFSTFOBDUJU*GSPMFQMBZTBSFFOBDUFE CF
TVSFUPBMTPJODMVEFBEFCSJFGJOHTFTTJPOBGUFSXBSE
%FTDSJCFUIFNBKPSUBTLTJOWPMWFEJOQFSGPSNJOHBQSFWJPVTPSDVSSFOUKPCBOEIPX
FNQMPZFFTBSFUSBJOFE5IFOSFWJFXFBDIPGUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETJO5BCMF
BOEEFTDSJCFIPXUIFZNJHIUCFVTFEUPUSBJOFNQMPZFFTGPSUIFKPC8IBUJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETEPZPVUIJOLXPVMECFNPTUFGGFDUJWF 8IBUNFUIPETXPVMEZPV
SFDPNNFOE BOEXIZ
'PSUIJTFYFSDJTF ZPVSUBTLJTUPEFTJHOBTIPSUHBNFUIBUDBOCFQMBZFEJODMBTTUP
MFBSOBOJOUFSQFSTPOBMTLJMMTVDIBTDPNNVOJDBUJPO UFBNTLJMMT MFBEFSTIJQ PSOFHPUJBUJPO*OHSPVQTPGUXPPSUISFF DIPPTFBTLJMMUPGPDVTPO BOEUIFOEFTJHOBHBNF
UPMFBSOUIFTLJMM:PVSHBNFNVTUCFEFTJHOFETPUIBUPUIFSNFNCFSTPGUIFDMBTT
DBOQMBZJUEVSJOHDMBTTUJNF8SJUFBCSJFGEFTDSJQUJPOPGZPVSHBNFJOEJDBUJOHUIF
PCKFDUJWFT UIFQMBZFST UIFSVMFT BOEXIBUUFBNNFNCFSTIBWFUPEPUPHFUQPJOUT
PSXJO5IFJOTUSVDUPSDBOFJUIFSIBWFZPVEFTDSJCFZPVSHBNFUPUIFDMBTTBOEPS
IBWFDMBTTNFNCFSTBDUVBMMZQMBZJU"GUFSQMBZJOHUIFHBNF CFTVSFUPEJTDVTTIPX
FGGFDUJWFJUXBTGPSMFBSOJOHUIFTLJMMBOEUIFQBSUJDJQBOUTSFBDUJPOUPJU
$POTJEFSZPVSDPVSTFPOUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOU%PZPVUIJOLBDUJPOMFBSOJOH
XPVMECFBOFGGFDUJWFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPE %FTJHOBOBDUJPOMFBSOJOHQSPKFDUGPS
ZPVSUSBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUDPVSTF#FTQFDJGJDBCPVUUIFPCKFDUJWFT UIFTLJMMT
UPCFEFWFMPQFE BOEUIFQSPCMFNTUPCFXPSLFEPOBOETPMWFE
'PSUIJTFYFSDJTFZPVBSFUPEFTJHOBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNGPSBUBTLZPVDVSSFOUMZQFSGPSNPSIBWFQFSGPSNFEPOBKPC0ODFZPVIBWFEFDJEFEPOBUBTL QSFQBSFBO
PVUMJOFPGBMFDUVSFUIBUZPVDPVMEVTFUPUSBJOPUIFSFNQMPZFFTUPQFSGPSNUIFUBTL
#FTVSFUPJOEJDBUFUIFNBJODPOUFOUBOEQPJOUTZPVXJMMJODMVEFJOZPVSMFDUVSF
170
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
8IFOZPVSPVUMJOFJTDPNQMFUF SFWJFXUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETJO5BCMFBOE
DPOTJEFSBEEJOHTPNFPGUIFNUPZPVSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN8IBUPUIFSJOTUSVDUJPOBM
NFUIPETXJMMZPVJODMVEF BOEXIZ "UXIBUQPJOUJOZPVSMFDUVSFXJMMZPVJODMVEF
UIFN #FTQFDJGJDXIFOEFTDSJCJOHIPXUIFPUIFSJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETXJMMCF
JODPSQPSBUFEJOUPZPVSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNBOEXIBUUIFZXJMMJOWPMWF
.BOZPSHBOJ[BUJPOTVTFTUSVDUVSFEFNQMPZNFOUJOUFSWJFXTBTQBSUPGUIFTFMFDUJPO
QSPDFTT)PXFWFS OPUBMMJOUFSWJFXFSTPSNBOBHFSTLOPXIPXUPDPOEVDUBTUSVDUVSFE
FNQMPZNFOUJOUFSWJFX*GZPVSUBTLXBTUPEFTJHOBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNPOIPXUP
DPOEVDUBTUSVDUVSFEFNQMPZNFOUJOUFSWJFX XIBUJOTUSVDUJPOBMUSBJOJOHNFUIPE T XPVMEZPVVTF BOEXIZ 'PSFBDIPGUIFNFUIPETJO5BCMF JOEJDBUFXIFUIFS
ZPVXPVMEVTFJUGPSZPVSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN#FTVSFUPFYQMBJOZPVSSFBTPOJOH 0ODF
ZPVIBWFEFDJEFEXIJDINFUIPE T ZPVXJMMVTF CSJFGMZEFTDSJCFIPXBOEXIZZPV
XJMMVTFUIFN BOEGPSXIBUQVSQPTF
IN-THE-FIELD
$POUBDU UIF IVNBO SFTPVSDFT EFQBSUNFOU PG BO PSHBOJ[BUJPO UP MFBSO BCPVU UIF
JOTUSVDUJPOBM NFUIPET UIFZ VTF UP USBJO FNQMPZFFT *O QBSUJDVMBS ZPV TIPVME JORVJSF
BCPVU UIF GPMMPXJOH
t 8IBU JOTUSVDUJPOBM NFUIPET EP UIFZ VTF XIBU EP UIFZ VTF UIFN GPS BOE XIZ
EP UIFZ VTF UIFN 3FGFS UP 5BCMF t %P UIFZ VTF B CMFOEFE BQQSPBDI UP USBJOJOH *G TP XIBU NFUIPET BSF VTFE
t %P UIFZ VTF DFSUBJO NFUIPET GPS QBSUJDVMBS USBJOJOH QSPHSBNT
t %P UIFZ QSFGFS UP VTF DFSUBJO NFUIPET NPSF UIBO PUIFST
t 8IBU NFUIPET EP UIFZ CFMJFWF BSF UIF NPTU FGGFDUJWF GPS USBJOJOH FNQMPZFFT JO
UIFJS PSHBOJ[BUJPO
t 8IBU GBDUPST EP UIFZ DPOTJEFS XIFO DIPPTJOH JOTUSVDUJPOBM NFUIPET
5P MFBSO NPSF BCPVU BDUJPO MFBSOJOH WJTJU UIF 8PSME *OTUJUVUF GPS "DUJPO -FBSOJOH
BU www.wial.org BOE BOTXFS UIF GPMMPXJOH RVFTUJPOT
B 8IBU JT BDUJPO MFBSOJOH
C 8IBU JT BDUJPO MFBSOJOH QBSUJDVMBSMZ FGGFDUJWF GPS
D 8IBU BSF UIF 8*"- TPMVUJPO TQIFSFT
E )PX DBO ZPV CFOFGJU GSPN 8*"- BDUJPO MFBSOJOH
F 8IBU BSF UIF DPNQPOFOUT PG BDUJPO MFBSOJOH
CASE INCIDENT
THE ALTERCATION
*O.BSDI BWJEFPTIPXJOHBOBMUFSDBUJPOCFUXFFOBOBOHSZDVTUPNFSBOEB4FBST
$BOBEBFNQMPZFFBUBTUPSFJO8JOOJQFHXBTQPTUFEPOMJOF5IFWJEFPXBTNBEFBGUFS
UIFTBMFTQFSTPOBTLFEUIFDVTUPNFSUPSFNPWFIJTDIJMESFOGSPNMBXO USBDUPSTUIBUXFSF
POEJTQMBZ*OUIFWJEFP UIFTBMFTQFSTPOTBZTUPUIFDVTUPNFS i-FUNFHVFTT ZPVKVTU
DBNFPGGUIFCPBU w5IFDVTUPNFSUIFODBMMTUIFFNQMPZFFSBDJTUBOEGPMMPXTIJNBSPVOE
UIFTUPSFTXFBSJOHBUIJNBOEEFNBOEJOHUIBUIFCFGJSFE
NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
171
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
4FBSTSFBDUFERVJDLMZUPUIFJODJEFOUBOEJOJUJBMMZTVTQFOEFEUIFFNQMPZFFCVUUIFO
GJSFEIJN7JODFOU1PXFS WJDFQSFTJEFOUPGDPSQPSBUFBGGBJSTBOEDPNNVOJDBUJPOTBU
4FBST$BOBEB TBJEi8FIBWFBDPEFPGDPOEVDU BDPEFPGFUIJDTBOEXFBMTPIBWFB
SFTQFDUJOUIFXPSLQMBDF QPMJDZ BOEUIPTFXFSFCSPLFO CBTJDBMMZw
8IFOJUDPNFTUPUSBJOJOH 4FBSTDPEFPGDPOEVDUEFBMTXJUINBKPSBSFBTTVDIBT
UIFQSPQFSVTFPGDPNQBOZBTTFUT DPOGMJDUTPGJOUFSFTUBOEQSPUFDUJPOPGQIZTJDBMBOE
JOUFMMFDUVBMQSPQFSUZ TBJE1PXFS5IFSFTBMTPBXPSLTIPQBCPVUSFTQFDUJOUIFXPSLQMBDF
EFBMJOHXJUINVUVBMSFTQFDU IBSBTTNFOU XPSLQMBDFWJPMFODF JOBQQSPQSJBUFCFIBWJPVS
BOECVMMZJOH BMPOHXJUIUJQTPOXIBUNBOBHFSTDBOEPUPDSFBUFSFTQFDUGVMXPSLQMBDFT
&WFSZ4FBSTBTTPDJBUFIBTUPDPNQMFUFCPUIPOMJOFDPVSTFTBOOVBMMZ BMPOHXJUIFYBNT
BUUIFFOE BOEFNQMPZFFTNVTUBDLOPXMFEHFUIFZWFSFBEUIFDPEFPGDPOEVDUJOUIFJS
BOOVBMQFSGPSNBODFSFWJFXT
8IJMF UIBUT BEFRVBUF IF TBJE TPNFUJNFT ZPVSF JO UIF TJUVBUJPO BOE BT NVDI
BTZPVLOPXUIFUIFPSZ ZPVSFBMMZIBWFUPQSBDUJTFJUi 5IJTJODJEFOUJT QSPCBCMZBO
PQQPSUVOJUZGPSVT‰DFSUBJOMZJOUIBUTUPSF CVUFWFOBDSPTT$BOBEB‰UPSFFNQIBTJ[FXJUI
PVSFNQMPZFFTIPXJNQPSUBOUCFIBWJPVSJT FTQFDJBMMZXJUIDVTUPNFSTBOEGFMMPXBTTPDJBUFT wTBJE1PXFSi*UHJWFTVTQBVTFUPNBLFTVSFUIBUXF SFJOGPSDFUIJT XJUIFWFSZCPEZw
QUESTIONS
(JWFOUIFJTTVFTSBJTFEJOUIFiJODJEFOUwCFUXFFOUIFFNQMPZFFBOEUIFDVTUPNFS IPX TIPVME FNQMPZFFT CF USBJOFE UP IBOEMF JOUFSBDUJPOT XJUI DVTUPNFST 8IBU
BSFUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGVTJOHFBDIPGUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET
MJTUFEJO5BCMF
8IBUJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPE T EPZPVUIJOLJTNPTUFGGFDUJWFGPSUSBJOJOHTBMFTQFSTPOTGPSJOUFSBDUJOHBOEDPNNVOJDBUJOHXJUIDVTUPNFST 8IBUUSBJOJOHNFUIPE
TIPVMEPSHBOJ[BUJPOTVTFUPQSFWFOUUIFLJOEPGBMUFSDBUJPOEFTDSJCFEJOUIFDBTF &YQMBJOZPVSBOTXFS
4PVSDF%PCTPO 4 .BSDI 6HMZ SBDJTUBMUFSDBUJPODBVHIUPOWJEFPBU4FBSTCanadian HR Reporter QQ 3FQSJOUFECZQFSNJTTJPOPGCanadian HR Reporterª$PQZSJHIU5IPNTPO3FVUFST$BOBEB-UE 5PSPOUP 0OUBSJP 8FCXXXISSFQPSUFSDPN
CASE STUDY
THE CUSTOMER-SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM
*OUFOTF DPNQFUJUJPO BNPOH SFUBJMFST IBT NBEF DVTUPNFS TFSWJDF B UPQ QSJPSJUZ
"UNBOZTUPSFTUPEBZ FNQMPZFFTXFMDPNFDVTUPNFSTBTUIFZFOUFSUIFTUPSFXJUI
DIFFSZHSFFUJOHTBOETBMFTTUBGGNVTUIBWFHPPEDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOEJOUFSQFSTPOBM
TLJMMTUPQSPWJEFDVTUPNFSTXJUIFYDFMMFOUTFSWJDF5IFZBMTPOFFEUPCFDPVSUFPVT QPMJUF GSJFOEMZ BOEIFMQGVM
" MBSHF SFUBJM DMPUIJOH TUPSF EFDJEFE UIBU JU OFFEFE UP JNQSPWF JUT DVTUPNFS
TFSWJDF UP CF NPSF DPNQFUJUJWF TJODF JUT DVTUPNFS TBUJTGBDUJPO SBUJOHT IBE CFFO
EFDMJOJOHPWFSUIFMBTUZFBSBOEXFSFMPXFSUIBOUIPTFPGJUTDPNQFUJUPST*UXBOUFE
FNQMPZFFTUPCFNPSFBDUJWFBOEJOWPMWFEXJUIDVTUPNFSTTPUIBUUIFZDPVMEQSPWJEFFYDFMMFOUTFSWJDFBOEJNQSPWFDVTUPNFSTBUJTGBDUJPOSBUJOHT
5IF DPNQBOZ EFTJHOFE B OFX DVTUPNFSTFSWJDF USBJOJOH QSPHSBN UP USBJO
FNQMPZFFTUPHSFFUDVTUPNFST PGGFSBTTJTUBODF IFMQUIFNGJOEXIBUUIFZBSFMPPLJOH
172
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
GPS SFTPMWFDVTUPNFSDPNQMBJOUTBOEQSPCMFNT BOEQSPWJEFDPVSUFPVT IFMQGVM BOE
GSJFOEMZTFSWJDF"OJNQPSUBOUPCKFDUJWFPGUIFQSPHSBNXBTUPQSPWJEF FNQMPZFFT
XJUICFUUFSJOUFSQFSTPOBM BOEDPNNVOJDBUJPOTLJMMTTPUIBUUIFZXPVMECFBCMFUP
TQFOENPSFUJNFJOUFSBDUJOHXJUIDVTUPNFSTBOEFOTVSFUIBUFWFSZDVTUPNFSMFBWFT
UIFTUPSFTBUJTGJFEXJUIIJTIFSTIPQQJOHFYQFSJFODF
5IF USBJOJOH QSPHSBN XIJDI XBT EFTJHOFE JOIPVTF BOE EFMJWFSFE CZ UIF
DPNQBOZT USBJOJOH TUBGG CFHBO XJUI B MFDUVSF JO XIJDI UIF USBJOFS EFTDSJCFE UIF
JNQPSUBODFPGDVTUPNFSTFSWJDFBOEUIFPCKFDUJWFT PGUIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN5SBJOFFT
XFSFJOTUSVDUFEPOUIFJNQPSUBODFPGHPPEDVTUPNFSTFSWJDFBOEIPXUIFZTIPVME
CFIBWFXIFOUIFZBSFJOUFSBDUJOHXJUIDVTUPNFST
'PMMPXJOHUIFMFDUVSF BWJEFPXBTTIPXOUIBUDPOTJTUFEPGEJGGFSFOUTDFOBSJPT
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NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
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174
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NEL
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// REFERENCES
%PCTPO 4 'FCSVBSZ 3FQFUJUJWFQSBDUJDFNBLFTDMPTFUPQFSGFDU
Canadian HR Reporter 26 #SPXO ,( 4JU[NBOO 5 5SBJOJOHBOEFNQMPZFFEFWFMPQNFOU
GPSJNQSPWFEQFSGPSNBODF*O4;FEFDL &E Handbook of industrial and
organizational psychology 7PM QQo 8BTIJOHUPO %$"NFSJDBO
1TZDIPMPHJDBM"TTPDJBUJPO
$PUTNBO 4 )BMM $ Learning cultures lead the way: Learning &
development outlook—14th edition0UUBXB5IF$POGFSFODF#PBSEPG$BOBEB
"OPOZNPVT /PWFNCFS%FDFNCFS 5SBJOJOHJOEVTUSZSFQPSU
Training Magazine 54 o
4JMMJLFS " "VHVTU )3CZUIFOVNCFST 0OTJUFTFTTJPOTNPTU
WBMVFEGPSNPGUSBJOJOH Canadian HR Reporter 26 NEL
CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
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"SUIVS 8 +S #FOOFUU 8 +S &EFOT 14 #FMM 45 &GGFDUJWFOFTTPGUSBJOJOHJOPSHBOJ[BUJPOT"NFUBBOBMZTJTPGEFTJHOBOEFWBMVBUJPO
GFBUVSFTJournal of Applied Psychology 88 o
.JMNBO /# 5IFGMJQQFEDMBTTSPPNTUSBUFHZ8IBUJTJUBOEIPX
DBOJUCFTUCFVTFE Distance Learning 9 o
3FOOFS 1 The quick instructional planner7BODPVWFS5SBJOJOH
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(BCSJT ( &EVDBUJOHFMFDUFEPGGJDJBMTJOTUSBUFHJDHPBMTFUUJOHPublic
Productivity and Management Review 13 o
$POMJO + $POGMJDUBUNFFUJOHT$PNFPVUGJHIUJOHSuccessful
Meetings 38 o3FOOFS 8FJO ( &YQFSUTBTUSBJOFST
Training and Development Journal, 44 o
,FMMFS 4 $IVWBMB + 5SBJOJOH5SJDLTPGUIFUSBEFSecurity Management 36 o
:JO 3, Case study research: Design and methods#FWFSMZ)JMMT4BHF
1FBSDF +" 3PCJOTPO 3# +S ;BISB 4" An industry approach
to cases in strategic management#PTUPO*SXJO1VCMJTIJOH
8SJHIU 1 5IF$&0BOEUIFCVTJOFTTTDIPPM*TUIFSFQPUFOUJBM
GPSJODSFBTFEDPPQFSBUJPO Association of Management Proceedings: Education 10 o
$SBJH 3- Training and development handbook: A guide to human
resource development QQo /FX:PSL.D(SBX)JMM*OD
$SBJH $SBJH -FFOEFST .3 &STLJOF +" Case research: The case writing process
-POEPO 0/6OJWFSTJUZPG8FTUFSO0OUBSJP1SFTT
5BZMPS 1+ 3VTT&GU %' $IBO %8- "NFUBBOBMZUJDSFWJFX
PGCFIBWJPSNPEFMJOHUSBJOJOHJournal of Applied Psychology 90 o
#BMEXJO 55 &GGFDUTPGBMUFSOBUJWFNPEFMJOHTUSBUFHJFTPOPVUDPNFT
PGJOUFSQFSTPOBMTLJMMTUSBJOJOHJournal of Applied Psychology 77 o
5BZMPSFUBM 3PCJOTPO +$ Developing managers through behaviour modeling"VTUJO 591GFJGGFS$P
5BZMPSFUBM -BV[JFS . )BDDPVO 33 5IFJOUFSBDUJWFFGGFDUPGNPEFMJOH
TUSBUFHJFTBOEHPBMPSJFOUBUJPOTPOBGGFDUJWF NPUJWBUJPOBM BOECFIBWJPSBM
USBJOJOHPVUDPNFTPerformance Improvement Quarterly, 27 o
#BMEXJO -BV[JFS)BDDPVO #VMMFS . .D&WPZ ( &YQMPSJOHUIFMPOHUFSNFGGFDUTPGCFIBWJPVS
NPEFMMJOHUSBJOJOHJournal of Organizational Change Management 3 o
,BSWF 4 4FUUJOHUIFTUBHFGPSFGGFDUJWFSPMFQMBZTT+D 65 o
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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,MJF 4 0DUPCFS -0SÏBMQMBZTHBNFTXJUIUSBJOJOHCanadian HR
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Human Resource Management 52 o
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PGQSPHSFTTAnnual Review of Psychology 52 o
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Decision Journal 22 o
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#SPXO4JU[NBOO "OPOZNPVT .BZ $&0TUBML5SBJOJOHEFWFMPQNFOUCanadian
HR Reporter 21 o
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Personnel Administrator 25 o$BSSPM 4+ 1BJOF '5 *WBODFWJDI ++
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QFSGPSNBODFJournal of Management 29 o
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CHAPTER 5 Off-the-Job Training Methods
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CHAPTER
6
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
METHODS
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
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The youth unemployment rate in Canada is nearly double
that of the general population. This makes it difficult for
youth to get work experience and learn new skills and
without work experience and skills it is difficult to get a job.
This has become known as the “no job, no experience” cycle.
To help break this cycle, several years ago RBC started
the Career Launch program to provide recent university
and college graduates across Canada with work experience so that they can develop the workplace skills that will
help them gain a competitive edge in the job market. The
program provides youth with a one-year paid internship so
that they can acquire real work experience that will help
them get into the workforce.
According to program director Rehana Ciriani, “This is
a unique opportunity for us to help young grads gain practical, hands-on business experience combined with mentorship, networking, learning, and community engagement.”
The one-year program offers 100 recent graduates
from across the country the chance to move through multiple job rotations and gain experience in different business
areas. The program consists of three separate rotations.
The first one is at one of RBC’s branches, where associates get hands-on sales and service experience serving
retail banking clients, solving problems, and spotting sales
opportunities. They learn foundational business, customer
service, and workplace skills.
The second rotation is a community/charity rotation that allows associates to use some of the skills they
learned to benefit local communities. According to Ciriani,
“Associates will gain exposure to the operations of a notfor-profit organization and apply practical business skills
contributing value to the organization and the communities
and causes it serves. . . . This rotation is also an opportunity for associates to build their networks” and foster
“relationships for professional and personal development.”
In the third rotation, associates move into a specialized area to gain more specific experience and skills.
This gives them further exposure to the variety of roles
in organizations today and the opportunity to work in one
of RBC’s broad-based business areas, such as marketing,
technology, human resources, finance, risk, or operations.
“During this time, associates will provide project-based
support in team-oriented environments to help these
departments meet short- and long-term objectives,” says
Ciriani.
NEL
Colin McConnell/Toronto Star/Getty Images
RBC
RBC’s Career Launch program provides recent university and college graduates with work experience so they can develop workplace
skills that will help them gain a competitive edge in the job market.
The program involves more than just the three rotations. It also includes mentoring and networking opportunities. For example, associates are paired with mentors
from within RBC who help them get the most out of the
program and prepare them for their careers beyond their
year at RBC. Networking opportunities encourage associates to build relationships they can take with them when
they have finished the RBC program. According to Zabeen
Hirji, chief human resources officer at RBC in Toronto,
“Relationships matter. So what we’ll be doing is giving
them that opportunity to meet with people from different
sectors, as well as from within RBC, to develop those
networks.”
The first 100 Career Launch associates began the
program in January 2014. In the last three years, the
program has run in 17 cities and 8 provinces and involved
300 participants. RBC has been recognized as one of the
best workplaces in Canada and one of Canada’s Top
Employers for Young People.1
Sources: Bernier, L. (2014, February 24). Breaking the “no job, no
experience” cycle. Canadian HR Reporter, pp. 3, 10. Reprinted by
permission of Canadian HR Reporter. © Thomson Reuters Canada Ltd.,
(2014), Toronto, Ontario, 1-800-387-5164. Web: www.hrreporter.com;
Da Silva-Powell, E. (2014). Inside the RBC Career Launch Program.
TalentEgg, http://talentegg.ca/incubator/2014/10/06/rbc-careerlaunch-program/; Da Silva-Powell, E.(2014). RBC Career Launch
Program: An opportunity for recent grads. TalentEgg, http://talentegg.
ca/incubator/2014/10/08/rbc-career-launch-program-opportunitygrads/; RBC Career Launch Program. (2017). RBC 2017 impact report,
http://www.rbc.com/careers/careerlaunch/_assets-custom/pdf/
RBC-Career-Launch-Program-2017-Report.pdf.
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
179
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// INTRODUCTION
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// ON-THE-JOB TRAINING (OJT) METHODS
On-the-job training
A training method
in which a trainee
receives instruction
and training at his or
her workstation from
a supervisor or an
experienced co-worker
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TABLE 6.1
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING METHODS
180
1.
Job instruction training. A formalized, structured, and systematic approach that
consists of four steps: preparation, instruction, performance, and follow-up.
2.
Performance aid. A device at the job site that helps an employee perform his/her job.
3.
Job rotation. Trainees are exposed to many functions and areas within an organization.
4.
Apprenticeship. Training for skilled trades workers that combines on-the-job training
with classroom instruction.
5.
Coaching. A more experienced and knowledgeable person is formally called upon to
help another person develop insights and techniques pertinent to the accomplishment
of their job and improvement of their job performance.
6.
Mentoring. A senior member of an organization takes a personal interest in the career
of a junior employee.
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 6.2
APPROACHES TO ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
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On-the-spot lecture. Gather trainees into groups and tell them how to do the job.
Viewed performance/feedback. Watch the person at work and give constructive feedback,
such as when the sales manager makes a call with a new salesperson.
Following Nellie. The supervisor trains a senior employee, who in turn trains new employees
(showing the ropes).
Job-aid approach. A job aid (step-by-step instructions or video) is followed while the trainer
monitors performance.
The training step. The trainer systematically introduces the task.
Sequence. Follows a planned sequence. For example: Provide an on-the-spot lecture,
gather trainees into groups, and tell them how to do the job.
On-the-job training in which a trainee receives instruction at his/her workstation is the most common method
of training.
THE PROBLEM WITH ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
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CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
181
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For more information see
Chapter 5, pp. 156–158
Job instruction
training
A formalized, structured, and systematic
approach to on-the-job
training that consists of
four steps: preparation,
instruction, performance, and follow-up
// JOB INSTRUCTION TRAINING
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182
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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For more information see
Chapter 2, p. 55
BUILDING INTEREST AND SHOWING PERSONAL ADVANTAGE
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
183
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SHOW THE TRAINEE HOW TO PERFORM THE JOB
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184
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
Performance aid
A device at the job site
that helps an employee
perform his/her job
185
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TRAINING TODAY
6.1
OPERATING ROOM CHECKLIST SAVES LIVES
Surgical complications are a common yet often preventable
problem that causes the death and disability of patients
all around the world. In an effort to reduce the rate of
major surgical complications, the World Health Organization (WHO) developed a surgical safety checklist to be used
during major operations. The Surgical Safety Checklist (see
Figure 6.1) requires surgeons to perform safety checks at
three times during surgical procedures: before induction of
anaesthesia (Sign In); before skin incision (Time Out); and
before the patient leaves the operating room (Sign Out).
The checklist includes a total of 19 checks and is
designed to ensure that the correct surgery site is marked,
that prophylactic antibiotics are given, that blood loss is
closely monitored, that sponge and needle counts are correct,
and that there is effective teamwork by the operating room
staff. A check in which members of the surgical team introduce themselves to each other by name is crucial because it
increases the chance that a member of the team will speak
up when something is going wrong. A checklist coordinator
is required to confirm that the team has completed each
task on the checklist before proceeding with the operation.
Eight hospitals in eight cities (Toronto, New Delhi,
Amman, Auckland, Manila, Ifakara, London, and Seattle)
participated in the World Health Organization’s Safe Surgery Saves Lives program. Data were collected from 3733
patients who underwent surgery without the use of the
Surgical Safety Checklist and from 3955 patients who had
surgery after the introduction of the checklist.
(continued )
186
Managing Performance through Training and Development
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A comparison of the two groups of patients indicated
that the use of the checklist resulted in one-third fewer
surgery-related deaths and complications. The rate of major
complications following surgery fell from 11 percent to
7 percent after introduction of the checklist. In-patient
deaths following major operations fell by more than
40 percent (from 1.5 percent to 0.8 percent).
The Toronto General Hospital was the only Canadian
hospital that took part in the study. The results were so
impressive that the checklist has also been adopted by
the Toronto Western Hospital and the Princess Margaret
Hospital.
The chief executive officer of the Canadian Patient
Safety Institute is requesting that health ministers in every
province and territory have the checklist implemented in all
acute-care hospitals. Countries such as England, Ireland,
Jordan, and the Philippines have already established
nationwide programs to implement the checklist in operating rooms.
The checklist is considered to be a no-cost innovation
and one of the most significant safeguards in the past three
decades. The use of the checklist in Canada could prevent
an estimated 40 000 complications a year and result in
enormous savings to the healthcare system.
Sources: Haynes, A. B. et al. (2009). A surgical safety checklist to reduce morbidity and mortality in a global population. The New England Journal of
Medicine, 360(5), 491–499; Priest, L. (2009, January 15). Simple checklist saves lives in the operating room, study finds. The Globe and Mail, p. A4;
Checklist helps reduce surgical complications, deaths. World Health Organization, WHO News Release, www.who.int/en/
FIGURE 6.1
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION’S SURGICAL SAFETY CHECKLIST
Surgical Safety Checklist
Before Induction of Anaesthesia
Before Skin Incision
Before Patient Leaves Operating Room
(with at least nurse and anaesthetist)
(with nurse, anaesthetist and surgeon)
(with nurse, anaesthetist and surgeon)
Has the patient confirmed his/her identity,
site, procedure, and consent?
Yes
Is the site marked?
Yes
Not applicable
Is the anaesthesia machine and medication
check complete?
Yes
Is the pulse oximeter on the patient and
functioning?
Yes
Does the patient have a:
Known allergy?
No
Yes
Difficult airway or aspiration risk?
No
Yes, and equipment/assistance available
Risk of >500ml blood loss (7ml/kg in children)?
No
Yes, and two IVs/central access and fluids
planned
Confirm all team members have
introduced themselves by name and role.
Confirm the patient’s name, procedure,
and where the incision will be made.
Has antibiotic prophylaxis been given within
the last 60 minutes?
Yes
Not applicable
Nurse Verbally Confirms:
The name of the procedure
Completion of instrument, sponge and needle
counts
Specimen labelling (read specimen labels aloud,
including patient name)
Whether there are any equipment problems to be
addressed
To Surgeon, Anaesthetist and Nurse:
What are the key concerns for recovery and
management of this patient?
Anticipated Critical Events
To Surgeon:
What are the critical or non-routine steps?
How long will the case take?
What is the anticipated blood loss?
To Anaesthetist:
Are there any patient-specific concerns?
To Nursing Team:
Has sterility (including indicator results)
been confirmed?
Are there equipment issues or any concerns?
Is essential imaging displayed?
Yes
Not applicable
This checklist is not intended to be comprehensive. Additions and modifications to fit local practice are encouraged.
Revised 1 / 2009
© WHO, 2009
Source: WHO surgical safety checklist, http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241598590_eng_Checklist.
pdf?ua=1. © World Health Organization, 2009. All rights reserved.
NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
187
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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// JOB ROTATION
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Cross-training
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jobs
188
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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projects that involve
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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// APPRENTICESHIPS
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
Apprenticeships
Training methods for
skilled trades workers
that combine on-thejob training and classroom instruction
189
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Apprenticeships are the primary method of training for skilled
USBEFT28
trades workers in Canada.
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190
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TIPS FOR TRAINERS
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
191
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TABLE 6.3
BENEFITS OF APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING
Effective recruitment strategy. Leads to higher retention rates and lower turnover, and
provides a competitive advantage over non-participating organizations.
Two-way skills development. Mentoring apprentices renews and revitalizes journeypersons’
skills, leading to greater productivity.
Higher-quality work. Helps maintain high standards and quality on the job, and develops
skills and competencies that meet industry standards and build quality products.
Increased productivity. Productivity is increased because apprentices are trained in the
company’s systems and work processes.
Improved safety. Makes journeypersons more aware of safe work practices as they teach
apprentices; makes employees more familiar with the organization’s safety practices,
leading to fewer accidents and thus reduced compensation costs; and leads to reduced
insurance costs for some employers, because insurance companies recognize the lower
risk of a skilled workforce.
Improved company reputation. Demonstrates an organization’s professionalism, because
it shows it is dedicated to delivering high-quality products through employing highly trained
and skilled workers.
Source: Canadian Apprenticeship Forum. (2008, July). Strategies to increase employer participation in apprenticeship training in Canada,
p. 1. www.caf-fca.org
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5SBJOJOHw
THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
6.1
INCREASING EMPLOYER PARTICIPATION IN APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING
A forum held by the Canadian Apprenticeship Forum made
the following recommendations to increase employer participation in apprenticeship training:
t Educate employers about mentoring. The process
of taking on an apprentice needs to be demystified.
Employers may not understand what is involved in
mentoring and therefore may be reluctant to take
on an apprentice.
t Inform employers that apprenticeship training is
industry driven. Industry designs the method of
delivery in apprenticeship training, and a variety
of training delivery options are available.
t Provide incentives to employers. Incentives are
an important way to maintain and enhance participation in apprenticeship training, and some
employers might need clarification on the federal/
provincial/territorial incentives available.
t Ensure apprentices understand their value. Apprentices need to understand their value to an organization and be informed about wage subsidies and tax
credits so they can show what they have to offer to
an employer when trying to find a sponsor.
t Encourage employers to participate in talking to their
peers. Participating employers should inform their
(continued )
192
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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colleagues of the benefits of apprenticeship training
and encourage non-participating employers to go to
schools to discuss with youth a career in the trades;
bring non-participating employers to networking
events; and give presentations to non-participating
employers on the business case for apprenticeship.
t Build appreciation for skilled labour. Employers will
participate in apprenticeship training if customers
and consumers start demanding that they have a
skilled labour force and that their employees have
trade certification.
Source: Canadian Apprenticeship Forum. (2008, July). Strategies to increase employer participation in apprenticeship training in Canada, p. 15.
www.caf-fca.org
// COACHING
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
193
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194
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// MENTORING
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
Mentoring
A senior member of
an organization takes
a personal interest in
the career of a junior
employee
Career support
Mentoring activities that include
coaching, sponsorship,
exposure, visibility,
protection, and the
provision of challenging assignments
Psychosocial support
Mentoring activities
that include being a
friend who listens and
counsels, who accepts
and provides feedback,
and who is a role
model for success
E-mentoring
Mentoring programs in
which the mentor and
protégé communicate
online
195
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&.FOUPSJOH1SPHSBNw
THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
6.2
DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE E-MENTORING PROGRAM
Technology has provided many new ways to develop and
implement e-mentoring programs. Here are some guidelines for making e-mentoring programs effective.
t Keep in mind that though there may be less faceto-face interaction in digitally facilitated mentoring,
the premise of providing learning and development
through a relationship of mutual trust remains the
same.
t Enable just-in-time mentoring in which mentor and
mentee can connect at the moment a question arises.
t Use video-conferencing technology on computers
and mobile devices to allow for virtual “face-toface” interaction.
t Create internal social networks for training groups,
such as for leadership development participants.
t Set goals to track the success of mentoring
programs, such as helping employees become
ingrained in the culture or getting them up to
speed faster so they can hit the ground running.
t Use technology to enable employees to seek, or get
matched with, internal career coaches—mentors—
who can help them achieve their development
goals.
Source: Weinstein, M. (2016, September/October). Mentoring in the digital age. Training Magazine, 53(5), 28–31. See https://trainingmag.com/
trgmag-article/mentoring-digital-age
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196
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// OFF-THE-JOB VERSUS ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
METHODS
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JOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET"SFMBUFEJTTVFJTXIFUIFSUPVTFPOUIFKPCPSPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOH
NFUIPET*OUIFGJOBMTFDUJPOPGUIJTDIBQUFS XFSFWJFXTPNFPGUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOE
EJTBEWBOUBHFTPGPOUIFKPCBOEPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPET
OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING METHODS
ADVANTAGES
"USBJOFSDBOVTFBXJEFWBSJFUZPGJOTUSVDUJPOBMUSBJOJOHNFUIPETXIFOUSBJOJOHJTPGG
UIFKPC'PSFYBNQMF BUSBJOFSDBODPNCJOFBMFDUVSFXJUIEJTDVTTJPO BDBTFTUVEZPS
DBTFJODJEFOU HBNFTBOETJNVMBUJPOT BOEPSJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFEJBTVDIBTBWJEFPBOE
TMJEFT5IVT BUSBJOFSIBTNBOZPQUJPOTXIFOUSBJOJOHJTPGGUIFKPCBOEDBOUBJMPSB
USBJOJOHQSPHSBNUPUIFOFFETBOEQSFGFSFODFTPGUSBJOFFT5IFUSBJOFSDBOBMTPDIPPTF
NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
197
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
BDPNCJOBUJPOPGNFUIPETUIBUXJMMCFNPTUFGGFDUJWFHJWFOUIFPCKFDUJWFTBOEDPOUFOU
PGBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN
"OPUIFSBEWBOUBHFPGPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHJTUIBUUIFUSBJOFSJTBCMFUPDPOUSPMUIF
USBJOJOH FOWJSPONFOU *O PUIFS XPSET UIF USBJOFS DBO DIPPTF B USBJOJOH TJUF UIBU JT
DPNGPSUBCMF GSFF PGEJTUSBDUJPOT BOEDPOEVDJWFUPMFBSOJOH"USBJOFSEPFTOPUIBWFBT
NVDIDPOUSPMPGUIFMFBSOJOHFOWJSPONFOUXIFOUSBJOJOHJTPOUIFKPC
"UIJSEBEWBOUBHFJTUIBUBMBSHFOVNCFSPGUSBJOFFTDBOCFUSBJOFEBUPOFUJNF
5IJTJTFTQFDJBMMZUIFDBTFXIFOUIFMFDUVSFNFUIPEJTVTFE5IVT PGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOH
JTHFOFSBMMZNPSFFGGJDJFOUHJWFOUIBUNBOZNPSFUSBJOFFTDBOCFUSBJOFEBUPOFUJNF
BOEJOPOFQMBDF5IJTJT PGDPVSTF BIVHFBEWBOUBHFXIFONBOZFNQMPZFFTOFFEUP
CFUSBJOFEBTTPPOBOEBTGBTUBTQPTTJCMF
DISADVANTAGES
5IFSFBSFBMTPBOVNCFSPGEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPET'JSTU PGG
UIFKPCUSBJOJOHDBOCFNVDINPSFDPTUMZUIBOPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOH5IJTJTCFDBVTFPG
UIF DPTUT BTTPDJBUFE XJUI UIF VTF PG USBJOJOH GBDJMJUJFT USBWFM BDDPNNPEBUJPO GPPE BOETPPO)PXFWFS BTZPVXJMMTFFJO$IBQUFS UIFTFDPTUTDBOCFBMNPTUDPNQMFUFMZ
FMJNJOBUFEXJUIUIFVTFPGUFDIOPMPHZ
"TFDPOEEJTBEWBOUBHFPGPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHJTUIBUCFDBVTFUIFUSBJOJOHUBLFTQMBDF
JOBUSBJOJOHFOWJSPONFOUUIBUJTEJGGFSFOUGSPNUIFXPSLFOWJSPONFOU USBJOFFTNJHIU
IBWFEJGGJDVMUZBQQMZJOHUIFUSBJOJOHNBUFSJBMPOUIFKPC'PSFYBNQMF XIJMFBUSBJOFF
NJHIUCFBCMFUPQFSGPSNBUSBJOJOHUBTLJOBSPMFQMBZEVSJOHUSBJOJOH IFPSTIFNJHIU
IBWFEJGGJDVMUZQFSGPSNJOHUIFTBNFUBTLPOUIFKPC5IVT UIFBQQMJDBUJPOPGUSBJOJOH
POUIFKPC PSXIBUJTLOPXOBTUIFUSBOTGFSPGUSBJOJOH TFF$IBQUFS DBOCFNPSF
EJGGJDVMUXJUIPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOH
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING METHODS
ADVANTAGES
"NBKPSBEWBOUBHFPGPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPETJTUIBUUIFDPTUJTNVDIMPXFSHJWFO
UIBUUIFOFFEGPSUSBJOJOHGBDJMJUJFT USBWFM BDDPNNPEBUJPO BOETPPOJTFMJNJOBUFE
5IVT POUIFKPCUSBJOJOHUFOETUPCFNVDIMFTTDPTUMZUIBOPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOH
"TFDPOEBEWBOUBHFJTUIFHSFBUFSMJLFMJIPPEPGUSBJOFFTBQQMZJOHUIFUSBJOJOHPOUIF
KPC5IBUJT CFDBVTFUSBJOJOHUBLFTQMBDFJOUIFUSBJOFFTBDUVBMXPSLBSFB UIFBQQMJDBUJPO
JTNVDINPSFEJSFDUBOEJOTPNFDBTFTJNNFEJBUF5IVT UIFSFJTMFTTEJGGJDVMUZJOUIF
USBOTGFSPGUSBJOJOH TJODFUIFUSBJOJOHFOWJSPONFOUBOEXPSLFOWJSPONFOUBSFUIFTBNF
DISADVANTAGES
5IFSFBSFBOVNCFSPGEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOH'JSTU UIFXPSLFOWJSPO
NFOUJTGVMMPGEJTUSBDUJPOTUIBUDBOJOUFSGFSFXJUIMFBSOJOHBOEJOUFSSVQUUSBJOJOH/PJTF
NJHIUNBLFJUEJGGJDVMUGPSUSBJOFFTUP IFBSBOEVOEFSTUBOEUIFUSBJOFS BOEBUUJNFTUIF
USBJOFSNJHIUCFJOUFSSVQUFEBOEDBMMFEBXBZGSPNUIFUSBJOJOHUPTPMWFBQSPCMFNPS
XPSLPOTPNFUIJOHFMTF
4FDPOE XIFOUSBJOFFTBSFCFJOHUSBJOFEPOBOBDUVBMNBDIJOFPSFRVJQNFOUPO
UIFKPC UIFSFJTBMXBZTUIFQPUFOUJBMGPSEBNBHFUPFYQFOTJWFFRVJQNFOU5IJTDPVME
198
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
TIVUEPXOQSPEVDUJPOGPSBQFSJPEPGUJNF BEEJOHUPUIFDPTUPGSFQBJSJOHPSSFQMBDJOH
EBNBHFEFRVJQNFOU
"UIJSEEJTBEWBOUBHFJTUIFEJTSVQUJPOPGTFSWJDFPSTMPXEPXOJOQSPEVDUJPOUIBUPDDVST
EVSJOHUSBJOJOH:PVIBWFQSPCBCMZIBEUIFFYQFSJFODFPGCFJOHTFSWFECZBOFNQMPZFF
XIPJTCFJOHUSBJOFE5IFSFTVMUJTVTVBMMZTMPXFSTFSWJDFBOEUIFQPUFOUJBMGPSFSSPST5IVT
POUIFKPCUSBJOJOHDBOSFTVMUJOBSFEVDUJPOJOQSPEVDUJWJUZ RVBMJUZ BOETFSWJDF
'JOBMMZ XIFOTBGFUZJTTVFTBSFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFVTFPGFRVJQNFOUPSEBOHFSPVT
DIFNJDBMT POUIFKPCUSBJOJOHDBODPNQSPNJTFTBGFUZ"USBJOFFMFBSOJOHPOUIFKPCDBO
NBLFBNJTUBLFBOEIBSNIJNIFSTFMG PUIFSFNQMPZFFT PSDVTUPNFST5IFSFGPSF FYUSB
QSFDBVUJPOBOEDBSFOFFEUPCFUBLFOXIFOFWFS POUIFKPCUSBJOJOHJOWPMWFTXPSLJOH
XJUIFRVJQNFOUPSEBOHFSPVTDIFNJDBMT
COMBINING ON-THE-JOB AND OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING METHODS
"TZPVDBOTFF UIFSFBSFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIPOUIFKPCBOE
PGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPET#FJOHBXBSFPGBOEVOEFSTUBOEJOHUIFNDBOCFIFMQGVM
XIFODIPPTJOHBUSBJOJOHNFUIPE'PSFYBNQMF XIFOUIFSFJTBOFFEUPUSBJOBMBSHF
OVNCFS PGFNQMPZFFT PGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHJTNPSFQSBDUJDBM8IFOUIFDPTUPGUSBJOJOH
JTBOJTTVF POUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNJHIUCFNPSFGFBTJCMF5IVT JTTVFTPGQSBDUJDBMJUZBOE
GFBTJCJMJUZBSFJNQPSUBOUDPOTJEFSBUJPOTXIFODIPPTJOHUSBJOJOHNFUIPET
*UTIPVMECFBQQBSFOUUPZPVUIBUUIFDIPJDFPGBUSBJOJOHNFUIPEJTOPUSFBMMZBNBUUFS
PGXIFUIFSUSBJOJOHTIPVMECFPOUIFKPCPSPGGUIFKPC*OGBDU BTOPUFEJO $IBQUFS FGGFDUJWFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTPGUFODPNCJOFPOUIFKPCBOEPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPET
6MUJNBUFMZ XIBUJTNPTUJNQPSUBOUJTNJYJOHBOEDPNCJOJOHUSBJOJOHNFUIPETUP
CFTUTVJUBQBSUJDVMBSUSBJOJOHOFFEBOEPCKFDUJWF*OGBDU POFTUVEZGPVOEUIBUBDPN
CJOBUJPOPGPOUIFKPCBOEPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPETJTUIFCFTU BQQSPBDIGPSHFUUJOH
FNQMPZFFTVQUPTQFFE5IVT PODFBHBJOUIFCFTUBQQSPBDIBQQFBSTUPCFBCMFOEFE
POFUIBUDPNCJOFTEJGGFSFOUNFUIPETPGUSBJOJOH5IJTJTUIFDBTFOPUPOMZXJUISFTQFDU
UPPOUIFKPCBOEPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPET CVUBMTPGPSUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOH
NFUIPET XIJDIBSFEJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS
// SUMMARY
5IJTDIBQUFSEFTDSJCFETPNFPGUIFNPTUDPNNPONFUIPETPGPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOHBOE
DPNQMFNFOUTUIFPGGUIFKPCJOTUSVDUJPOBMUSBJOJOHNFUIPETEFTDSJCFEJO$IBQUFS8F
OPUFEUIBUPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOHJTUIFNPTUDPNNPONFUIPEPGUSBJOJOHBTXFMMBTUIF
NPTUNJTVTFE)PXFWFS KPCJOTUSVDUJPOUSBJOJOHUIBUJTDBSFGVMMZQMBOOFEBOETUSVDUVSFE
DBOIBWFBQPTJUJWFFGGFDUPOFNQMPZFFMFBSOJOHBOEQFSGPSNBODF0OUIFKPCUSBJOJOH
DBOBMTPJOWPMWFUIFVTFPGQFSGPSNBODFBJETBOEKPCSPUBUJPO"QQSFOUJDFTIJQQSPHSBNT
DPNCJOFPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOHBOEDMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPOBOEBSFUIFQSJNBSZNFUIPEPG
USBJOJOHTLJMMFEUSBEFTXPSLFST$PBDIJOHBOENFOUPSJOHBSFBMTPQPQVMBSNFUIPETPG
POUIFKPCUSBJOJOHUIBUDBOCFVTFEBMPOFPSJODPNCJOBUJPOXJUIPUIFSNFUIPET5IF
DIBQUFSDPODMVEFEXJUIBEJTDVTTJPOPGUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGPOUIFKPC
BOEPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPET*UXBTOPUFEUIBUFGGFDUJWFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTNJYBOE
DPNCJOFPOUIFKPCBOEPGGUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPETBTXFMMUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOH
NFUIPET UIFGPDVTPG$IBQUFS
NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
199
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
KEY TERMS
BQQSFOUJDFTIJQTQ
DBSFFSTVQQPSUQ
DPBDIJOHQ
DSPTTUSBJOJOHQ
FNFOUPSJOHQ
KPCJOTUSVDUJPOUSBJOJOHQ
KPCSPUBUJPOQ
NFOUPSJOHQ
POUIFKPCUSBJOJOHQ
QFSGPSNBODFBJEQ
QTZDIPTPDJBMTVQQPSUQ
TUSFUDIBTTJHONFOUTQ
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
%FTDSJCFUIFTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFODPBDIJOHBOENFOUPSJOH8IFO
XPVME ZPV VTF DPBDIJOH BOE XIFO XPVME ZPV VTF NFOUPSJOH BT BO POUIFKPC
USBJOJOHNFUIPE
8IBUBSFUIFNBJOJTTVFTUPDPOTJEFSXIFOEFWFMPQJOHBNFOUPSJOHQSPHSBN
)PX TIPVME BO PSHBOJ[BUJPO EFDJEF XIFUIFS JU TIPVME VTF POUIFKPC USBJOJOH 8IBUBSFUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFT
8IZEPZPVUIJOLPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOHJTUIFNPTUDPNNPONFUIPEPGUSBJOJOH 8IZJTJUBMTPUIFNPTUNJTVTFENFUIPE 8IBUDBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOTEPUPBWPJEUIF
QSPCMFNTPGPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOH
%FTDSJCFUIFPCKFDUJWFTPGBQQSFOUJDFTIJQTBOEIPXUIFZBSFEJGGFSFOUGSPNPUIFS
NFUIPETPGPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOH8IBUTIPVMECFEPOFUPJODSFBTFUIFOVNCFSPG
QFPQMFXIPQVSTVFBQQSFOUJDFTIJQUSBJOJOHJO$BOBEB BOEXIZJTUIJTJNQPSUBOU 8IBUTIPVMECFEPOFUPJODSFBTFUIFOVNCFSPGFNQMPZFSTUIBUBSFXJMMJOHUPQSP
WJEFBQQSFOUJDFTIJQUSBJOJOH
%FTDSJCF UIF GPVS TUFQT PG KPC JOTUSVDUJPO USBJOJOH BOE XIBU ZPV XPVME EP JO
FBDITUFQJGZPVXFSFUSBJOJOHTPNFPOFPOUIFKPC&YQMBJOIPXZPVXPVMEUSBJO
TPNFCPEZUPESJWFBDBSPSGJYBGMBUUJSFJGZPVXFSFVTJOHKPCJOTUSVDUJPOUSBJOJOH
%JTDVTT UIF BEWBOUBHFT BOE EJTBEWBOUBHFT PG POUIFKPC BOE PGGUIFKPC USBJOJOH
NFUIPET
8IBUJTKPCSPUBUJPOBOEXIBUBSFJUTBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFT 8IBUBSFTPNF
XBZTUPNBLFKPCSPUBUJPOFGGFDUJWFGPSMFBSOJOHBOEDBSFFSEFWFMPQNFOU
8IBUJTBTUSFUDIBTTJHONFOUBOEXIBUNBLFTJUBNFUIPEPGPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOH 8IBUJTUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOBTUSFUDIBTTJHONFOUBOEKPCSPUBUJPO
THE GREAT TRAINING DEBATE
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH0OUIFKPCUSBJOJOHDBOSFTVMUJOFNQMPZFFTXIPBSFQPPSMZ
USBJOFE BOEJUTIPVMECFBWPJEFEXIFOFWFSQPTTJCMF
200
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH5IFBQQSFOUJDFTIJQTZTUFNJO$BOBEBJTOPMPOHFSFGGFDUJWF BOE PSHBOJ[BUJPOT XPVME CF CFUUFS PGG JG UIFZ JNQMFNFOUFE UIFJS PXO JOIPVTF
BQQSFOUJDFTIJQQSPHSBNT
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH*GBOFNQMPZFFDBOQFSGPSNBKPC UIFOIFTIFTIPVMECF
BCMFUPUSBJOPUIFSTUPEPUIFKPC
EXERCISES
IN-CLASS
3FDBMMUIFNPTUSFDFOUKPCZPVIBEBOEIPXZPVXFSFUSBJOFE8FSFZPVUSBJOFEPO
UIFKPC *GTP EFTDSJCFZPVSFYQFSJFODF8IBUFYBDUMZEJEUIFUSBJOFSEPBOEIPX
EJEJUJOGMVFODFZPVSMFBSOJOH 8BTZPVSPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOHFYQFSJFODFFGGFDUJWF 8IZPSXIZOPU 8IBUDPVMEIBWFCFFOEPOFEJGGFSFOUMZUPNBLFJUNPSFFGGFDUJWF *GZPVXFSFOPUUSBJOFEPOUIFKPC EFTDSJCFIPXPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNJHIUCFVTFE
UPUSBJOFNQMPZFFTUPEPZPVSKPC
"T B TUVEFOU ZPV IBWF QSPCBCMZ FYQFSJFODFE TPNF QSPCMFNT TUVEZJOH XSJUJOH
BTTJHONFOUT PSQFSIBQTXSJUJOHFYBNT*GZPVXFSFUPBDUBTBUVUPSUPUSBJOBOPUIFS
TUVEFOUXJUITPNFPGUIFTFQSPCMFNT XIBUNFUIPEPGUSBJOJOHXPVMEZPVVTFBOE
XIZ $POTJEFSFBDIPGUIFPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOHNFUIPETJO5BCMFBOEJOEJDBUF
IPXZPVXPVMEVTFUIFNBOEIPXFGGFDUJWFUIFZXPVMECFGPSUSBJOJOHBTUVEFOU
UPCFDPNFBiCFUUFSwTUVEFOU
"TTVNFUIBUZPVIBWFKVTUCFFOIJSFEBTBUSBJOFSJOBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOUIBUIJSFTSFDFOU
DPMMFHFBOEVOJWFSTJUZHSBEVBUFTFWFSZZFBS5IFDPNQBOZEPFTOPUIBWFBGPSNBM
NFOUPSJOHQSPHSBNBOEZPVSKPCJTUPUSZUPHFUPOFTUBSUFE1SFQBSFBQSPQPTBMUP
DPOWJODFNBOBHFNFOUPGUIFJNQPSUBODFPGBOEOFFEGPSBGPSNBMNFOUPSJOHQSP
HSBN*ODMVEFBEFTDSJQUJPOPGIPXUIFQSPHSBNXJMMXPSLBOEXIBUXJMMCFSFRVJSFE
UPHFUJUTUBSUFE5IFOIBWFBOPUIFSNFNCFSPGUIFDMBTTSFWJFXZPVSQSPQPTBMBOE
QSPWJEFGFFECBDLPSQSFTFOUZPVSQSPQPTBMUPUIFDMBTT
6TJOHUIFKPCJOTUSVDUJPOUSBJOJOHNFUIPE EFTJHOBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNUPQFSGPSNB
UBTLZPVBSFGBNJMJBSXJUI*UDPVMECFBUBTLZPVIBWFIBEUPQFSGPSNJOBDVSSFOU
PSQSFWJPVTKPC PSJUDPVMECFTPNFUIJOHUIBUJTOPUXPSLSFMBUFE TVDIBTIPX
UPGJYBGMBUUJSF IPXUPESJWFBDBS PSIPXUPSJEFBCJLF%FTJHOZPVSUSBJOJOH
QSPHSBNGPMMPXJOHUIFTUFQTPVUMJOFEJOUIFDIBQUFS5IFOIBWFBOPUIFSNFNCFS
PGUIFDMBTTSFWJFXZPVSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNBOEQSPWJEFGFFECBDL"MUFSOBUJWFMZ EPB
EFNPOTUSBUJPOJOGSPOUPGUIFDMBTTBOEIBWFUIFDMBTTDSJUJRVFZPVSUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN
BOEQSPWJEFGFFECBDL
7FSZPGUFO FYQFSJFODFEFNQMPZFFTBSFDBMMFEPOUPUSBJOBOFXFNQMPZFFPOUIF
KPC*ONPTUDBTFT UIFFNQMPZFFIBTOPUSFDFJWFEUSBJOJOHJOIPXUPUSBJOPUIFST
$IBODFTBSFUIBUTPNFEBZZPVXJMMCFBTLFEUPUSBJOBOFXFNQMPZFF PSQFSIBQT
ZPVIBWFBMSFBEZIBEUP5PQSFQBSFZPVSTFMGGPSUIJTUBTL DPOTJEFSIPXXFMMQSF
QBSFEBOERVBMJGJFEZPVBSF8IBUBSFZPVSTUSFOHUITBOEXFBLOFTTFT 1SFQBSFBO
BDUJPOQMBOUPEFWFMPQBSFBTUIBUZPVOFFEUPJNQSPWF*GZPVIBWFBMSFBEZIBEUP
USBJOTPNFCPEZPOUIFKPC IPXFGGFDUJWFXFSFZPVBOEXIBUEPZPVOFFEUPEP
UPJNQSPWF
0OUIFKPC USBJOJOH DBO CF WFSZ FGGFDUJWF JG UIF USBJOFS JT LOPXMFEHFBCMF BCPVU
MFBSOJOH QSJODJQMFT BOE UIFPSJFT .BLF B MJTU PG BMM UIF QSJODJQMFT DPODFQUT BOE
NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
201
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
UIFPSJFTEFTDSJCFEJOQSFWJPVTDIBQUFSTPGUIFUFYUUIBUDBOCFVTFEUPNBLFPO
UIFKPCUSBJOJOHNPSFFGGFDUJWF&YQMBJOUIFSFMFWBODFPGFBDIQSJODJQMF DPODFQU BOEUIFPSZPOZPVSMJTU
IN-THE-FIELD
"TLZPVSGSJFOETJGUIFZXPVMEBDDFQUBQBJEUSBJOJOHFYQFSJFODFUIBUDPOTJTUFEPG
UIFGPMMPXJOHCFOFGJUT
t 5IFZXPVMECFHJWFOTUSVDUVSFEDMBTTSPPNUSBJOJOHBOEPOUIFKPCBTTJHONFOUT
t 5IFZXPVMECFDPBDIFEBOETVQFSWJTFEUISPVHIPVUUIFMFBSOJOHFYQFSJFODF
t 5IFZXPVMECFQBJEUPMFBSO
t 5IFZXPVMECFDFSUJGJFEBUUIFFOEPGMFBSOJOHUIFKPC
t 5IFZXPVMECFHVBSBOUFFEFNQMPZNFOUBUIJHIXBHFT
*GUIFZBOTXFSiZFT wUIFOUFMMUIFNBCPVUCFDPNJOHBOBQQSFOUJDFFMFDUSJDJBO DBSQFOUFS QMVNCFS PSDIFG8IBUJTUIFJSSFBDUJPO %PTUVEFOUTSFTJTUUIFDFSUJGJ
DBUJPOQSPHSBNTJOUIFUSBEJUJPOBMWPDBUJPOTBOEFNCSBDFDFSUJGJDBUJPOJOIVNBO
SFTPVSDFTPSBDDPVOUJOH 8IZ 8IBUDBOCFEPOFUPJODSFBTFUIFMJLFMJIPPEUIBU
TUVEFOUTXJMMDIPPTFBTLJMMFEUSBEFBOEFOUFSBOBQQSFOUJDFTIJQQSPHSBN
$POUBDUUIFIVNBOSFTPVSDFEFQBSUNFOUPGBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOUPGJOEPVUBCPVUUIFJS
VTFPGPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOH*OQBSUJDVMBS ZPVTIPVMEJORVJSFBCPVUUIFGPMMPXJOH
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
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CASE INCIDENT
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
203
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204
Managing Performance through Training and Development
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QUESTIONS
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
205
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// REFERENCES
#FSOJFS - 'FCSVBSZ #SFBLJOHUIFiOPKPC OPFYQFSJFODFwDZDMF
Canadian HR Reporter 27 %B4JMWB1PXFMM & 0DUPCFS *OTJEFUIF3#$$BSFFS-BVODI1SPHSBNTalentEgg3FUSJFWFEGSPNIUUQ
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$BSFFS-BVODI1SPHSBN i3#$*NQBDUSFQPSUw IUUQXXXSCDDPN
DBSFFSTDBSFFSMBVODI@BTTFUTDVTUPNQEG3#$$BSFFS-BVODI1SPHSBN
3FQPSUQEG
)VHIFT 1% (SBOU . Learning & development outlook 2007
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TD: Talent Development 71 o
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Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 32 o6LFOT $
$BSETIFMQQIBSNBDJTUTDPVOTFMQBUJFOUTJOBGMBTIDrug Topics 137 o
(PSEPO " 'FCSVBSZ 3JTJOHUPBNJOPSDIBMMFOHFToronto Star QQ- -
3VZMF , 'FCSVBSZ.BSDI %FWFMPQJOHJOUFMMJHFOUKPCBJETTechnical
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Training and Development 48 o
206
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%PCTPO 4 +VOF &NQMPZFSTSFDPHOJ[FEGPSDBNQVTSFDSVJUNFOU JOUFSOTIJQQSPHSBNTCanadian HR Reporter 26 :PVOH - .BSDI "MMJOUIFGBNJMZBU5PSPOUP)ZESPCanadian
HR Reporter 21 $BNQJPO ." $IFSBTLJO - 4UFWFOT .+ $BSFFSSFMBUFE
BOUFDFEFOUTBOEPVUDPNFTPGKPCSPUBUJPOAcademy of Management Journal 37 o
$PUTNBO 4 )BMM $ Learning cultures lead the way: Learning &
development outlook‰14th edition0UUBXB5IF$POGFSFODF#PBSEPG$BOBEB
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.ÏOBSE . .FOF[FT ' $IBO $,: 8BMLFS . National
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IJSJOH 3FQPSU Canadian HR Reporter 23 It pays to hire an apprentice:
Calculating the return on training investment for skilled trades employers in Canada
+VOF 0UUBXB $BOBEJBO "QQSFOUJDFTIJQ 'PSVN Strategies to increase
employer participation in apprenticeship training in Canada +VMZ 0UUBXB
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CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
207
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 6 On-the-Job Training Methods
209
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CHAPTER
7
TECHNOLOGY-BASED
TRAINING METHODS
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
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Calfrac Well Services
CALFRAC WELL SERVICES
Calfrac Well Services designed a blended approach to training that combines online modules and hands-on
field training.
Calfrac Well Services of Calgary, Alberta, operates in four
countries and is one of the largest hydraulic fracturing
companies in the world. Several years ago, Calfrac could
not find a classroom large enough for its Employee
Responsibility Training (CERT) program so it created one.
The result is a blended approach to training that combines
online modules and hands-on field training.
CERT provides standardized training across the
company’s districts, both in content and in delivery. The
program includes online training modules relating to each
individual piece of equipment used by field operators in
conjunction with on-the-job training through peer-to-peer
coaching.
As part of the CERT program, Calfrac provides each
of its field operators a tablet. This allows greater flexibility
and mobility in the organization’s on-the-job training by
putting a mobile classroom in the hands of every one of
its field operators.
The CERT program was originally conceived as a set of
manuals. Calfrac uses 30 separate pieces of equipment in
its operations and many of these machines are retrofitted
to suit specific needs.
NEL
In an effort to create standardized training processes,
Calfrac worked with several of its field operators and a
technical writer to create a manual for each piece of
equipment that ranged from 20 to 40 pages. However,
according to Human Resource Director Jon Koop, “What
we realized really quickly was that probably wasn’t the
best training method. Sitting these guys in front of stacks
of manuals wasn’t going to be very effective at keeping
them awake, let alone having them learn anything.”
So the company decided that a blended approach
would be more successful, as the hands-on component
would be more in keeping with its tradition of on-the-job
training. Field operators were consulted in the creation of
best practices, including how to use the equipment as well
as safety procedures and environmental factors.
Employees work through the best practices via
e-learning courses with their tablets. Once they pass
a knowledge exam, they are able to download the
necessary on-the-job training forms. Along with a peer
trainer, employees complete the forms as they train with
the equipment in the field. Following an assessment by
a site supervisor, the employee is declared competent
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
211
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and becomes a peer coach for fellow employees
undergoing training.
“We don’t have a classroom big enough or a teacher
smart enough to teach everyone everything they need to
know in this business,” Koop says, “so we need to rely on
each other and be able to teach each other.” To facilitate
this, an online coaching module was developed for CERT.
The module incorporates Calfrac’s culture and core values.
The coaching module is indicative of Calfrac’s goals
moving forward, Koop said. The company sees its CERT
program as an opportunity for the organization to become
a learning organization and cultivate peer-to-peer training
and the sharing of information on an ongoing basis.
By blending online and on-the-job training, Calfrac
was able to create a training and development program
that is both meaningful and economical. Modules were
created for each separate piece of machinery at an
average cost of less than $20,000 per module. Calfrac
spent about $280,000 to furnish each employee with his/
her own tablet and employees are paid two hours’ wages
to complete each module, since their learning is done on
their own time.
In addition to a positive response from employees,
Calfrac has won several awards for the program including
the 2015 National HR Award for Best Corporate Training
and Development Program and an honourable mention
for Blended Learning from the International e-Learning
Association. The company is working on translating the
program to ensure employees in the United States, Russia,
and Argentina are also trained using the same strategy,
and plans to expand the program to create modules for its
maintenance staff, front-line supervisors, and engineers.1
Sources: Based on Foster, L. (2015). Calfrac finds flexibility, mobility –
and cost savings – in taking blended approach to training. Canadian
HR Reporter, 28 (15), 18, 20. Reprinted by permission of Canadian HR
Reporter. © Copyright Thomson Reuters Canada Ltd., (2015), Toronto,
Ontario, 1-800-387-5164. Web: www.hrreporter.com; Calfrac, About
Us at www. Calfrac.com and Careers at www.calfrac.com/careers.
// INTRODUCTION
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Technology-based
training
Training that involves
the use of technology
to deliver training
Traditional training
Training that does
not involve using
technology to deliver
training
212
// WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY-BASED TRAINING?
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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// COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING AND E-LEARNING
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
Computer-based
training
Training that is
delivered via the
computer for the
purpose of teaching
job-relevant knowledge
and skills
213
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TABLE 7.1
TRAINING METHODS AS A PERCENTAGE OF OVERALL LEARNING TIME AND USE BY
ORGANIZATIONS
LEARNING TIME
ORGANIZATION USE
Instructor-led (classroom)
48%
94%
Instructor-led (online)
8%
52%
Self-paced (computer-aided, offline)
2%
15%
Self-paced (online)
20%
77%
Collaborative (face-to-face)
8%
64%
Self-paced (non-computer-based)
3%
25%
Instructor-led (blended)
5%
40%
Collaborative (online)
2%
21%
Source: Cotsman, S., & Hall, C. (2018). Learning cultures lead the way: Learning & development outlook—14th edition. Ottawa: The
Conference Board of Canada.
E-learning
The use of computer
network technology
such as the intranet
or Internet to
deliver information
or instruction to
individuals
Instructor-led
training (ILT)
Training methods that
involve an instructor or
facilitator who leads,
facilitates, or trains
online
214
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JOTUSVDUPSMFEPSTFMGEJSFDUFE
// INSTRUCTOR-LED TRAINING AND SELFDIRECTED LEARNING
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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Rawpixel/Shutterstock.com
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Self-directed learning (SDL)PDDVSTXIFOJOEJWJEVBMTPS
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SFTPVSDFTUPNFFUUIPTFOFFET BOEBSFIFMQFEXJUIFWBMVBUJOH
UIFFGGFDUJWFOFTTPGNFFUJOHUIFJSOFFET
Technology-based training is training that is delivered via the
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Self-directed
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learning (SDL)
A process in which
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individuals or groups
UIFJSPXOUJNF
take the initiative
5BCMFMJTUTTPNFPGUIFCFOFGJUTBOEMJNJUBUJPOTPGTFMGEJSFDUFEMFBSOJOH
and responsibility for
learning and manage
their own learning
experiences
TABLE 7.2
THE BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING
BENEFITS
t Trainees can learn at their own pace and determine their desired level
of expertise.
t Trainees build on their knowledge bases and training time may be reduced; trainees
learn what is relevant to their needs.
t Trainees become independent and acquire skills enabling them to learn more efficiently
and effectively, reducing dependence on formal training.
t People can learn according to their own styles of learning.
LIMITATIONS
t Trainees may learn the wrong things or may not learn all there is to know; one
suggestion to remedy this problem is to negotiate a learning contract with specific
learning objectives and performance measures.
t Trainees may waste time accessing resources and finding helpful material; the trainer
could become a facilitator, directing employees toward useful resources.
t SDL takes time—employees have to learn active knowledge-seeking skills,
acquire knowledge-gathering skills, and learn to tolerate inefficiencies and
mistakes; the trainer must learn to give up a power base and move from expert
to helper.
NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
215
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// ASYNCHRONOUS AND SYNCHRONOUS TRAINING
Asynchronous
Training that is prerecorded and available
to employees at any
time and from any
location
Multimedia training
Computer-based
training programs that
include text, graphics,
animation, audio, and
video
Synchronous
Training that is live and
requires trainees to be
at their computer at a
specific time
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// ONLINE AND DISTANCE EDUCATION
Online and distance
education
The use of computer
technology and the
Internet to deliver
educational content
and courses
216
Online and distance education JOWPMWFT UIF VTF PG DPNQVUFS UFDIOPMPHZ BOE UIF
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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courses (MOOCs)
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open enrolments that
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have an unlimited
number of students
from all over the world
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courses (SPOCs)
Online courses that
focus on specific
topics and are offered
to smaller targeted
audiences
// ELECTRONIC PERFORMANCE SUPPORT
SYSTEMS
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
Electronic
performance support
system (EPSS)
A computer-based
system that provides
information, advice,
and learning
experiences to improve
performance
217
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// THE VIRTUAL CLASSROOM
Virtual classroom
A Web-based platform
to deliver live,
instructor-led training
to geographically
dispersed learners
Vm/Getty Images
Video conferencing
Linking an expert or
trainer to employees
via two-way television
and satellite technology
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An increasing number of organizations are using virtual classrooms to provide training.
218
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
Web conferencing
A live meeting or
conference that takes
place on the Internet
Webinar
A seminar that takes
place live over the Web
Webcast
A live or recorded video
or audio broadcast
over the Internet
7.1
DESIGNING EFFECTIVE VIRTUAL TRAINING PROGRAMS
To be effective, live virtual training has to be designed from
the ground up as a unique type of learning experience,
as follows.
t Design a series of short modules—about 60 to 90
minutes—each followed by a work assignment
that immediately applies the learning to the job.
t Move from monologue to dialogue for the delivery.
t Ensure that the delivery is interactive: ask
questions, facilitate conversation, conduct
brainstorming sessions, and use breakout rooms.
t Include multimedia content to illustrate complex
concepts, such as short pre-recorded audio and
video segments.
t Keep the classroom size to a maximum of 20 to
25 learners.
t Attempt to model programs on the structure and
style of a phone-in radio show, including guests
and compelling narrative.
Source: Lewis, M. (2011, July). Moving into the live virtual classroom. T+D, p. 76.
NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
219
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// SOCIAL MEDIA AND WEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGY
Social media
The use of technology
for sharing and
exchanging information
Knowledge sharing
Providing task
information and
know-how to help and
collaborate with others
to solve problems,
develop new ideas, or
implement policies or
procedures
Communities of
practice
Groups of employees
who share similar
concerns and problems
and meet regularly to
share their experiences
and knowledge, learn
from each other,
and identify new
approaches for working
and solving problems
Web 2.0
Internet tools
that enable the
communication and
sharing of information
and knowledge
Generative learning
A self-initiated and
learner-controlled
form of collaborative
learning in which
individuals in a social
network share ideas
and information, and
in the process solve
problems and create
new knowledge
Blog
A website that contains
commentary and
information on a
subject
Wiki
A webpage or
collection of webpages
in which users share,
contribute, and modify
information on a topic
220
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NEL
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Podcast
A short audio or video
recording that can
be downloaded and
played on a mobile
device such as an iPod
or smartphone
Web 3.0
A fundamental
shift in how people
interact with the
Web that consists of
the semantic Web, the
mobile Web, and the
immersive Internet
// MOBILE LEARNING (M-LEARNING)
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
Mobile learning
(m-learning)
The use of mobile or
portable technologies
across locations for
obtaining information
and training
Microlearning
Small amounts of
bite-sized chunks of
focused information
to meet a specific
learning outcome
221
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bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock.com
Mobile learning or m-learning involves the use of mobile or portable
technologies such as iPods, MP3 players, and smartphones.
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// SYNTHETIC LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (SLEs)
Synthetic learning
environments (SLEs)
Technology-based
training media that
augment, replace,
create, and/or manage
a learner’s experience
with the world
Virtual reality (VR)
The use of computers
to create an artificial
3-D experience
that simulates and
recreates an actual
environment
TRAINING TODAY
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7.1
VIRTUAL REALITY TRAINING AT BNSF RAILWAY
BNSF Railway is one of the oldest and largest railroads
in North America. The railroad’s 42 000 employees serve
the western two-thirds of the United States. For BNSF,
safety is at the foundation of everything the company
does and is based on having well-trained employees.
When it comes to safety, BNSF is a leader in the rail
industry.
In response to a federal regulation on Brake System
Safety Standards, BNSF Railway developed a 3-D e-learning
training program called Virtual Power Brake Law (VPBL).
(continued )
222
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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The virtual reality learning program serves as the proficiencybased training program for brake inspection. The course
places employees as avatars in a realistic, three-dimensional,
virtual simulation, where they perform comprehensive brake
inspections on a “consist” of rail cars.
The program enhances decision making by testing
employees’ ability to not only identify but also correct
malfunctions—many of which prove difficult to demonstrate
even in live training environments. With this training
solution (including nine individual 3-D virtual scenarios),
BNSF incorporates all defects and functionality, reducing
the safety risk that comes from inspections in live training
environments. In addition, BNSF can efficiently cover all
inspection requirements.
BNSF developed four different modules for instructors
to choose from for each class. Participants must complete,
with 100 percent accuracy, one full module per class.
When students complete the performance verification at
100 percent (individually and as a team), they can “move”
the train out of the virtual inspection cycle. This creates a
“team challenge.”
The 30-minute program features high-end graphics,
user-friendly functions, and realistic functionality, including
car components, hand brakes, angle cocks, and air hoses—
all key components to proper inspection. Students also have
the ability to work through the program under nighttime
conditions. In addition, hand controls and critical “hot spots”
allow the program to flow in a user-friendly way.
At the end of the program, participants must pass a
knowledge-based assessment for final completion. Throughout
the class, instructors provide coaching and feedback so that
learning is dynamic and targeted directly to the concept taught.
All training is conducted in BNSF field locations by certified
instructors. There is an eight-student maximum per session.
In 2015, BNSF trained more than 6200 employees with
this program. The results have been very positive. One hundred
percent of learners passed the knowledge and performance
assessments. This program and other safety-focused training
contributed to record safety performance in 2015 and injuries
have been reduced by 17 percent since 2012. BNSF has been
approached by other railroads interested in purchasing the
training and plans to seek a patent for it.
Source: Based on Best practices & outstanding training initiatives (BNSF Railway: Virtual Power Brake Law (VPBL)). (2017, January/February). Training
Magazine, 54(1), 102; Who We Are, BNSF, https://jobs.bnsf.com/content/who/
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reality (AR)
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elements) information
is overlaid onto a realworld environment in
real time
// DESIGNING EFFECTIVE TECHNOLOGY-BASED
TRAINING PROGRAMS
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CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
223
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For more information
see Chapter 4, p. 126 and
Chapter 5, p. 152
Virtual worlds
Elaborate simulations
that involve
interactions among
and between multiple
trainees and objects
Computer-based
simulation games
Instruction delivered
via personal computer
that immerses trainees
in a decision-making
exercise in an artificial
environment in order to
learn the consequences
of their decisions
Gamification
The use of game
mechanics and
elements from video
games to engage and
motivate employees in
the workplace
224
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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David Anderson
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CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
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CUSTOMIZATION CustomizationJOWPMWFTUBJMPSJOHJOTUSVDUJPOBMFMFNFOUTUPNFFUUSBJOFF
Customization
Tailoring instructional
elements to meet
trainee preferences
and needs
Adaptive learning
Training programs
that tailor and adjust
training content and
material to the specific
needs of trainees
Personalization
Structuring the
program so that
trainees feel that they
are engaged in a
conversation with the
program
Human interaction
The extent to which
trainees are able
to interact with the
instructor and one
another during a
training program
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226
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
For more information see
Chapter 4, p. 133
7.2
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING
The following principles cover many aspects of computerbased training design and are well grounded in both theory
and research.
t The multimedia principle. Graphics and text should
be used rather than simply text alone. Trainees will
engage in a deeper and more active processing of
the learning material.
t The contiguity principle. When text is used to
explain a graphic or vice versa, the text and
graphics should be placed near each other on
the screen. This permits trainees to focus on the
instructional material rather than on trying to
match a miscellaneous set of pictures to text.
t The modality principle. Audio technology, rather
than on-screen text, should be used to present
information. Trainees are likely to become
overwhelmed with visual information when
presented with only text, graphics, illustrations,
and figures during learning.
t The personalization principle. Text should be
written in first and second person, and trainees
should have access to on-screen virtual coaches
that provide guidance and direction. This will help
trainees to see the computer as a conversational
partner rather than as an information delivery
agent.
Sources: DeRouin, R. E., Fritzsche, B. A., & Salas, E. (2005). E-Learning in organizations. Journal of Management, 31, 920; Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E.
(2003). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
// BENEFITS OF TECHNOLOGY-BASED TRAINING
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
227
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Learner control
The degree to which
the trainee has
control over various
instructional features
during a lesson or
training program,
such as the content,
sequence, and/or the
pace of training
Self-pacing
Trainees can work
on training tasks as
quickly or as slowly as
they want
Learner-controlled
practice difficulty
The extent to which
trainees have control
over the level of
difficulty of practice
opportunities during a
training program
Adaptive guidance
An instructional
strategy to assist
trainees in making
effective learning
decisions
For more information see
Chapter 2, p. 57
228
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
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ORGANIZATIONS
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(LMS)
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for the administration,
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management of an
organization’s training
and development
programs
DISADVANTAGES
TRAINEES
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CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
229
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XBTGPVOEUPEFQFOEPOTFWFSBMGBDUPST'PSFYBNQMF DPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHXBTNPSF
FGGFDUJWFUIBODMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPOGPSPMEFSUSBJOFFT XIJMFDMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPOXBT
NPSFFGGFDUJWFGPSZPVOHFSUSBJOFFT$PNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHXBTOPUNPSFFGGFDUJWF
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230
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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$PNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHXBTBMTPNPSFFGGFDUJWFUIBODMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPOXIFO
UIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET JF UIFUFDIOJRVFTVTFEUPEFMJWFSUIFUSBJOJOHDPOUFOU TVDIBT
MFDUVSF WJEFP UFYUCPPLT XFSFEJGGFSFOU)PXFWFS DPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHBOEDMBTTSPPN
JOTUSVDUJPOXFSFFRVBMMZFGGFDUJWFXIFOUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETXFSFUIFTBNF
5IJTJTBOJNQPSUBOUGJOEJOHCFDBVTFJUTVHHFTUTUIBUPOFPGUIFSFBTPOTTPNFTUVEJFT
IBWFGPVOEDPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHUPCFNPSFFGGFDUJWFUIBODMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPOJT
CFDBVTFUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETEJGGFS TVDIBTXIFODMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPOJOWPMWFT
BMFDUVSFBOEDPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHJOWPMWFTBWBSJFUZPGJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPET*O
GBDU UIFBVUIPSTGPVOEUIBUDPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHXBTQFSDFOUNPSFFGGFDUJWFUIBO
DMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPOGPSUFBDIJOHEFDMBSBUJWFLOPXMFEHFXIFOEJGGFSFOUJOTUSVDUJPOBM
NFUIPETXFSFVTFE5IJTTVHHFTUTUIBUJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETBSFNPSFJNQPSUBOUGPS
MFBSOJOHUIBOUIFNFEJBVTFEUPEFMJWFSUIFUSBJOJOH DPNQVUFSWFSTVTGBDFUPGBDF "OPUIFSJNQPSUBOUGBDUPSXBTUSBJOFFDIPJDFPGUSBJOJOHNFUIPE$PNQVUFSCBTFE
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5IFSFJTBMTPTPNFFWJEFODFUIBUDPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHDBOSFTVMUJOBSFEVDUJPO
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JT VOMFTTBDPVSTFJTSFRVJSFEPSUIFSFJTBTUSPOHSFBTPOGPSFNQMPZFFTUPDPNQMFUFJU UIFZBSFOPUMJLFMZ UPEPTP&NQMPZFFTIBWFCFFOGPVOEUPCFNPSFMJLFMZUPDPNQMFUF
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USBJOJOHJODSFBTFEUIFDPTUTPGQBSUTGPSNBJOUFOBODF DPSSFDUJWFNBJOUFOBODFBDUJPOT
BOENBJOUFOBODFMBCPVSIPVST5IFBEEJUJPOBMDPTUPGNBJOUFOBODFJTFTUJNBUFEUPCF
JOUIFNJMMJPOTPGEPMMBST
5IVT BMUIPVHIUIFSFQMBDFNFOUPGUSBEJUJPOBMJOTUSVDUPSMFEUSBJOJOHXJUIDPNQVUFS
CBTFEUSBJOJOHXBTNFBOUUPSFEVDFUSBJOJOHUJNFBOEDPTUT JUUVSOFEPVUUPCFWFSZ
NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
231
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DPTUMZ5IFSFTVMUTPGUIJTTUVEZTVQQPSUBOFDEPUBMFWJEFODFUIBUDPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOH
EJEOPUQSFQBSFOFXTBJMPSTUPPQFSBUFBOENBJOUBJOTPQIJTUJDBUFEFRVJQNFOUBOEUIBU
UIFZBSFOPUBTXFMMQSFQBSFEBTDMBTTSPPNUSBJOFETBJMPSTPGUIFQBTU5IVT DPNQVUFS
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TLJMMT
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JTVTFEUPTVQQMFNFOUDMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPO IBTCFFOGPVOEUPCFQFSDFOUNPSF
FGGFDUJWFUIBODMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPOGPSUFBDIJOHEFDMBSBUJWFLOPXMFEHF BOEQFSDFOU
NPSF FGGFDUJWF GPS UFBDIJOH QSPDFEVSBM LOPXMFEHF 3FDBMM UIBU UIF $BMGSBD VTFE B
CMFOEFEBQQSPBDIUPUSBJOJOHUIBUDPNCJOFEPOMJOFUSBJOJOHXJUIPOUIFKPCUSBJOJOH
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BOEJODMVEFTDMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPO POUIFKPCUSBJOJOH BOEUIFVTFPGDPNQVUFSTBOE
UFDIOPMPHZJTNPTUFGGFDUJWF
// SUMMARY
5IJTDIBQUFSEFTDSJCFEUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHNFUIPETBOETFSWFTBTBDPNQMFNFOU
UP $IBQUFST BOE XIJDI EFTDSJCFE POUIFKPC BOE PGGUIFKPC USBJOJOH NFUIPET
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MFBSOJOH BOECFUXFFOBTZODISPOPVTBOETZODISPOPVTUSBJOJOH XFSFOPUFE5IJTXBT
GPMMPXFE CZ B EJTDVTTJPO PG EJGGFSFOU UZQFT PG UFDIOPMPHZCBTFE USBJOJOH JODMVEJOH
POMJOFBOEEJTUBODFFEVDBUJPOBOEFMFDUSPOJDQFSGPSNBODFTVQQPSUTZTUFNT UIFWJSUVBM
DMBTTSPPN WJEFPBOE8FCDPOGFSFODJOH XFCJOBSTBOEXFCDBTUT BOEUIFVTFPGTPDJBM
NFEJB 8FCUFDIOPMPHJFT NPCJMFMFBSOJOH BOETZOUIFUJDMFBSOJOHFOWJSPONFOUT8F
UIFOEFTDSJCFEIPXUPEFTJHOUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTBOEUIFJSBEWBOUBHFT
BOE EJTBEWBOUBHFT GPS JOEJWJEVBMT BOE PSHBOJ[BUJPOT 5IF DIBQUFS DPODMVEFE XJUI B
EJTDVTTJPOPGUIFFGGFDUJWFOFTTPGUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHNFUIPET
KEY TERMS
BEBQUJWFHVJEBODFQ
BEBQUJWFMFBSOJOHQ
BTZODISPOPVTQ
BVHNFOUFESFBMJUZ "3 Q
CMPHQ
DPNNVOJUJFTPGQSBDUJDFQ
DPNQVUFSCBTFETJNVMBUJPOHBNFTQ
DPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHQ
DVTUPNJ[BUJPOQ
FMFBSOJOHQ
FMFDUSPOJDQFSGPSNBODFTVQQPSUTZTUFN &144 Q
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232
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
k _w! ` c! qs nnpcqqcb! dpmk ! rf c! c@mmi ! _l b-mp! cAf _nrcp&q' ,! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! pcqcpt cq! rf c! pgef r! rm! pck mt c! _bbgrgml _j! aml rcl r! _r! _l w! rgk c! gd! qs ` qcos cl r! pgef rq! pcqrpgargml q! pcos gpc! gr,
JOTUSVDUPSMFEUSBJOJOH *-5 Q
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MFBSOFSDPOUSPMMFEQSBDUJDFEJGGJDVMUZQ
MFBSOJOHNBOBHFNFOUTZTUFN -.4 Q
NBTTJWFPQFOPOMJOFDPVSTFT .00$T Q
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WJSUVBMSFBMJUZ 73 Q
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8FCQ
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
*O$BOBEBBOEUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT UIFVTFPGUFDIOPMPHZGPSUSBJOJOHIBTGBMMFOCFMPX
QSPKFDUJPOTJOGBDU UIFBEPQUJPOPGUSBJOJOHUFDIOPMPHJFTIBTCFFOSFMBUJWFMZTMPX
BOENPTUUSBJOJOHTUJMMUBLFTQMBDFJOUIFDMBTTSPPN8IBUBSFTPNFPGUIFSFBTPOT
GPSUIJT BOEXIBUBSFUIFQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFSTUPUIFBEPQUJPOPGUSBJOJOHUFDIOPMPHJFT
$PNQBSFBOEDPOUSBTUUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHNFUIPETUPUSBEJUJPOBMUSBJOJOH
NFUIPET 8IZ XPVME BO PSHBOJ[BUJPO DIPPTF UP VTF UFDIOPMPHZCBTFE USBJOJOH
NFUIPETSBUIFSUIBOUSBEJUJPOBMUSBJOJOHNFUIPET "SFUIFSFTPNFUZQFTPGJOEVTUSJFT PSHBOJ[BUJPOT PSKPCTJOXIJDIUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHPSUSBEJUJPOBMUSBJOJOH
XPVMECFNPSFBQQSPQSJBUFBOEFGGFDUJWF
8IBUBSFUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTPGUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHGPSUSBJOFFT USBJOFST BOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOT
*GZPVIBEUIFDIPJDF XPVMEZPVDIPPTFBDPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNPSB
USBEJUJPOBMDMBTTSPPNQSPHSBN 8IJDIXPVMEZPVQSFGFS BOEXIZ %PZPVUIJOL
ZPVS TBUJTGBDUJPO MFBSOJOH BOE QFSGPSNBODF XPVME EJGGFS JO B DPNQVUFSCBTFE
QSPHSBNWFSTVTBUSBEJUJPOBMDMBTTSPPNQSPHSBN &YQMBJOZPVSSFBTPOJOH
NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
233
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%JTDVTTIPXUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTDBOCFEFTJHOFEUPFOHBHFUSBJOFFT
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%JTDVTTIPXHBNFT TJNVMBUJPOT BOESPMFQMBZTDBOCFVTFEJOUFDIOPMPHZCBTFE
USBJOJOHQSPHSBNT*GZPVXFSFEFTJHOJOHBUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN XIFO
BOEXIZXPVMEZPVVTFFBDINFUIPE
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CBTFEUSBJOJOHNFUIPET BOEUIBUBOZFGGFDUUIFZIBWFPOMFBSOJOHJTOPUEVFUP
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PSDMBTTSPPN BOEXIFOUIFJOTUSVDUJPOBMNFUIPETVTFEUPEFMJWFSUIFQSPHSBNTBSF
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FGGFDUTPGDPNQVUFSCBTFEUSBJOJOHBOEGPSUIFEFTJHOBOEEFMJWFSZPGDPNQVUFS
CBTFEUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT
8IBUJT8FCUFDIOPMPHZBOEIPXDBOJUCFVTFEGPSUSBJOJOH %PZPVUIJOL
PSHBOJ[BUJPOTTIPVMEVTF8FCUFDIOPMPHJFTGPSUSBJOJOH &YQMBJOZPVSBOTXFS
8IBUEPFTMFBSOFSDPOUSPMSFGFSUPBOEXIBUSPMFEPFTJUQMBZJOUFDIOPMPHZCBTFE
USBJOJOH 8IZJTMFBSOFSDPOUSPMOPUBMXBZTFGGFDUJWF 8IBUDBOCFEPOFUPNBLF
JUNPSFFGGFDUJWF
8IBUJTBTZOUIFUJDMFBSOJOHFOWJSPONFOU 4-& BOEIPXDBOJUNBLFUFDIOPMPHZ
CBTFEUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTNPSFFGGFDUJWF 8IBUBSFJUTBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFT
THE GREAT TRAINING DEBATE
%FCBUF UIF GPMMPXJOH (JWFO UIF NBOZ CFOFGJUT PG UFDIOPMPHZCBTFE USBJOJOH PSHBOJ[BUJPOTTIPVMEDPOWFSUBMMPGUIFJSDMBTTSPPNUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTUPUFDIOPMPHZ
CBTFEQSPHSBNTBOEFMJNJOBUFGPSNBMDMBTTSPPNUSBJOJOH
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH5IFSFJTOPUIJOHJOIFSFOUMZTVQFSJPSBCPVUUFDIOPMPHZCBTFE
USBJOJOH 5IF FGGFDUJWFOFTT PG B USBJOJOH NFUIPE EFQFOET PO IPX JU JT EFTJHOFE
SBUIFSUIBOIPXJUJTEFMJWFSFE
%FCBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH5IFVTFPGUFDIOPMPHZGPSUSBJOJOHJTKVTUUIFMBUFTUGBEBOE
JUXJMMOFWFSCFBTFGGFDUJWFBTDMBTTSPPNJOTUSVDUJPO
EXERCISES
IN-CLASS
%FTDSJCFUIFPCKFDUJWFT DPOUFOU NFUIPET BOEDPOEJUJPOTPGQSBDUJDFPGUIFNPTU
SFDFOUDMBTTSPPNUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNZPVBUUFOEFE/PXUIJOLBCPVUIPXUIFQSPHSBN
NJHIU CF DPOWFSUFE UP B UFDIOPMPHZCBTFE USBJOJOH QSPHSBN %FTDSJCF XIBU UIF
QSPHSBNXPVMECFMJLFBOEIPXZPVXPVMEEFTJHOJU%PZPVUIJOLJUXPVMECF
NPSFPSMFTTFGGFDUJWFUIBOUIFDMBTTSPPNUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN
234
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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$IPPTFBDMBTTGSPNBDPVSTFZPVBSFDVSSFOUMZUBLJOHBOEEFTDSJCFJUJOUFSNTPG
UIFGPMMPXJOHEFTJHOGBDUPSTGSPN$IBQUFS
t 8IBUBSFUIFPCKFDUJWFT
t 8IBUJTUIFDPOUFOU
t 8IBUUSBJOJOHNFUIPETBSFVTFE
t 8IBULJOETPGBDUJWFQSBDUJDFBSFQSPWJEFE
/PXDPOTJEFSIPXUIFDMBTTNJHIUCFEFTJHOFEBOEEFMJWFSFEBTBOPOMJOFDPVSTF6TF
ZPVSBOTXFSTGPSFBDIPGUIFBCPWFEFTJHOGBDUPSTUPSFEFTJHOUIFDMBTTBTBOPOMJOFDPVSTF
8IBU XPVME CF UIF PCKFDUJWFT DPOUFOU NFUIPET BOE UZQF PG BDUJWF QSBDUJDF )PX
FGGFDUJWFEPZPVUIJOLUIFDPVSTFXPVMECFBTBOPOMJOFDPVSTF $PNQBSFBOEDPOUSBTU
JUUPUIFDMBTTSPPNDPVSTF8IBUBSFUIFBEWBOUBHFTBOEEJTBEWBOUBHFTGPSTUVEFOUT JOTUSVDUPST BOEUIFVOJWFSTJUZPSDPMMFHF 8IJDIBQQSPBDIXPVMEZPVQSFGFSBOEXIZ
0OFPGUIFDPODFSOTBCPVUUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOHJTUIFUFOEFODZUPGPDVTUPP
NVDIPOUIFUFDIOPMPHZBOEOPUFOPVHIPOMFBSOJOHBOEUIFDPOEJUJPOTPGQSBDUJDF
3FGFSUP$IBQUFSBOEUIFDPOEJUJPOTPGQSBDUJDFJO5BCMF%FTDSJCFIPXFBDI
PGUIFDPOEJUJPOTPGQSBDUJDFDBOCFJODMVEFEJOUIFEFTJHOPGBDPNQVUFSCBTFE
USBJOJOHQSPHSBN
"GUFSMFBSOJOHBCPVUUFDIOPMPHZCBTFEUSBJOJOH ZPVSFBMJ[FUIBUZPVSPSHBOJ[BUJPO
DBOCFOFGJUCZDPOWFSUJOHTPNFPGJUTUSBEJUJPOBMDMBTTSPPNUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTUP
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
235
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CASE INCIDENT
PLAYING VIDEO GAMES TO LEARN
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236
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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CASE STUDY
E-LEARNING AT FLOTATION LTD.
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
237
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238
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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FLASHBACK QUESTIONS
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REWRITE THE CASE QUESTION: TRAINING DESIGN
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
239
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CASE STUDY
THE KOREA GINSENG CORPORATION
PART 1
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240
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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PART 2
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PART 3
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
241
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PART 4
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242
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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NEL
CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
243
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// REFERENCES
'PTUFS - $BMGSBDGJOETGMFYJCJMJUZ NPCJMJUZoBOEDPTUTBWJOHToJOUBLJOH
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CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
245
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246
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NEL
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DMBTTSPPNTechTrends, 61 o,FFCMFS +3 1BU[FS #4 8JMUTIJSF 5+ 'JPSF 4. "VHNFOUFESFBMJUZTZTUFNTJOUSBJOJOH*O,(#SPXO &E The Cambridge handbook of workplace training and employee development QQo /FX:PSL$BNCSJEHF6OJWFSTJUZ1SFTT-FF , "VHNFOUFESFBMJUZJO
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CHAPTER 7 Technology-Based Training Methods
247
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CHAPTER
8
TRAINING DELIVERY
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
t EFWFMPQBEFUBJMFEMFTTPOQMBO
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The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) is
Canada’s national public broadcaster providing news and
entertainment from coast to coast. The Crown corporation
employs over 6000 permanent, full-time-equivalent
employees and operates 27 television stations, 88 radio
stations, and one digital station. The CBC has two main
television networks, one English and one French, as well
as five specialty television channels and four Canada-wide
radio networks, two in each official language.
Several years ago, CBC launched a project to equip
all its televisions stations in Canada with high-definition
cameras and equipment. This meant that staff across the
country had to be trained to use the new technology. But
how could they train so many staff across the country? The
answer was staff instructors, who make up 70 percent of
the 30 or so instructors at the CBC.
To support their development, staff instructors
received four days of training—two focused on e-learning
and two focused on higher-level “train the trainer.” Senior
staff trainers were partnered with newer members of
the training group and they worked collaboratively on
developing material.
Staff instructors primarily provide technical and
infrastructure training, such as new equipment training,
as well as journalism and programming training, including
journalism skills, writing, and producing. A handful of staff
instructors also provide soft-skills and business skills
BROKER/Alamy Stock Photo
CANADIAN BROADCASTING CORPORATION (CBC)
Staff instructors make up 70 percent of the 30 or so instructors at
the CBC.
training, including facilitation, internal negotiation, dealing
with complex work environments, and providing feedback.
Senior staff members also play a key role in training at
the CBC. For example, several years ago the CBC launched
a “conversation series” in which younger staff got to talk
to veteran journalists, producers, and editors. In addition,
the employee intranet features a variety of videos of more
senior employees offering their expertise.1
Sources: Silliker, A. (2013, April 22). Staff instructors offer training at
CBC. Canadian HR Reporter, 26(8), 10; CBC Annual Report 2015–2016.
About us, Our operations.; www.cbc.radio-canada.ca/site/annualreports/2015-2016/about-us/our-operations-en.html
// INTRODUCTION
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Lesson plan
The blueprint that
outlines the sequence
of activities that will
take place in the
training program
250
// THE LESSON PLAN
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 8.1
TRAINING DELIVERY ACTIVITIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Develop a lesson plan.
Choose the trainer.
Decide on the trainees who should attend a training program.
Determine the training materials and equipment required.
Prepare the training site.
Schedule the training program.
Administer the training.
Implement the training program.
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NEL
CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
Lesson
A cohesive unit of
instruction with a
specific learning
objective
251
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TABLE 8.2
LESSON PLAN COVER PAGE FOR STRUCTURED EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEWS
Organization:
Department:
Program Title:
Instructor(s):
Time Allocation:
Trainees:
Where:
Vandalais Department Stores
Human Resources
Structured Employment Interviews
Interview Training Consultant
1 day
All employees in the Human Resources Department
Vandalais Learning Centre
TRAINING OBJECTIVES
Employees will be able to conduct a structured behaviour description interview and correctly perform the seven key behaviours.
CLASSROOM REQUIREMENTS
Seating for 50 people that allows for high involvement.
TRAINING MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
DVD player and TV monitor; DVD: How to Conduct a Structured Employment Interview ; computer and projector with screen;
flipchart; paper; markers.
TRAINEE SUPPLIES
Pen and paper.
TRAINEE HANDOUTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Course objectives and outline.
Article on structured employment interviews.
Article on behaviour description interviews.
List of the seven key behaviours for conducting a structured employment interview.
Copy of the behaviour description interview for the sales associate position, with interview questions and scoring guide
and instructions.
Role-play exercise.
THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
8.1
GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING A LESSON PLAN
Use the following guidelines to develop a lesson plan.
1. Write the lesson objective (what the trainee will be
able to do at the end of the lesson).
2. Determine the knowledge and skills the trainee
must learn to accomplish the objective. This enables
the developer to determine the subtopics of the
lesson.
3. Put the subtopics in a preliminary sequence in a way
that is most meaningful to the trainee and enables the
trainee to master the knowledge and skills.
4. Identify the content of the various subtopics of the
lesson. Answer the question: “What must the trainee
know or be able to do for satisfactory performance
of each lesson subtopic?”
(continued )
252
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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5. Select the instructional procedures appropriate to the
learning of each lesson subtopic. Identify materials
and equipment needed.
6. Review the instructional sequence. Adjust as necessary
to provide variety and movement for the trainees.
7. Provide a means of monitoring and trainee feedback.
8. Prepare a test to evaluate the degree to which trainees
have achieved the learning objective of the lesson.
Source: Republished with permission of Jossey-Bass Publishers, from A.P. Carnevale, L. J. Gainer & A. S. Meltzer, Workplace basics training manual,
(1990) p.139; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
TABLE 8.3
DETAILED LESSON PLAN FOR STRUCTURED EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEWS
OBJECTIVE
Employees will be able to conduct structured behaviour description employment interviews and correctly perform the seven
key behaviours.
Trainees:
Members of the Human Resources Department
Time:
9 a.m.–5 p.m.
COURSE OUTLINE
9:00–10:00
10:00–10:30
10:30–10:45
10:45–11:15
11:15–12:00
12:00–1:00
1:00–2:00
2:00–2:30
2:30–2:45
2:45–3:30
3:30–4:30
4:30–4:45
4:45–5:00
NEL
Introduction lecture on the problem of poor employee performance and high turnover, and the use
of structured and unstructured employment interviews for selection.
Show DVD of an unstructured employment interview followed by a discussion.
Break
Show DVD of a structured employment interview followed by a discussion.
Review the seven key behaviours of conducting a structured employment interview.
Lunch
Lecture on behaviour description interview questions and review of the interview questions and guide
developed for sales associates.
Review of the seven key behaviours in conducting a structured employment interview.
Break
Role-play practice exercise: In groups of three, assign participants the roles of interviewer, interviewee,
and observer. Review script for roles and instruct trainees to demonstrate the seven key behaviours
of a structured interview using the sales associate behaviour description interview questions.
Have observer provide feedback using guidelines contained in the role-play exercise booklet and
evaluate the interviewer’s performance on the seven key behaviours using the evaluation form
provided. Switch roles until each group member has played the role of the interviewer.
Regroup for discussion of role-play exercise. Discuss how it felt to be the interviewer and the
interviewee, and get the observer’s feedback and evaluation.
Review the seven key behaviours of the structured employment interview, the importance of using
structured interviews, and the behaviour description interview for hiring sales associates.
Closing. Review objectives and give pep talk about conducting structured employment interviews
and using the behaviour description interview. Thank participants and hand out training certificates.
CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
253
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Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
// THE TRAINER
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254
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
For more information see
Chapter 4, p. 152
Seductive details
Entertaining and
interesting information
that is irrelevant or only
tangentially related to
the training material
and not necessary for
achieving the training
objective
Seductive details
effect
Seductive details impair
learning and retention
8.2
GETTING TRAINEES ENGAGED
Trainers play an important role in getting trainees engaged
in a training program. Here are some things that a trainer
can do to engage trainees:
t Encourage trainees to answer questions instead
of being the first to comment.
t Ask clear and specific questions one at a time.
t Probe with questions that elicit deeper thought
and responses from trainees.
t Demonstrate an empathetic level of listening
rather than listening to respond.
t Go beyond covering the prescribed content and
make the content relevant to trainees so that they
see the application to work situations.
t Encourage interaction, discussion, and collaboration,
and provide clear directions for activities.
t Manage time and adhere to course objectives and
flow, but adapt to trainee needs and expectations.
Source: Republished with permission of the Association for Talent Development (ATD), from Laborie, K., & Stone, T. (2016, January). Interact +
engage. TD, 70(1), 36–39. Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
TRAIN-THE-TRAINER
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NEL
CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
255
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Train-the-trainer
Training programs that
teach subject-matter
experts how to design
and deliver training
programs
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THE TRAINER’S NOTEBOOK
8.3
TRAIN-THE-TRAINER FUNDAMENTALS
Subject-matter experts (SMEs) are often asked to design
and/or deliver a training program because of their unique
knowledge, the needs of a particular group of training
participants, or the requirements of a specific project. However,
they may not have experience as a trainer and will require
some training on how to be an effective trainer. Here are
some things to consider when you need to train-the-trainer:
1. Explain the specific reasons that the SME was
selected for the role.
2. Review the training materials with the SME and make
sure they are well scripted and marked up with plenty
of visual cues for the trainer.
3. Coach the SME on facilitation skills and provide
detailed information about the participants.
4. Give the SME permission to delegate tasks during the
training (e.g., a volunteer for clicking through the slides).
5. Prepare the SME by providing a checklist of the basics
of engaging facilitation, including setting up the room
to meet the participants’ needs and establishing
rapport with the participants by presenting a friendly
demeanour and sharing stories. Incorporate tips such
as using interactive activities. Review the checklist
with the SME and explain the reasons behind each tip.
6. Discuss adult learners’ needs and learning styles
so that the SME understands how and why to vary
the training activities to maximize learning. Help the
SME think about charts, illustrations, and other visuals
that would help participants understand the content.
Make sure the SME understands the need to design
interactive activities that appeal to visual, kinesthetic,
and auditory learning styles.
7. Teach the SME how to facilitate a workshop accurately
without reading from the leader’s guide. Offer tips for
remembering content such as creating note cards
with key points.
8. Watch the SME conduct a practice session and
provide feedback beginning with all the positive
behaviours demonstrated and include one or two
constructive comments that the SME can work on
before the actual training program.
9. Offer assistance during the training with flipcharts or
distributing materials.
10. Provide SMEs who must design their programs with
PowerPoint templates, sample training materials, and
examples they can build on.
11. Provide access to experienced instructional designers
who can assist the SME when he/she has questions.
12. Provide the SME with access to a content reviewer
to make sure everything is covered clearly and
effectively for participants who are not experts.
Source: Adams, T., Kennedy, A., & Marquart, M. (2008, March). The reluctant trainer, T+D, 62(3), 24. Reprinted by permission of Association for
Talent Development (ATD).
256
Managing Performance through Training and Development
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// THE TRAINEES
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TRAINING TODAY
8.1
TRAINING A MULTI-GENERATIONAL WORKFORCE
In Canada today, we have four distinct generations
in the workforce. This is the first time in history that a
generational mix of this proportion has existed in this
country—and a significant shift is happening, which will
reach its peak by 2020.
The workforce includes Traditionalists, born between
1945 and 1949; Baby Boomers (born 1946–1964);
Generation X (1965–1981); and Millennials (1982–1990).
Forty percent of senior positions are held by Baby Boomers.
But by 2020, Millennials will be the dominant group, one
full generation removed from Boomers.
As we are largely a product of our times, the era
in which we were born shapes our tastes, beliefs, and
work ethic. Because each generation shares a place in
history its members tend to develop personalities based
on that common experience. While not everyone fits their
(continued )
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CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
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generational type perfectly, Traditionalists value hard
work and order and respect authority. Baby Boomers
tend to be competitive and think workers should pay
their dues. Gen Xers are more likely to be skeptical and
independent-minded. Millennials like teamwork, feedback,
and technology.
Being aware of the working styles, preferences, and
how each generation believes they should be treated as
employees can help organizations deliver effective employee
training. By keeping their characteristics in mind, you can
cater your training to this multi-generational workforce.
One solution is to ensure you have a mix of learning
methods. For example, Millennials tend not to like to read
long, detailed case studies, so they need to be replaced
with short, timely examples. Boomers like relevancy in
their learning, so those examples should be relevant to
the workplace and result in actions or knowledge that can
be applied to their jobs. Generation Xers and Millennials
appreciate feedback, so be sure to provide opportunities
to give and receive feedback during the training session.
Gen Xers tend to prefer working independently, while
Millennials like to work in teams. This is possibly a
reflection of how the current education system puts
emphasis on group projects, while the education model
for Boomers and Gen Xers was for students to sit in rows
and work independently. This insight can help you to plan
a training session that includes a balance of both.
The key to effective training for a multi-generational
workforce is to know your audience. Have a variety of
learning methods and be prepared to adapt as you work
through the training. And remember, generation is just
one dimension of a person. A trainer also needs to keep
in mind other facets, including culture, personality, life
experiences, and education. This will ensure you deliver the
most valuable training that will help all of your employees
develop and succeed.
Source: McCarthy, A. (2016, May/June). Train a multi-generational workforce. Training Magazine, 53(3), 14. Trainingmag.com
TRAINABILITY TEST
Trainability test
A test that measures
an individual’s ability
to learn and perform
training tasks
Training plan
Indicates who in an
organization needs
training, the type of
training that is needed,
and how the training
will be delivered
258
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NEL
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CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
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Moriyama & Teshima Architects
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260
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
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FIGURE 8.1
SEATING ARRANGEMENTS
Trainer
Trainer
Low Participant
Involvement
Moderate Participant
Involvement
Trainer
High Participant
Involvement
Source: Eitington, J. E. (1989). The winning trainer: Winning ways to involve people in learning. Houston, TX: Gulf
Publishing Company. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.
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// SCHEDULING THE TRAINING PROGRAM
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NEL
CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
261
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
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For more information see
Chapter 4, pp. 132–133
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UIFUSBJOJOHPVUBTBOPOHPJOHQSPHSBN TVDIBTBUISFFIPVSTFTTJPOPODFBNPOUI23
// TRAINING ADMINISTRATION
Training
administration
The coordination of all
the people and materials
involved in the training
program
Ethics
The use of systematic
thinking about the
moral consequences
of one’s actions and
decisions on various
stakeholders
262
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*OBEEJUJPOUPUSBDLJOHSFHJTUSBUJPOTGPSQSPHSBNT JUJTBMTPVTFGVMUPUSBDLJOEJWJEVBM
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// THE ROLE OF ETHICS IN TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT
#FGPSFJNQMFNFOUJOHBUSBJOJOHQSPHSBN JUJTJNQPSUBOUUPCFBXBSFPGBOEVOEFSTUBOE
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Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 8.4
ETHICAL GUIDELINES FOR TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROFESSIONALS
Trainers must conduct themselves according to a set of ethical guidelines and standards as
follows:
t Voluntary consent: Trainers should not implicitly coerce unwilling or skeptical
participants into self-revealing or physical activities.
t Discrimination: Age, sex, race, or handicaps should not be used as barriers to determine
who receives training.
t Cost-effectiveness: Training activities should be based on demonstrated utility, should
show a demonstrated benefit vis-à-vis costs, and should not be undertaken simply to
spend a training budget.
t Accurate portrayal: Claims for the benefits of training need to be accurate; training
should be consistent across time and trainers; training materials should be appropriately
depicted.
t Competency in training: Teaching methods that do not work, such as talking down to
audiences, should be avoided.
t Values: Trainers should believe in the value of what they teach.
Source: Lowman, R. L. (1991). Ethical human resource practice in organizational settings. In D. W. Bray (Ed.), Working with organizations.
New York: Guilford.
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BOFNQMPZFFCFJOHEFOJFEUSBJOJOH24
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USBJOJOHBOEEFWFMPQNFOUQSPGFTTJPOBMT
Stakeholders
People inside or
outside the organization
who might be affected
by the organization’s
actions and decisions
// IMPLEMENTING THE TRAINING PROGRAM
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PGJOTUSVDUJPO
NEL
CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
263
Amnwpgef r! 0. / 7! L cjqml ! Cbs a_rgml ! J rb,! ? jj! P gef rq! P cqcpt cb,! K _w! l mr! ` c! amngcb*! qa_l l cb*! mp! bs njga_rcb*! gl ! u f mjc! mp! gl ! n_pr,! Bs c! rm! cjcarpml ga! pgef rq*! qmk c! rf gpb! n_prw! aml rcl r
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LEARNING CLIMATE
Learning climate
A climate that is
conducive to learning
and consists of
pre-arrival factors,
greeting participants,
the learning facility/
environment, and the
trainer’s style and
behaviour
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PRE-ARRIVAL FACTORS
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TRAINER’S STYLE AND BEHAVIOUR
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264
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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GAGNÉ’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
Courtesy of Samuel Gagné
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Robert Gagné is responsible for the development of the
nine events of instruction
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Events of instruction
External events that
are designed to help
learning occur
TABLE 8.5
GAGNÉ’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION AND TRAINING DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Gagné’s nine events of instruction reflect important principles of training design discussed in
previous chapters.
1. Gain attention. Reflects adult learners’ need to know why they are learning something
and their training motivation.
2. Describe the objectives. This follows from the purpose of training objectives for
trainees. It also reflects adult learners’ need to know how the learning relates to their
job, and the importance of goals as indicated in goal-setting theory.
3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge. Reflects adult learners’ existing knowledge and
experience and how that can be linked to the training material. Providing a framework
for learning is similar to an advance organizer.
4. Present the material to be learned. Reflects task sequencing and incorporating adult
learners’ job-relevant experiences into the training content.
NEL
CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
265
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TABLE 8.5 (Continued )
GAGNÉ’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION AND TRAINING DESIGN PRINCIPLES
5. Provide guidance for learning. Reflects the use of metacognitive strategies, attentional
advice, and advance organizers.
6. Elicit performance practice. Reflects the importance of active practice and experiential
training methods (e.g., role plays, games, simulations).
7. Provide informative feedback. Reflects the importance of feedback and knowledge of
results during practice.
8. Assess performance. Reflects the importance of linking training objectives to trainee
learning and ensuring that the objectives are being met as well as the stages of learning.
9. Enhance retention and transfer. Reflects generalization from conditioning theory and
self-regulation and self-efficacy from social cognitive theory.
1. GAIN ATTENTION
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For more information see
Chapter 4, p. 118
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266
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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For more information see
Chapter 2, p. 59
4. PRESENT THE MATERIAL TO BE LEARNED
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5. PROVIDE GUIDANCE FOR LEARNING
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6. ELICIT PERFORMANCE PRACTICE
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For more information see
Chapter 4, p. 126
7. PROVIDE INFORMATIVE FEEDBACK
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NEL
CHAPTER 8 Training Delivery
For more information see
Chapter 4, p. 134
267
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8. ASSESS PERFORMANCE
For more information see
Chapter 2, pp. 46–50
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9. ENHANCE RETENTION AND TRANSFER
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CLOSING A TRAINING PROGRAM
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// TRAINING DELIVERY PROBLEMS
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268
Managing Performance through Training and Development
NEL
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TABLE 8.6
TYPES OF PROBLEM PARTICIPANTS
Some of the most common types of problem participants in training include the following:
1. The hesitant one. Shy, reluctant, and silent most of the time.
2. The monopolizer. The “big talker” who will use up all of the available air time if permitted.
3. The voice of experience. Has a strong need to be heard and to bring in incidents and
anecdotes that are tedious and unnecessary.
4. The arguer. Constantly looks for opportunities to disagree, to show up the other
participants and the trainer.
5. The non-listener. Tends to interrupt, cuts others off, leaps in before others have had
their say, and does not listen to others.
6. The idea zapper. Puts down other participants’ ideas and anything new or different.
7. The complainer. A problem magnifier who finds the world unfair and is a specialist in
blaming and fault-finding.
8. The rigid one. Staunchly takes a position on an issue and will rarely, if ever, move from it.
9. The hostile one. Presents highly hostile questions that are designed to embarrass or
inflame the trainer.
10. The angry one. Will find loopholes in your ideas and present impossible “what-if” scenarios.
11. The negative one. Finds the gloomy side