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Edexcel GCSE Psychology Study Guide
Exploring Human Behavior
The Edexcel GCSE course helps students understand a wide range of
psychology topics.
It uses key questions to explore human behavior and relate it to personal
experiences.
Encourages practical experiments and investigations.
Includes contemporary studies relevant to today's students.
Provides a good foundation for further psychology studies.
Assessment Overview
The course consists of compulsory and optional topics.
Assessment includes two written exams.
Paper 1: Compulsory topics (1-5), worth 55% of the total mark.
Paper 2: Optional topics, worth 45% of the final mark.
Both papers cover Topic 11: Research Methods.
Book Features
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Exploring the Topic: Key questions to explore.
Glossary of Key Terms: Definitions available online.
Getting Started: Activities and questions to begin thinking about the topic.
What You Will Learn: Summary of the topic content.
Your Learning: Bullet point list of what is covered in each section.
Key Terms: Important terms explained in the text and in key terms boxes.
Apply It: Applying theory to specific tasks or questions.
Try It: Building practical research skills.
Link It Up: Connecting different parts of the course.
Develop It: Activities to encourage reflection and broader discussion.
Psychology in Action: Examples of psychology in everyday life.
Exam Tip: Hints and tips for exams.
Maths Tip: Hints for mathematical tasks.
Exam-Style Question: Practice questions.
Preparing for Your Exam: Dedicated exam preparation sections.
Topic 1: Development – How Did You Develop?
Importance of Understanding Development
Development underpins everything we do, say, and believe.
It's influenced by both nature and nurture.
Psychology suggests that existing knowledge can hinder development;
challenges lead to improvement.
Practice and effort enhance skills.
Key Topics Covered
Early brain development
Piaget’s stages of development and their role in education
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Dweck’s mindset theory and the effects of learning on development
Willingham’s learning theory and the effects of learning on development
Development studies by Piaget and Inhelder (1956) and Gunderson et al.
(2013)
Issues and debates around the development of morality
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Investigating Your Own Development
Consider how age, upbringing, and experiences affect development.
Reflect on abilities gained over time.
Interview someone who knew you when you were young.
Gather information from other students to see if gender affects development.
Early Brain Development
Development of the Brain
At 3-4 weeks old, a long tube develops in the brain, divided into three sections:
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
By 5 weeks, the forebrain and hindbrain split further, resulting in five cavities.
The midbrain does not divide.
Cerebellum and Medulla Development
Cerebellum and medulla develop from birth to 3 years old.
700-1000 new connections form every second.
Brain doubles in size in the first year, reaching 80% of its size by age 3.
Early connections are important and reinforced by use.
Cerebellum:
Can be seen in the foetus at about 6 weeks, triples in size within a year
after birth.
Controls physical skills.
Involved in responses such as fear and in processing sense information.
Medulla Oblongata:
In the hindbrain, in front of the cerebellum.
Controls involuntary responses like sneezing, breathing, heart rate, and
blood pressure.
Formed by 20 weeks in the foetus.
Connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord.
Key Terms Related to Brain Development
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Term
Brain
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Anterior
Posterior
Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
Involuntary
response
Neural
connections
Definition
The organ in your head made up of nerves that processes
information and controls behaviour.
The anterior part of the brain, including the hemispheres and the
central brain structures.
The middle section of the brain forming part of the central
nervous system.
The lower part of the brain that includes the cerebellum, pons
and medulla oblongata.
Directed towards the front, when used in relation to our biology.
Directed towards the back, when used in relation to our biology.
An area of the brain near to the brainstem that controls motor
movements (muscle activity).
Connects the upper brain to the spinal cord and controls
automatic responses.
A response to a stimulus that occurs without someone making a
conscious choice.
Links formed by messages passing from one nerve cell (neuron)
to another.
Piaget's Four Stages of Development ‍
Overview
Part of Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
Involves four distinct stages; thinking abilities do not change much during these
stages.
Change in thinking indicates when the next stage is reached.
During transition, features of both stages may be present.
Each stage consolidates developing abilities in preparation for the next stage.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)
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Infants use senses and movements to gather information about their world.
Live in the present, rather than understanding time and space.
Learn by linking senses (seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling) to objects.
Begin with reflex actions, then learn to control movements.
Around 6 months, develop object permanence (understanding that objects
exist even when they cannot be seen).
Develop a sense of themselves as separate from the world.
Repeat actions from around 4 months old.
Object permanence: knowing something exists even if it is out of sight.
Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
Start of reasoning.
Two stages within:
Symbolic Function Stage (2 to 4 years):
Start imitating others and use objects as symbols.
Engage in symbolic play, using one object to represent different
objects.
Think in pictures and use symbols.
Begin to use words as symbols for objects.
Display egocentrism, seeing the world only through their own eyes.
Exhibit animism, believing objects can behave as if they are alive.
Intuitive Thought Stage (4 to 7 years):
Ask many questions as they realize they know a lot and want to
know more.
Can only consider one aspect when thinking about something
(centration).
Egocentrism: unable to see the world from any other viewpoint but one’s
own.
Animism: believing that objects that are not alive can behave as if they
are alive.
Centration: focusing on one feature of a situation and ignoring other
relevant features.
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Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 Years)
Begin to apply rules and strategies to help their thinking.
Use concrete objects to aid their understanding.
Thinking is about controlling objects and events in the real world.
Difficulty with abstract ideas such as morality.
Abilities in this stage:
Ability
Description
Classification Naming and identifying objects according to size or appearance.
Reversibility Understanding that actions can be reversed (e.g., if 2+4=6, then 6-2=4).
Knowing that quantity, length, or number are not related to how things
Conservation
look, despite changes in appearance.
Decentration The ability to take multiple views of a situation.
Seriation
Sorting objects, such as into size order.
Formal Operational Stage (12+ Years)
Control over thoughts themselves.
Can think about more than two things (e.g., considering height, age, and
gender).
Understand how time changes things (e.g., future living situations).
Understand events have a sequence (e.g., school to college to work).
See that actions have consequences.
Key Terms Related to Piaget's Theory
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Term
Cognitive
Operations
Pre-Operational
Stage
Definition
Thinking, including problem-solving, perceiving, remembering,
using language, and reasoning.
How we reason and think about things.
There is control over thoughts themselves.
Involves using one object to represent different objects, such
as using a box as a stool and using role play.
Not understanding that an action can be reversed to return to
Irreversibility
the original state.
General principles about what is right and wrong, including
Morality
good and bad behaviour.
Mental representations of the world based on one’s own
Schema/Schemata(s) experiences. The plural of schema is ‘schemata’ though
‘schemas’ can also be used.
Symbolic Play
Using Piaget’s Stages in Education
Piaget’s theory suggests that children’s actions and interactions affect their
thinking.
Children build their own schemas of the world from their experiences.
Individual learning must be encouraged, acknowledging different
developmental stages.
Implications for Teaching:
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Stage
Sensorimotor
Concrete
Operational
Formal
Operational
Teaching Strategies
Provide smells, tastes, sights, sounds, and different textures. Use
bright colors and respond to human voices and music. Opportunity to
explore with the mouth is valuable for learning about shapes and
taste.
Use models, objects, and visual aids. Keep instructions short. Have a
lot of experiences to extend their understanding as they focus on just
one part of a problem at a time.
Can understand different viewpoints from their own, and so the
teachers will structure tasks accordingly. Study different school
subjects such as science and arts.
Piaget's Theory and Cognitive Development
Schemas and Intelligence
Children develop intelligence by building schemas through adaptation and the four
stages of cognitive development.
Schemas (or schemata) are plans and patterns formed about what we
experience. They are mental structures that give us frameworks to
understand the world.
Example: A student entering a classroom has a schema that includes a board, chairs,
tables, a desk, and fire safety instructions.
Children develop through adaptation, adjusting to the world as they experience new
things. This involves:
Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.
Example: A child sees an airplane and calls it a bird because they have a
schema for birds flying.
Accommodation: Changing a schema to deal with a new experience.
Example: The child learns that airplanes are not alive and changes their
schema that "everything that flies is a bird."
Equilibrium: A state of mental balance where a child's schemas work and
explain all that they experience.
Example: The child's bird schema is changed to include airplanes,
understanding they are metal and carry passengers.
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Meaning
Example
Plans and patterns are formed A student has a classroom schema.
about what we experience.
On entering a classroom, they would
Schemas
Mental structures give us
expect to see a board for writing on,
frameworks to understand the some chairs and tables, a desk at the
world.
front and fire safety instructions.
A young child develops a schema for
Incorporating new experiences
Assimilation
birds flying and, seeing an aeroplane,
into existing schemas.
calls it a bird.
The child will see that birds are alive
A schema no longer works
and aeroplanes are not, and so they
Accommodation and has to be changed to deal
will need to change their 'everything
with a new experience.
that flies is a bird' schema.
The "bird' schema is changed.
When a child's schemas work
Aeroplanes are included, and the
for them and explain all that
child understands that they are metal
Equilibrium
they experience, the child is in
and carry passengers, thus moving
equilibrium. They are in a state
from disequilibrium into a state of
of mental balance.
equilibrium.
Implications for Teaching
Robert Slavin (2005) suggested implications for teaching that come from Piaget’s
stages:
Focus on the child's thinking and building schemas.
Focus on the processes children use rather than the right answer.
Use discovery learning, allowing children to freely engage with their
environment.
Acknowledge that children think differently from adults and develop at
different rates.
Treat children as individuals and provide stimulation and materials for
practicing skills.
Children must actively "do" things to learn and build schemas rather than passively
watching.
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Piaget's Theory
Strengths:
Discovery learning is inspired by Piaget’s ideas, focusing on individual
development.
Generated a great deal of research.
Practical applications.
Weaknesses:
Piaget did not consider the influence of social interactions or cultural
settings. Pierre Dasen (1994) found that Aboriginal children developed
the ability to conserve at a later stage.
Studies show children can do things earlier than Piaget thought.
Subjective interpretations of situations and events due to data from
interviews and observations.
Lack of validity, as other studies in more realistic settings produced
different findings.
Dweck's Mindset Theory
Introduction to Mindset
Mindset is the set of beliefs we have about our ability to succeed. It affects the
development of abilities, whether seen as fixed or changeable through effort.
Mindset: how someone responds to or interprets a situation.
Ability: what someone can do, such as maths ability or ability to play
tennis.
Effort: when you try to do better using determination.
Fixed Mindset: Believing abilities are fixed and unchangeable.
Children with a fixed mindset may give up, fearing failure.
They may believe ability is fixed at birth.
Growth Mindset: Believing practice and effort can improve abilities.
Challenges become worthwhile, and feedback is taken notice of.
Encourages perseverance.
Teachers also have fixed or growth mindsets, affecting how they respond to children.
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Fixed Mindset
Beliefs
Challenges
Feedback
Effort
Intelligence
Response to
Failure
Growth Mindset
Abilities are fixed and
Practice and effort can improve
unchangeable
abilities
Avoided, as they might reveal
Embraced as opportunities to learn
limitations
Listened to and used to adjust
Ignored, as it won't help
performance
Pointless, as ability is innate A path to mastery
Fixed at birth
Can be developed
Persists and sees failure as a
Gives up easily
learning opportunity
Key Points of Dweck's Theory
Praising effort is better than praising ability.
Children need to believe they can put in the effort to achieve.
Challenges become worthwhile, and feedback is taken notice of.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Mindset Theory
Strengths:
Practical applications for teachers and parents.
Positive, showing change is possible.
Supported by evidence (e.g., Yeager and Dweck's 2012 study).
Weaknesses:
Studies often have artificial settings, lacking validity.
May ignore the effects of feedback without judgment.
May overemphasize the type of praise, overlooking other factors.
Mindset of a child can result in the child becoming the focus if there are
problems with their progress, rather than the quality of what is being
taught and how teaching is done
Willingham's Learning Theory
Introduction to Willingham's Theory ‍
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Daniel Willingham studies thinking and brain activity, applying his work to
classrooms and other situations.
Factual knowledge precedes skill. Knowing facts helps build problem-solving
and reasoning skills.
Learning relies on practice and effort.
Problem-solving and creative thinking skills are essential for students.
Importance for Building Knowledge
Working memory has different parts for processing information, including
visual and sound data, and a decision-making part. It is limited.
Knowing facts frees up processing power in working memory.
Working memory: has different parts for processing information coming in
from our senses, including visual and sound data, and also involves a
decision-making part.
Strategies to Support Development
Use problems that are new but within a student's ability.
Understand a student's likely stage of development.
Consider factors other than developmental level.
Physical Development
To improve physical development, focus on:
Suitable movements in the correct order.
Practicing movements to make muscle commands automatic.
Conscious effort to develop motor skills.
Motor skills: actions that involve muscles and brain processes, resulting in
movement.
Cognitive Development
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Practice and effort enable mastery of knowledge and skills.
Skills need to become automatic to use little space in working memory.
Social Development
Build on a child's ability to take the view of someone else.
Demonstrate appropriate social behavior.
Encourage practice, requiring self-regulation.
Help a child stop impulsive behavior.
Self-regulation: limiting and controlling yourself without influence from
others.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Willingham's Theory
Strengths:
Practical applications for education.
Draws on evidence from neuroscience, memory theory, and cognitive
development.
Weaknesses:
Not a singular theory that can be easily tested.
Acknowledges genetic contributions, but strategies aim for universal
change.
Willingham disagrees with Piaget on egocentrism, believing children can see other
viewpoints earlier.
Piaget and Inhelder's 'Three Mountains' Task
Background to the Study
According to Piaget's theory, young children in the preoperational stage are
egocentric and cannot see someone else's view of the world. The understanding that
there are viewpoints other than their own is something that develops over time. This
helps to take children into the concrete operational stage, where they can ‘decentre’ –
they can see from a viewpoint other than their own and can consider multiple views
of a situation.
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Egocentrism: not being able to separate one’s own perspective from that
of others
The Study
Piaget and Inhelder (1956) studied children's ways of looking at the world using a
model of three mountains. Children on different sides would have different views of
each mountain.
Participants: Children aged 4 to 12.
Materials:
A model of three mountains of different sizes, colors, and features.
Pictures taken from different positions around the model.
Wooden doll
Procedure
The study involved building a model of three mountains using sheets of different
colors and sizes. The children were then asked questions about the doll's perspective
of the mountain.
Conclusion
The test was meant to test that children could describe what the doll can see from
their perspective.
Ages
Age
4-6.5 years
6.5-8 years
8-9.5 years
9.5-12 years
Number of children
21
30
33
16
Piaget and Inhelder's (1956) Study
This study investigated how children of different ages understand and represent a
mountain scene from various viewpoints using cardboard shapes.
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Procedure
Four key pieces of equipment were used.
Children were shown a model of three mountains with distinct features:
A green mountain with a house.
A brown mountain with a red cross.
A grey mountain with a snow-covered top.
The children were then asked to:
Arrange shapes to depict the scene from their own viewpoint.
Arrange shapes to represent what a doll would see from different
positions.
Choose a picture that matched what they or the doll could see from
various locations.
Position the doll to see a viewpoint represented in a picture.
Results
Children up to about 7 years old were egocentric, struggling to understand
viewpoints other than their own.
By 9 to 10 years old, children could grasp that a doll in a different position
would have a different view.
Older children could coordinate different perspectives and create mental
representations of what others could see.
Younger children couldn't understand that one mountain could obscure the
view of another.
Conclusion
The study supports Piaget's stages of development, indicating that children in
the pre-operational stage are egocentric, while those in the concrete
operational stage can take different views and coordinate them.
Strengths of the Study
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Collected qualitative data, providing rich detail and depth.
Used experimental methods with careful controls, enhancing the study's
reliability and allowing comparisons between children.
Repeating the study in many ways enhanced reliability.
Weaknesses of the Study
Tasks were not realistic, making it difficult for younger children to understand
what was being asked.
The concept of one mountain blocking another was not understood by younger
children.
Qualitative Data
Definition:
Data that is descriptive, not numbers, such as words or pictures.
Piaget and Inhelder included observations about individual children in their
report.
Ecological Validity
Definition:
The extent to which the findings still explain the behavior in real life
situations.
Person and Process Praise
Dweck's Mindset Theory
Entity Theory/Motivational Framework:
A belief that behavior or ability results from a person’s nature, leading to
the idea that they are born with or without an ability.
Incremental Theory/Motivational Framework:
A belief that effort drives behavior and ability, which can change.
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Person Praise
Involves praising the individual rather than what is being done.
May lead children to believe their abilities are fixed.
Process Praise
Involves praising behavior and effort.
Appears to lead children to see a link between effort and success, making them
more likely to keep trying.
Gunderson et al.’s (2013) Study
Aimed to see if observing parents praising children at home (a natural setting)
would support experimental findings.
Researchers wanted to know whether:
Children are affected by different types of parental praise in a natural
setting.
Parents' use of process or person praise in early childhood predicts a
child's reasoning five years later about what motivates and causes
behavior.
Method
Followed a group of children over a long period.
Observed and videotaped caregiver-child interactions in 90-minute sessions in
the child's home.
At 7–8 years old, the children answered questionnaires about what they
thought led to a person’s intelligence and moral behavior.
Participants
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Percentage of participants (by
gender)
Percentage of participants (by
ethnicity)
Boys
29 ÷ 53 x 100
54.72%
Girls
24 ÷ 53 x 100
45.28%
Note
these
percentages
should add up to
100%.
Results
On average, 3% of all parental comments to the child were praise.
18% of all praise was process praise.
16% of all praise was person praise.
Boys received more process praise than girls.
Children who received more process praise were more likely to believe that
putting in effort is worthwhile.
Parental Praise Patterns
Praise
type
Mean percentage of all parental
utterances
Mean percentage of parental praise
utterances
Process
Person
Other
Total
0.59
0.45
1.97
3.01
18
16
66
100
Conclusions
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There is a relationship between parents praising what a child does (process
praise) and the child’s framework when older (believing that effort is
worthwhile).
Boys tended to have more of an incremental framework than girls, which fits
with findings that girls tend to attribute failure to ability more than boys do.
Strengths of the Study
Findings from experimental and observational methods support one another
and the theory itself.
Researchers who videotaped and transcribed the data did not know that
parental praise was the point of interest, helping to avoid bias.
Weaknesses of the Study
Participants were deceived (told the study was about child development),
raising ethical concerns.
Parents may have changed their style of praise because they were being
observed, affecting the validity of the data.
The sample may not be representative of a wider population, limiting the
generalizability of the findings.
Implications
This study has clear applications regarding children’s development.
Parents and teachers can work on praising effort and process rather than
praising ability.
If a child is not praised for something, they might think they are not good at it
and will stop trying to do well.
Key Terms
Ethics:
Moral principles about how someone should behave in a society.
Debrief:
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After an investigation, participants are given full disclosure of the study.
Generalizability:
The extent to which the results of a study represent the whole population,
not just the sample used.
The Development of Morality
Morals:
Refer to what is right and wrong in human behavior. Something that is
moral is what most people agree is right and good.
Morality:
Refers to ‘proper’ behaviour. People should behave according to principles
of what is right and wrong.
Moral Development:
Refers to how children reason about what is right and wrong, and how
they make moral decisions. There is an important focus on how their
understanding of moral behaviour changes over time and into adulthood.
Piaget’s (1932) Theory of Moral Development
Piaget suggests that moral understanding develops, as with cognitive
development, through stages.
From about age 5 to 10 years, a child believes rules cannot be changed. Their
ideas of morality come from others around them, such as parents and teachers.
This stage is ‘heteronomous’ (directed by others).
From about 10 years old, a child knows that the intentions of the action are
important. This stage is ‘autonomous’ (the individual decides).
Kohlberg's Theory
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Kohlberg suggests that there are three levels of moral reasoning, each with about
two stages as shown in Table 1.5.
Level and ages
Stages and explanations
Stages 1 and 2: the child believes rules cannot be changed. It is
Level 1: prethe consequence of the action - whether there is punishment or
conventional
reward - that makes it a good or bad action. Stage 1 focuses on
morality (aged up the child obeying in order to avoid punishment. Stage 2 is about
to about 9 years self-interest and 'what's in it for me', including what benefit can
old)
be gained from moral actions. These two stages are found in
children and are a basic view of right and wrong.
Stages 3 and 4: the young person or adult sees themselves as a
Level 2:
good member of society and that is their starting point for what is
conventional
moral behaviour. Reasoning comes from group norms. Stage 3 is
morality (most
about being seen as 'good' and conforming to social rules young people and
wanting to be liked. Stage 4 is about maintaining social order by
adults)
obeying authority, which is a duty.
Stages 5 and 6: the individual has their own ideas about what is
good and bad. They understand that there are moral principles
Level 3: postthat are universal (for everyone) rather than being for one society.
conventional
Stage 5 is about laws being social contracts which individuals
morality (only
enter into, so there can be differences in morality between
about 10% of
individuals according to which laws they have agreed to.
people reach this Democracy is an example of Stage 5 reasoning. Stage 6 is the
level)
understanding that moral reasoning is abstract and there are
universal ethical principles that 'must' be followed. This stage
emphasises right and wrong actions beyond individual laws.
Weaknesses of these Theories
Both Piaget and Kohlberg used stories that were artificial and might not
represent real thinking (they lack ecological validity).
Moral Development: Nurture vs. Nature
Nurture Theories
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Nurture theories emphasize the impact of environment and social influences on a
child's development. For instance, Diana Baumrind's research indicates that parenting
styles significantly affect a child's moral development.
William Damon suggests that moral identity, which is a person's dedication to
morals, stems from the various social interactions a child encounters. Consistent
messaging about shared standards is crucial for children to develop a moral
understanding.
Experiences that encourage children to think critically and opportunities to resolve
conflicts with others can also contribute to their moral development. Encouraging
self-control and social responsibility is also beneficial.
‍Nature Theories
Nativist theories focus on development, asking: "How did you develop?". Social
workers use developmental stages to assess when children might be at risk,
comparing a child's abilities to expected developmental milestones.
Gendered Social Rules and Morality
Damon's (1999) research indicates the concept of developing a moral self might
come from learning gendered social rules and norms.
As shown in the image, males and females have
a different focus regarding morality
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Developing Empathy
Damon's work also explores how empathy develops with age:
Early infancy: Children's feelings toward others are essentially their feelings
toward themselves, showing global empathy.
Ages 1-2: Children recognize when others are upset but don't know how to
help.
Early childhood: Children understand that others have different perspectives
and can respond more appropriately to distress.
Ages 10-12: Children start to recognize that others may live in poverty or have
disabilities.
Applying Developmental Understanding
Understanding development helps:
Parents: To anticipate their child's needs and reactions, and understand how
their actions, like praise, affect the child.
Teachers: To adjust learning tasks to a child's level of understanding and
determine their accountability for actions.
Healthcare professionals: To better manage a child's pain by understanding
their perception of it.
Memory: How We Remember and Forget
The Importance of Memory
Memory is vital to being human. Without it, we would lose our sense of identity and
our ability to understand the present or plan for the future. Memory serves as an
anchor to the past, enabling us to make sense of the present and envision the future.
Key Questions About Memory
How does your memory work?
How do we encode information in our memory?
How do we store and retrieve information in our memory?
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Information Processing Model
The brain processes information received from our senses, focusing on what's
important:
Input: Sensory information from our environment, received through sight,
hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
Encoding: Converting sensory input into an electrochemical memory trace.
There are 3 main types of encoding:
Acoustic encoding – holding sound information
Visual encoding – holding images
Semantic encoding – holding the meaning of information.
Processing: How the brain handles information.
Storage: The retention of information in the memory system.
Retrieval: The recall of stored memories
Output: A behavioral response, or in the case of memory, the retrieval of stored
information.
Encoding: Turning sensory information into a form that can be used and
stored by the brain.
Memory Stores: Short-Term vs. Long-Term
We have two main memory stores: short-term memory and long-term memory.
Short-term memory: A temporary store lasting about 18 seconds, holding
around seven items of information. Encodes information acoustically through
repetition.
Long-term memory: Can last minutes to a lifetime, with potentially unlimited
capacity. Encoding is mainly semantic but can be visual or acoustic.
Duration and Capacity
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Capacity
Duration
Encoding
Around 18
Short-term Around seven bits
seconds without Acoustic
memory
of information
rehearsal
Long-term Potentially
A few minutes to a Mainly
memory
limitless
lifetime
semantic
Forgetting
Displacement, Decay
Decay, Interference,
Retrieval failure
Transferring Memories
This is a diagram of the Multi-store Model of
Memory. Sensory information enters short-term memory, and with attention and
encoding, it can be transferred to long-term memory.
Sensory information first enters short-term memory. If rehearsed, it can be
transferred to long-term memory. Information in short-term memory can be forgotten
through:
Displacement: New information pushes out older information due to limited
capacity.
Interference: New information overwrites older information.
Displacement: When the short-term memory becomes ‘full’ and new
information pushes out older.
Interference: When new information overwrites older information, for
example when a new phone number takes the place of an old number in
your memory.
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Amnesia: Memory Loss
Types of Amnesia
Amnesia is a condition characterized by forgetting or memory loss, often after brain
trauma. There are two types:
Anterograde amnesia: Inability to store new long-term memories following a
brain injury. Short-term memory remains intact, but the transfer to long-term
memory is impaired.
Retrograde amnesia: Loss of memory from before the injury. It can be specific
to an event or time frame, and in severe cases, can cause a person to forget
their identity.
Anterograde amnesia: A memory condition that means new long-term
memories cannot be made; this is typically caused by injury to the brain.
Retrograde amnesia: A memory condition that affects recall of memories
prior to an injury to the brain.
The Case of Henry Molaison (H.M.)
Henry Molaison (H.M.) is a famous case of anterograde amnesia. After brain surgery
to treat epilepsy damaged his hippocampus, he could not form new memories. The
surgery also caused retrograde amnesia, impairing his recall of events from a few
years before the surgery.
Reconstructive Memory
Schemas
Sir Frederic Bartlett proposed that memories are not stored as exact copies but are
actively reconstructed using general knowledge called schemas.
Schema (memory): A packet of knowledge about an event, person or
place that influences how we perceive and remember.
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Schemas are formed throughout life through personal experiences and influence how
we perceive and remember things.
How Schemas Influence Memory
Schemas influence memory, causing us to ignore or change details when recalling
them. Bartlett identified these recall tendencies:
Omissions: Leaving out unfamiliar, irrelevant, or unpleasant details.
Transformations: Changing details to make them more familiar and rational.
Familiarization: Changing unfamiliar details to align with our own schema.
Rationalization: Adding details to make the memory fit with a schema.
Omission: We leave out unfamiliar, irrelevant or unpleasant details when
remembering something. Our schema simplifies the information.
Transformation: Details are changed to make them more familiar and
rational.
Familiarisation: We change unfamiliar details to align with our own
schema.
Rationalisation: We add details into our recall to give a reason for
something that may not have originally fitted with a schema.
Cognitive Interview
Reconstructive memory has led to the development of the cognitive interview, a
police interviewing technique designed to avoid omissions and transformations in
eyewitness testimony.
Cognitive interview: A police interview designed to ensure a witness to a
crime does not actively reconstruct their memory.
Bartlett's Research and Its Limitations
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Bartlett's theory was developed by interpreting participants' reproductions of
pictures and stories. Some argue that his interpretations were subjective and
unscientific. His methods were less focused on standardized procedures, which can
be seen as a weakness. However, his research is ecologically valid because it uses
realistic memory tasks like recalling stories.
Ecological validity: Which the findings still explain the behaviour in
different situations.
Subjective: Based on personal opinion or feelings.
Sensory Register
The sensory register receives all sensory information and holds it briefly. If attention
is paid to this information, it transfers to short-term memory.
Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed that memory stores differ in encoding, capacity,
duration, and retrieval. They identified three distinct stores in our memory system:
the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.## Multi-store
Model of Memory
Sensory Register
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Think about all the sensory information around you, every image, every sound.
The sensory register receives these sensations at any one time.
You may not pay attention to all of it, but it is being registered.
Types of sensory registers:
Iconic memory: sensory register for visual information, lasts around 0.5
seconds.
Echoic memory: sensory register for auditory (sound) information, lasts a
few seconds.
Olfactory: smell sensory register.
Tactile: touch sensory register.
Gustatory: taste sensory register.
Attention: Focus on certain sensory information.
Short-Term Memory
Information that we pay attention to gets transferred into short-term memory
(STM).
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) say STM stores info for around 15-30 seconds.
Rehearsal helps maintain information in STM longer.
Repeating information helps transfer it to long-term memory.
Rehearsal: Repeating things out loud or in our heads to remember them.
STM can hold between five and nine chunks of information.
A chunk is a grouping, like how we group phone numbers.
STM is modality free, meaning it can store different types of information from
any of our senses, though originally focused on visual and auditory.
Modality free: Not linked to a specific type of sensory information.
Long-Term Memory
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Long-term memory (LTM) can hold information indefinitely and has potentially
limitless capacity.
LTM is mainly organized semantically, according to meaning.
Key Differences in Memory Stores
It is important to remember the key differences in the memory stores in terms of:
Capacity
Duration
Encoding
Forgetting
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Multi-Store Model
There is evidence to support separate memory stores.
Cases of amnesia show brain injury can damage LTM while STM remains intact.
Serial Position Effect
Serial position effect: the tendency to recall more words at the beginning
(primacy) and end (recency) of a word list.
Primacy effect: words at the beginning of the list had been rehearsed and
transferred into LTM.
Recency effect: words still being held in STM.
Primacy: the tendency to recall words at the beginning of a list when
asked to remember it.
Recency: the tendency to recall words at the end of a list when asked to
remember it.
Words in the middle are recalled less because there wasn’t enough time to
rehearse them into LTM before they were displaced from STM.
The Multi-store Model of Memory (1968) has been criticised for overstating the
role of rehearsal.
We sometimes remember things just because they are more meaningful to us.
It is also unlikely that we have only one type of long-term memory.
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Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts
Aims
To test the nature of reconstructive memory.
Using an unfamiliar story, looking at whether or not personal schemas
influence what is remembered from the story.
Background
Bartlett wrote about experiments in his book, Remembering.
He conducted experiments using pictures and folk stories.
He used a North American folk tale called ‘The War of the Ghosts’ because it
would have been unfamiliar to his participants at Cambridge University.
The unfamiliarity of the story would shed light on the reconstructive nature of
memory.
Procedure
Participants read ‘The War of the Ghosts’ twice and were later asked to recall it.
Bartlett used both serial reproduction and repeated reproduction to test the
recall of the story.
Serial reproduction: participants retell something to another participant
to form a chain (how folk stories are passed down).
Repeated reproduction: participants are asked to recall something again
and again.
Results
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Participants did not recall the story fully or accurately.
Instead, they omitted details that did not fit with their schema.
Some details were altered by the influence of their schema.
Repeated reproductions tended to follow a similar form (theme or outline of the
first reproduction remained).
Participants tried to make sense of the ‘odd’ story by giving it meaning.
Details became familiarised and simplified e.g. ‘canoe’ became ‘boat’.
Participants often recalled the original sentence of ‘Something black came out
of his mouth’ as ‘a man’s dying breath’ or ‘foaming at the mouth’.
Rationalisation: Resulted in additions or changes such as making
connections or giving reasons for events.
Conclusion
Bartlett interpreted the results as evidence for the active and constructive
nature of memory.
Qualitative Analysis
Bartlett used qualitative analysis to look for and interpret changes to the
stories that were recalled.
Malik's Owl Drawing
Malik was given an owl drawing to look at.
Later, Malik was asked to redraw the original image without seeing it again.
Strengths
Using a story is more naturalistic as a test of everyday memory than nonsense
trigrams or lists of digits.
Bartlett replicated his procedure using various stories and pictures, giving the
study ecological validity.
The results of the study were gathered using qualitative analysis.
Gathering qualitative data can be seen as a strength because the real nature of
reconstructive memory can be understood through its meaning.
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Weaknesses
The story was not familiar, it was illogical and contained strange words and
concepts, so remembering the story was not an everyday task.
Bartlett could have interpreted the participants’ recalled stories in light of his
own theory and ideas on reconstructive memory.
Bartlett did not always get participants to recall the story at the same time and
various time intervals, so this study can be criticised for lacking good controls.
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
Aims
To test the true duration of short-term memory.
Background
Lloyd and Margaret Peterson conducted a laboratory experiment to investigate
the duration of short-term memory.
As we can hold information in short-term memory by rehearsing it over and
over, they could only test the true duration of a short-term memory trace by
interfering with this rehearsal process.
Procedure
Twenty-four students were tested individually.
Each student was asked to repeat out loud a set of letters that they heard (a
trigram).
Immediately afterwards, they were asked to say out loud a three-digit number
read to them by the experimenter, and then count backwards in threes or fours
from that number.
When signalled by a red light, each student had to recall the trigram.
Each student had to recall the trigram eight times.
They did this with time delays of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 seconds.
In total, the procedure was repeated 48 times using different trigrams.
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Results
The longer each student had to count backwards, the less able they were to
accurately recall the trigram.
When asked to count backwards after 3 seconds, they remembered over 80 per
cent of trigrams correctly, but after 18 seconds the percentage of correct recall
was less than 10 per cent.
In the second experiment, they found that this extra time increased the
frequency of recall because they were able to consolidate the information a
little more, but it did, however, show a similar decline over time.
Conclusion
With the participants unable to rehearse the trigrams, the Petersons concluded
that information held in our short-term memory fades rapidly and only 10 per
cent could be recalled after 18 seconds.
Strengths
The researchers used fixed timings for participants to count backwards from.
They also eliminated noise and other factors that could have had an influence
on memory, so the research can be said to have good control.
This study informs us about the actual duration of our short-term memory.
The scientific credibility of this research study is high as a result.
Weaknesses
The research can be criticised for not using a procedure that represents
everyday memory use.
Trigrams lack mundane realism.
Mundane realism: a realistic, everyday task.
Reductionism and Holism Debate
Holism
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Holistic psychologists believe that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.
Holistic psychologists tend to use qualitative methods to gain greater insight
into the causes of behaviour and try to understand the whole person and their
beliefs.
In practice, holism can be difficult to achieve because understanding the whole
individual means investigating lots of variables at the same time.
It is also regarded as unscientific because the findings can only apply to a
particular individual – the resulting theories cannot apply to everyone else.
Holism: Trying to understand the whole person.
Reductionism
Scientists often reduce complex behaviour into basic parts because it means
that we can be more certain that one thing causes another.
This helps us investigate what causes a behaviour.
Reductionism: Explaining something according to its basic constituent
parts.
Approach
Memory Model
Research Method
Reductionist
Holistic
The information processing
The Multi-store Model
Experiments
Reconstructive memory
Memory Research
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The area of cognitive psychology concerned with memory is generally regarded
to be reductionist.
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-store Model of Memory can be seen as
reductionist as it describes our memory as a series of component memory
stores with specific functions, such as rehearsal.
Research using experiments that investigate how memory works can also be
regarded as reductionist as experiments tend to isolate variables to investigate,
without considering other factors that could also explain the behaviour.
However, Bartlett’s work cannot be considered reductionist because of the way
he conducted his research.
Bartlett used qualitative analysis to explore the reconstructive nature of
memory by understanding how each individual’s schemas influenced their recall
of stories and pictures.
Cognitive Stimulation Therapy
Cognitive Stimulation Therapy uses our knowledge of memory to help people
suffering from memory and other cognitive skills.
This involves activities that have been developed because of research into
memory conducted by psychologists.
Cognitive Stimulation Therapy involves playing memory games, such as
thinking of childhood events, word association, categorising objects,
remembering songs and so on.## Psychological Problems: How They Affect
You
Unipolar Depression: Symptoms, Features, and Incidence
Unipolar depression, also known as depressive episodes, is a mood disorder
characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and a lack of motivation. It's termed
"unipolar" because it involves a consistent low mood, unlike bipolar disorder, which
includes both manic and depressive states.
According to the International Classification of Diseases version 10 (ICD-10), these
episodes can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe, depending on the number
and intensity of symptoms.
Here's a breakdown of the severity levels:
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Episode
Symptoms Displayed
Features
Patients may find their symptoms upsetting but
can generally continue with daily activities.
Patients may experience significant difficulties in
Moderate Five or six symptoms
performing daily activities, such as attending
work or school.
Seven or more, plus
Patients may have suicidal thoughts or engage
Severe
feelings of worthlessness in self-harm as a coping mechanism.
Mild
Four symptoms
For a diagnosis of unipolar depression, the ICD-10 requires that at least one of the
main symptoms, such as lowered mood, or lack of energy be present most of the
time for at least two weeks, in addition to at least one other symptom.
Incidence and Influence of Unipolar Depression
According to the World Health Organization, about 1 in 15 people suffer from a
serious depressive episode each year. Unipolar depression affects twice as many
females as males and tends to affect women for longer periods.
The rise in depression diagnoses may be attributed to increased awareness of
symptoms or to modern lifestyle factors like sleep deprivation, poor diet, and social
isolation, as suggested by Brandon Hidaka (2012).
Notably, there's a significant increase in depression diagnoses among teenagers and
young adults. Jean Twenge et al. (2010) found that young adults in 2007 were more
likely to be diagnosed with psychological problems than in 1938, linking high social
media usage to a higher risk of depression.
Impact on Individuals and Society
Unipolar depression significantly impacts individuals, increasing the risk of suicide
due to feelings of worthlessness and sadness. It's estimated that 10–15% of patients
with severe depression may commit suicide.
Depression also affects society through the cost of treatment. In 2007, treatment for
depression cost the NHS £1.7 billion.
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Economically, depression leads to a substantial loss in productivity. In 2014–15,
approximately 9.9 million workdays were missed due to stress, depression, or
anxiety.
The Influence of Genes on Mental Health
Twin studies suggest a genetic component to unipolar depression. Peter McGuffin et
al. (1996) found that if one monozygotic (identical) twin became depressed, there
was a 46% chance the other would also, compared to a 20% chance for dizygotic
(fraternal) twins.
Craig Hyde et al. (2016) identified 17 gene variations linked to depression,
highlighting the complex genetic combinations that could lead to the condition.
Diathesis-stress model: This model explains that people may have a
genetic predisposition to depression, but it only manifests if triggered by
stressful life events.
The genetic explanation is not without its weaknesses. It is deterministic, but
deterministic: assuming that certain genes inevitably lead to depression. However,
the diathesis-stress model combines both nature (genes) and nurture (life events).
Cognitive Theory: Beck's Cognitive Triad
Cognitive theory explains depression by examining how the brain processes
information and how our thoughts influence our behavior.
Aaron Beck proposed that depression results from three negative thought patterns:
A negative view of the self: Feelings of worthlessness
A negative view of the world: Belief that everyone is against you
A negative view of the future: Pessimism about what is to come
These thought patterns often stem from bad experiences in the past, leading to
negative self-schemas and cognitive biases like magnification, where problems are
perceived as far worse than they are.
ABC Model
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Albert Ellis proposed the ABC model:
1. Activating Event: A challenging event occurs.
2. Beliefs: The person associates thoughts with the event, which can be rational
or irrational.
3. Consequences: Rational beliefs lead to positive emotional consequences, while
irrational beliefs lead to negative emotional consequences.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Cognitive Theory
One strength of cognitive theory is that it considers life events and recognizes
triggers for depression.
This
diagram is a visual representation of a diverse range of symptoms that may be
indicative of depression or related mental health issues. However, it is difficult to
determine if irrational thoughts are the cause or a symptom of depression, and it may
not fully explain cases like post-natal depression, which may be more biologically
driven.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) as a Treatment for
Depression
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): a therapy for mental health
disorders that aims to change thought processes in order to reduce
symptoms.
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CBT is a therapy used to treat various mental health disorders by changing thought
processes to influence behavior. It's based on the understanding that how we think
affects how we feel and behave.
The main aims of CBT are to:
Help the patient change the way they think (the cognitive part).
Help the patient change the way they act to improve symptoms (the behavioral
part).
When patients recognize and challenge irrational or negative thoughts, they can
replace them with more rational and positive ones.
CBT for Depression
CBT Explained
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a treatment that helps patients:
Change their behavior.
Recognize irrational thoughts.
During CBT sessions, patients:
Receive 'homework' to change their thinking about situations.
Write about their feelings in a diary.
Practice rational thought processes.
Discuss progress with the therapist.
Effectiveness of CBT
Evidence suggests CBT is effective:
NHS published evidence in 2012 supporting its effectiveness.
Matthijs Beltman et al. (2010) found that depressed patients treated with CBT
improved more than those waiting for treatment.
CBT helps patients:
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Learn how to deal with their symptoms.
Reduce feelings of helplessness by enabling them to act on their state.
Weaknesses of CBT
CBT relies on patients wanting to change their behavior.
Lack of motivation, a symptom of depression, can hinder CBT sessions and
homework, reducing its effectiveness.
Some patients may need drug therapy first to alleviate symptoms.
CBT vs. Antidepressants
CBT may offer longer-lasting treatment than antidepressants.
Patients learn to control symptoms by changing negative thoughts, providing
them with lasting skills.
Antidepressants can cause long-term problems or stop working.
CBT can be used alongside antidepressants for more significant symptom
improvement.
Drug Therapy for Depression
How Antidepressants Work
Antidepressants work by raising levels of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and
noradrenaline, which control mood. The drugs increase the amount of these
neurotransmitters or help to make the neurotransmitters’ effects last longer.
However, antidepressants do not tackle the cause of the depression.
Types of Antidepressants
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Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs):
Block the reuptake of serotonin.
Increase serotonin availability in the brain, improving mood.
Serotonin and Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs):
Block the reuptake of both serotonin and noradrenaline.
Prolong the effect of these neurotransmitters, enhancing mood.
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs):
Prevent the enzyme monoamine oxidase from breaking down
neurotransmitters.
Help to make more neurotransmitters available, improving mood.
Tricyclics (TCAs):
Boost the effect of serotonin and noradrenaline by preventing their
reabsorption into the neuron.
Enhance mood-enhancing effects.
Strengths of Drug Therapy
Antidepressants can improve a patient’s symptoms enough to make it easier for
them to access other psychological therapies, such as CBT.
Effective for patients with moderate to severe symptoms. Studies show 5065% of patients improve with antidepressants, compared to 25-30% with a
placebo.
Weaknesses of Drug Therapy
Side Effects: Can cause drowsiness, nausea, dizziness, disturbed sleep,
diabetes, and increased suicidal feelings.
Relapse: Joanna Moncrieff and Irving Kirsch (2005) reported that despite
increased antidepressant use, long-term outcomes of depression treatment are
worsening, with patients more likely to relapse.
Doesn't Treat Cause: Drugs improve symptoms but do not address the
underlying cause of depression.
Dietary Restrictions: MAOIs require patients to follow a specific diet to avoid
dangerous side effects.
Overdose Risk: Tricyclics can be dangerous if a patient takes too many.
Additional Terms
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Neurotransmitters: chemicals that pass messages from one neuron to
another across a synapse.
Serotonin: a type of neurotransmitter involved in mood.
Noradrenaline: a type of neurotransmitter that is involved in mood and is
released during times of stress.
Reuptake: the process by which neurons reabsorb neurotransmitters that
they released.
Placebo: an inactive substance, or ‘fake pill’, used instead of an active
substance. The person given a placebo will not know it is fake.
Relapse: a return of symptoms after treatment has been given.
Addiction and Dependence
Addiction Defined
Addiction: A psychological problem where people feel that they need a
particular thing – a substance or an activity – in order to be able to go
about their normal routine.
The ICD-10 refers to addiction as a dependence disorder.
Addiction can be to substances or activities.
Symptoms of Addiction
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Symptom
Feeling of Need
Tolerance
Difficulty Stopping
Ignoring Harmful Evidence
Replacing Normal Activities
Description
The person feels they need to ‘have’ or ‘do’
something regularly to avoid negative feelings.
The person may need to increase the amount
used to get the same effect over time.
Stopping or reducing the use of the substance is
very difficult.
The person ignores evidence that the use of the
substance is harmful to them.
Normal, fun activities are replaced with time
spent using the substance, or recovering after
using it.
Behavioral Addiction: Need to do
activity regularly
Behavioral Addiction: Reducing the
activity is very difficult
Behavioral Addiction: Ignoring
arguments that the activity is
unhealthy
Behavioral Addiction: Doing activity They have to do the activity more often, or do
more often
something more ‘risky’ to get the same ‘buzz’.
Behavioral Addiction: Spend more They spend more time doing the activity than
time on activity
other things they used to enjoy.
To be diagnosed as an addict, at least three of these symptoms need to be present at
the same time for 1 month in total, or for repeated occasions over a year.
Withdrawal: A set of unpleasant physical or psychological symptoms
someone gets when they are trying to quit or cannot satisfy their
addiction.
Addiction Statistics
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NHS estimated about 2 million people in the UK are suffering from some kind of
addiction.
In 2014–15, 141,646 adults were treated for substance misuse, mainly opiates
and alcohol.
Approximately 6% of the world’s population have problematic internet use.
A 2014 survey in the UK found that 16% of 18–24-year-olds admitted to using
the internet for 15 hours every day.
Changes in Addiction Over Time
The definition of addiction has expanded to include behavioral addictions like
internet and video game addiction.
Society's relationship with drugs has changed; for example, opiates were once
prescribed for medical purposes.
Addiction sources like alcohol, heroin, and cannabis are becoming cheaper to
access.
Effects of Addiction on Individuals and Society
Individuals may develop health problems, spend money on addiction instead of
necessities, and ignore family.
Workplace impact: Absenteeism leading to costs for companies.
Healthcare costs: NHS spends £488 million annually on substance misuse.
Crime: Addicts may turn to theft and fraud, costing the UK £13.9 billion a year.
Genetic Explanations of Addiction
Genes and Addiction
Addiction runs in families, suggesting a genetic component.
Some people are more prone to addiction due to their genes.
DDR2 A1 gene variation is linked to addictions, affecting how the brain reacts
to pleasurable activities.
Diana Martinez et al. (2004) found heavy cocaine users were more likely to
have a particular version of a dopamine receptor gene, resulting in fewer D2
receptors.
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Twin and Adoption Studies
Carmelli et al. (1992) found that if one identical twin smoked, the other was
more likely to smoke than in non-identical twins.
Goodwin et al. (1973) found that adopted children with a biological parent with
alcohol addiction were more likely to show addiction themselves.
Cadoret et al. (1987) found that adopted children with a biological link to
someone with alcohol problems were more likely to have alcohol problems. If
there was alcohol misuse in the adoptive family, the adoptee had a greater risk
of developing an addiction to alcohol.
Strengths of Genetic Explanation
Scientific evidence from twin and adoption studies supports the genetic
explanation.
Adoption studies control for environmental factors, making the genetic
explanation more reliable.
Explains why only some people are prone to becoming addicts.
Weaknesses of Genetic Explanation
Research has not found a single gene that explains addiction.
Reductionist, fails to take social factors into account.
Environmental factors and shared home environments can also explain
addiction within families.
One gene linked to addiction (DDR2 A1 gene) has also been linked to autism,
making it difficult to pinpoint its exact role in addiction.
Learning Theory and Addiction
Learning Theory Explained
Learning theory: Learning theories for addiction believe that the
behaviour of addicts have been learned through some kind of experience
they have had.
Addiction behavior is learned.
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Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning states that behaviour is
learned through associations and learning by associations.
Associations between substances/activities and positive feelings lead to
addiction.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning claims that behaviours are
repeated when they lead to positive consequences.
Reinforcement: An outcome resulting from behaviour that increases the
chance of the behaviour being repeated or avoided in the future. The
outcome may be the result of gaining something positive, or of something
negative being removed.
Rewarded behaviors are repeated.
Addicts continue behavior to avoid negative physical symptoms.
Internal rewards from drugs interact with external factors.
Pathways in the brain reward certain behaviors by releasing ‘feel good’
chemicals into the brain.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory: behavior is learned through observation and
imitation of role models.
Individuals copy addictive behaviors from role models.
Exposure to addictive behaviors in the home can increase the likelihood of
trying them.
Strengths of Learning Theory
If associations and consequences can be re-learned, any addiction should be
treatable.
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Weaknesses of Learning Theory
Conditioning theories do not explain why lots of people try addictive
substances, but not everyone becomes addicted.
Ignores the role of biological factors.
Explanation of Addiction
A strength of this explanation is that by assuming addictions are the result of
learning, they are behaviors we can unlearn.
Social learning theory may help explain why only a small number of people who try
drugs, alcohol, and gambling become addicted. If someone tries these things but
their role model is not addicted, they are less likely to continue with an addiction.
A Treatment for Addiction
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
CBT aims to help people understand the triggers for their addictive behaviors
and then learn how to control and manage these behaviors.
Skills training was developed in the 1950s and 1960s through the work of Ellis
and Beck in understanding and treating depression.
CBT for treating addiction began as a way of stopping alcoholics from drinking
and has developed into a therapy that can be applied to treating many different
forms of addiction.
When treating addicts, CBT occurs in two key stages:
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1. Functional Analysis:
Involves looking closely at the addiction and the things that trigger it.
The therapist and the addict might look at what emotions make the addict
turn to alcohol, for example, or who is around when the addict feels the
urge to take heroin.
By understanding the sources of the addiction, the addict, with the help of
the therapist, can learn what places, people, and/or feelings to avoid.
2. Skills Training:
The second stage of CBT where addicts learn ways to control the patterns
of behavior that lead to their addiction.
The therapist will help the patient to learn skills they can use to avoid
engaging in the addictive behavior.
In between CBT sessions the patient will be asked to keep a diary of
important events to record their progress as a form of homework.
They can make a note of times they felt tempted, how they felt, what they
did, and how this made them feel.
Examples of skills:
How to cope with cravings
Assertiveness training
Improving motivation
CBT can be combined with other therapies that help addicts deal with the physical
effects of withdrawal from their addiction. This is particularly the case in substance
abuse, where CBT might be combined with a drug therapy (methadone) to reduce the
symptoms of heroin withdrawal.
CBT: Strengths and Weaknesses
One strength is that it aims to give the patient control to stop their own addictive
behavior. As long as the addict is motivated to change their behavior, they can reduce
their own addiction using these skills.
One problem with using CBT to treat addiction is that the addict has to be motivated
to change their behavior.
Even though addicts can learn better coping skills from CBT, this does not always
mean that they will reduce the problem behavior.
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For example, a study found that alcoholics often showed the ability to cope with their
addiction after CBT, but did not always put these skills into practice and actually stop
drinking.
CBT: Research Evidence
Young’s (2007) study found that CBT was effective for treating people with internet
addiction both in the short term and up to 6 months after treatment ended.
Example Study
A researcher is interested in whether cognitive behavioral therapy can be used to
treat people with a gambling addiction. The participants took part in a series of 12
sessions of CBT over a 12-week period with one session per week. The results were
compared to a group of gambling addicts who were receiving no treatment over the
same 12 weeks. The researchers asked participants to rate their symptoms each
week on a scale of 1–10 (1 = no symptoms of addiction; 10 = severe symptoms of
addiction). The researchers compared the participants’ ratings on weeks 1, 6 and 12.
CBT group
No treatment group
Week 1
Week 6
Week 12
8.5
8.7
6.2
8.8
4.7
8.9
Conclusion: In week 1, the CBT and no treatment group had very similar scores for
their symptoms, however, over the 12 weeks, the CBT group's scores decreased,
while the no treatment group's scores remained relatively stable. This suggests that
CBT may be an effective treatment for gambling addiction.
How Drugs are Used to Treat Addiction
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Patients with drug addictions can often benefit from taking a form of medication
to help them cope with the effects of detoxification.
Many patients who have addictions to substances will find that they crave the
substance when they stop using it.
When a person stops using a substance that they have been addicted to, they
can face physical symptoms of withdrawal as the substance leaves their
system.
Some patients with substance addiction also have other mental health
problems, such as depression or anxiety.
Detoxification
When an addict tries to stop taking the substance they are addicted to.
Many substances, like opiates (such as heroin), alcohol, and nicotine (in cigarettes)
can cause unpleasant side effects when patients stop using them. Medication can
help to reduce these effects and help the patient to control their addiction.
When a person stops using a substance that they have been addicted to, they can
face physical symptoms of withdrawal as the substance leaves their system. For
example, substance misusers might experience sweating, insomnia, shaking, lack of
appetite, headaches, and irritability when they stop using the substance. This can
make detoxification a difficult process. Drugs can be given to patients to reduce these
symptoms of withdrawal and reduce the chance of the patient relapsing and using
the substance again.
Reducing Cravings
Medication can be given to control these symptoms.
Methadone can be offered to people addicted to opiates such as heroin.
Smokers can use different forms of nicotine-replacement therapy such as
chewing gum and patches.
Other drugs have been developed to treat alcoholics, such as naltrexone, which
stops the craving for alcohol.
Treating Mental Health Problems
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Drugs, such as antidepressants and anti-anxiety medication, can be offered to those
with substance addictions. These drugs reduce the symptoms of problems that could
cause a relapse in substance misuse.
Drugs as a Treatment: Strengths and Weaknesses
One strength is that there is research evidence supporting the effectiveness of drug
therapies to treat addiction. For example, Suck Won Kim et al. (2001) presented
evidence that 75% of the gambling addicts they studied who were treated with
naltrexone showed a significant improvement in their symptoms, compared to only
24% of gambling addicts who had been treated with a placebo drug.
Another strength of using drugs to treat addiction is that they may help the patient
access other types of therapy.
One major weakness of the use of drugs to treat addiction is that the evidence
supporting its effectiveness is very mixed. For example, John Krystal et al. (2001)
found that there was no significant difference in relapse rates over a 12-month period
between alcoholic patients taking naltrexone and those taking a placebo drug.
Another weakness is that some argue that giving medication to patients who are
already addicted to something, especially if the medication is another substance,
could make their problems worse in the long-term as they may become dependent
on the medication.
Studies
Caspi et al. (2003) Influence of Life Stress on Depression:
Moderation by a Polymorphism in the 5-HTT Gene
Longitudinal study
The nature and nurture debate is discussed in the Issues and debates section at
the end of this topic. Read ahead to find out more.
Background
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Lots of research evidence has found that stressful life events seem to lead to
depression in some people and not others.
A group of antidepressant drugs called SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
help to increase the amount of serotonin available in the brain and reduce symptoms
of depression. If low levels of serotonin cause depression, then maybe the genes that
cause someone to have lower levels of serotonin than the rest of the population
could explain why some people become depressed after stressful life events.
Aim
Caspi et al. (2003) aimed to investigate why stressful life events cause depression,
but not everyone who experiences stressful life events becomes depressed. They
then investigated whether stressful life events were more likely to lead to depression
in people with a certain variation of the 5-HTT gene (a gene linked to the amount of
serotonin available in the brain).
Procedure
Participants were members of the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and
Development Study – a group of children who have been studied since birth.
Participants were found to have at least one short version of the 5-HTT gene and
who had been through stressful life events between the ages of 21 and 26 years old.
Participants completed a questionnaire that measured the life events that occurred
between their 21st and 26th birthdays. The events included problems with money,
health, or relationships. Another questionnaire assessed whether they had any
symptoms of depression in the year before their 26th birthday, which gave the
researchers quantitative data in the form of a ‘depression score’.
Participants were divided into three groups based on the version of the 5-HTT gene
they had:
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Percentage of
participants
Version of the 5-HTT gene
Group 1 two copies of the short version of the gene
Group 2 one copy of the short version and one copy of the
long version of the gene
Group 3 two copies of the long version of the gene
17%
51%
31%
Results
Participants with a short version of the 5-HTT gene and who experienced stressful
life events were more likely to be diagnosed with depression than participants with
two long versions of the gene.
Those with two short versions of the 5-HTT gene were most likely to report severe
depressive symptoms if they had suffered a number of stressful life events, including
a significantly higher report of suicidal thoughts or attempts if they had faced more
than three stressful life events.
Conclusions
Patients who became depressed after stressful life events were more likely to have at
least one short version of the gene that controls the level of serotonin available in the
brain. This suggests that there is an interaction between nature and nurture when
causing depressive symptoms.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study
A particular strength of this study is that there were 847 participants. Another
strength is that the information from this was a longitudinal study, with each
participant completing a questionnaire that measured the life events that occurred
between their 21st and 26th birthdays.
Another weakness is that the evidence from the questionnaires is self-report data,
which might not be reliable.
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Caspi et al. (2003) found that patients who became depressed after stressful life
events were more likely to have at least one short version of the gene that controls
the level of serotonin available in the brain. This suggests that there is an interaction
between nature and nurture when causing depressive symptoms. A person seems to
need to have both a specific gene and stressful life events in order to become
depressed.
Real World Application
Jeremy and Lucy are brother and sister. They have recently had to move house and
change schools because their dad got a new job in a different town. Jeremy has
adjusted really well but Lucy is feeling very down since the move. Using your
knowledge of the Caspi et al. study, explain how a difference in their genes could
explain the difference in their reaction to their recent move.
Answer: Lucy may have the short version of the 5-HTT gene, while Jeremy may have
the long version. Since moving house and changing schools is a stressful life event,
Lucy is more likely to become depressed because of her gene.
Young’s (2007) Cognitive Therapy with Internet Addicts:
Treatment Outcomes and Implications
Background
Internet addiction has been seen as a specific mental health problem only in recent
years, which means that little is known about treatments for internet addiction.
Kimberly Young had seen cognitive behavioral therapy being used effectively to treat
many other types of addiction, and she wanted to see whether it would be possible
to apply CBT as a treatment for internet addiction.
Aim
To investigate the effect of using CBT to treat a group of patients diagnosed with
internet addiction and to see how problem behaviors improved over time both during
the therapy and after therapy sessions had ended.
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Procedure
A group of 114 participants were recruited from the Center for Online Addiction, a
website dedicated to treating people with internet addiction in the USA. All the
participants had completed the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) and were shown to have
an addiction to using the internet.
All the participants were given a course of online CBT sessions. The first sessions
(functional analysis) focused on finding out information about the background of the
client (participant), when their symptoms had started, and how serious those
symptoms were. The next few sessions (skills training) helped the client to develop
skills to treat the symptoms.
The therapist also worked with the client to solve other ‘problems’ they were facing
that could increase their internet use, such as problems at home, work, or school.
Participants completed the ‘Client Outcome Questionnaire’ at the 8th and 12th online
therapy session, and again 6 months after the treatment sessions had finished.
Results
Slightly more males (58%) than females (42%) were included in the study. Almost
all participants (96%) said that the biggest problem caused by their addiction was
the time taken up by using online apps.
Over the 12 sessions of CBT, the average rating of the quality of the CBT sessions
improved.
Conclusions
CBT can be an effective treatment for internet addiction because clients reported an
increase in their ability to control problem behaviors. It also seems to give long-term
benefits because after 6 months many of the clients still reported similar ratings of
control.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study
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One strength is that using online CBT might encourage more people to access
treatment for addictions if other types of therapy are not appropriate. Asking an
internet addict to use an online application as a treatment for people diagnosed with
internet addiction.
Another weakness of this study is that different clients’ attitudes towards the CBT
sessions, including the relationship the client felt towards their therapist.
The Brain and Neuropsychology
Structure and Function of the Brain
The brain is the control center of the body, made of neurons that send
messages throughout the body.
Neuropsychology studies the brain and how it works.
The brain is protected by layers of tissue and cerebrospinal fluid inside the
skull.
The brain's key areas:
Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher processing.
Cortex: The outer layer of the cerebrum with folds (gyri and sulci) to
increase surface area.
Spinal cord: Connects the brain to the rest of the body.
Brainstem: Connects the spinal cord to the brain and controls reflexes.
Key Areas of the Brain
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The brain weighs about 1.4 kg and communicates with the body through the
spinal cord.
The frontal lobe is responsible for decision-making, impulse control, and
problem-solving.
The motor cortex, located towards the back of the frontal lobe, controls
voluntary movements.
The temporal lobe deals with hearing, understanding sounds and speech, and
memory.
The auditory cortex within the temporal lobe controls hearing.
The parietal lobe helps with perception and understanding sensations of touch.
The somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe is responsible for the sense of
touch.
The occipital lobe primarily handles vision and is often called the visual cortex.
The cerebellum is crucial for movement, coordination, and balance.
Here's a visual representation of the cortex of the brain:
The image above shows the location of the lobes of the brain. Damage to any of
these area can result in functional loss.
Hemispheres of the Brain
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The brain is divided into two halves called hemispheres.
Each hemisphere controls functions on the opposite side of the body.
The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres, allowing them to
communicate.
Lateralization of function means that each hemisphere has different roles.
Lateralisation of function in the brain means that each hemisphere of the
brain has different jobs or roles.
One hemisphere tends to be more dominant.
The left hemisphere controls speech (Broca's area), writing, understanding
language, and logical thinking.
The right hemisphere is involved in spatial awareness, recognizing faces,
musical ability, and creativity.
The table below describes the functions of each hemisphere
Left Hemisphere
Right Hemisphere
Controls
Right hand
Left hand
Visual Field Right visual field
Left visual field
Key Functions Speech, understanding language Spatial awareness, recognizing faces
Other
Understanding written language Creativity, musical ability
Logical thinking
Nature vs. Nurture
The nature and nurture debate discusses whether behavior is the result of
biology (nature) or environment (nurture).
Nature refers to the biological factors that can influence a person’s
behaviour, and these are generally in place even before we are born.
Nurture refers to the environmental factors that can infl uence a person’s
behaviour, mostly aft er they are born.
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Some believe that nature has a bigger influence, while others claim nurture is
more influential or that both interact.
Some psychological problems might be explained by looking at our genes.
Caspi et al. (2003) found that a combination of a specific gene version (5-HTT)
and stressful life events increased the risk of depression.
Behavioral therapy can be used to treat psychological problems by changing
the way patients think and behave, supporting the nurture side.
Mental Health and Societal Views
Television shows have often been criticized for negatively portraying mental
health issues.
Time to Change, a charity, worked with television companies to change this
and promote a more realistic and positive portrayal.
The Brain and Neuropsychology
Living Without a Corpus Callosum
The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right
hemispheres of the brain. Traditionally, it was thought that male and female brains
functioned differently, with females excelling in language skills (left-brain tasks) and
males in spatial skills (right-brain tasks). Some evidence suggested females had a
thicker corpus callosum, indicating they might use both brain hemispheres more.
However, research indicated that both male and female brains may work slightly
differently.
Lateralization as an Explanation of Sex Differences
Studies suggest differences in how male and female brains organize the cortex. A
study by Harasty et al. (1997) indicated language processing areas might be slightly
larger in females, potentially explaining the view that females are better at language
tasks. A study by Rilea et al. (2005) found males better at spatial tasks using righthemisphere activity.
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However, the Rilea et al. (2005) study had weaknesses, as males didn't always
outperform females in spatial tasks. Sommer et al. (2004) suggested females use
both hemispheres for language tasks, challenging the idea that this explains girls'
language superiority. Despite this, there is plenty of evidence to support differences
in the brains of males and females.
The Function of Neurotransmitters
What you will learn:
How neurotransmitters (chemicals) pass messages around the body
How synapses work to pass on the messages
How neurons and synapses interact
Neurotransmitters are chemicals released from neurons to another across
a synapse.
The central nervous system (CNS), made up of the brain and spinal cord, allows the
brain to communicate with the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). Sensory nerves send messages to the brain via the spinal cord, which
processes the information and sends messages back down to make the body act.
Neurotransmitters are released when a nerve impulse reaches the end of a nerve
fiber and are picked up by another neuron to continue the nerve impulse.
Neurotransmitter
Dopamine
Serotonin
GABA (gammaaminobutyric acid)
Example of What It Does
Plays a role in attention and learning. Not enough
dopamine can make it difficult to concentrate on tasks.
Plays a role in mood. Too little serotonin can make people
feel depressed.
Plays a role in calming us down. When we feel stressed,
we produce GABA to relax us.
️Messages are Passed Throughout the Nervous System
Messages pass from one neuron to the next through synaptic transmission.
Key terms:
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Neuron: a nerve cell that transmits information. Synapse: a gap between
two neurons that allows messages, in the form of neurotransmitters, to
pass from one cell to another. Axon: the long structure that connects the
cell body of a neuron to the terminal button at the end of the cell.
Vesicles: small sacs containing neurotransmitter (chemical) molecules.
Receptors: special sites on neurons that are designed to absorb
neurotransmitter molecules.
Sperry's Split-Brain Studies
Background
In 1968, Roger Sperry conducted research to explore the distinct roles of the right
and left hemispheres of the brain. Prior to this, most studies involved post-mortem
examinations. Sperry's study involved participants who had undergone a split-brain
procedure, where the corpus callosum (the connection between the two
hemispheres) was severed as a treatment for severe epilepsy. This procedure
prevented the exchange of information between the two hemispheres, allowing
researchers to study each hemisphere in isolation.
Study Design
Sperry's study involved 11 participants who had undergone a split-brain procedure.
The study was designed to investigate how each hemisphere functions when
disconnected from the other.
Methods and Materials
Sperry used a split-screen to present visual information to only one side of the brain.
Results
Sperry's research provided strong evidence that the left and right hemispheres have
different roles:
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When objects were felt by the right hand (information sent to the left
hemisphere), participants could name the object. However, when objects were
felt by the left hand (information sent to the right hemisphere), they found it
more difficult to say what they could feel.
When words were shown to the right visual field (left hemisphere), patients
could repeat the word. But when words were shown to the left visual field
(right hemisphere), they struggled to repeat the word.
When two different objects were placed in each hand, participants could only
identify each item with the hand that originally held it.
Conclusions
Sperry concluded that each hemisphere is capable of working perfectly well without
being connected to the other side. Each hemisphere seemed to have its own
memories. The left hemisphere appeared to be better at naming items using words,
while the right hemisphere excelled at spatial abilities and identifying objects by
touch with the left hand.
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths: Sperry gathered detailed information, improving the reliability of his
study, and used standardized procedures.
Weaknesses: The sample size of 11 participants is small, limiting the ability to
generalize results. The tasks in the lab were artificial, potentially reducing
ecological validity.
Ecological Validity
Ecological Validity: Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the
findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings
How Psychology has Changed Over Time
Psychology has evolved from a philosophical discipline to a science.
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Early methods of studying the brain included animal dissections and postmortem studies.
Modern techniques include EEGs, MRIs, and PET scans.
Early Brain Study Methods
In the 5th century BC, Alcmaeon, a Greek doctor, used dissected animals to develop
theories about the body and suggested that the brain was the most important organ.
Later, humans began dissecting human brains in post-mortem studies. The case of
Phineas Gage encouraged doctors to investigate how the brain controls specific
behaviors.
Modern Brain Study Methods
Modern forms of brain scanning, such as MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and PET
(positron emission tomography) scans, provide detailed information about how the
brain works.
EEGs measure brain activity using electrodes placed on the scalp.
PET scans use warm colors to show high energy areas, and cool colors for low
activity areas.
EEG (electroencephalograph): Measuring brain activity using electrodes
placed on the scalp.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A method of studying the brain using
electromagnets.
PET (positron emission tomography): Imagery showing the amount of
energy being used throughout the brain.
Brain Damage and Criminal Behavior
Understanding the brain could help us to understand criminal behaviour. In 1999,
Donta Page murdered Peyton Tuthill. During his trial, psychologist Adrian Raine
scanned Page’s brain and found that he had suffered damage to his pre-frontal
cortex, probably as a result of abuse he experienced during his childhood.
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Social Influence
Social Psychology
Social Psychology: Social psychology can give us insight into why we
behave in certain ways around others and how we can go about
understanding ourselves better in our social world.
Social influence is about how others can influence your behaviour. Social psychology
tends to focus on the negative aspects of social influence. More recently, social
psychology has been exploring the more positive aspects of social influence.
Obedience and Conformity
Obedience is following an order of an authority figure.
Conformity is matching the behavior and beliefs of others in order to fit in.
Conformity
Conformity helps us fit into a social group.
There are three types of conformity:
Compliance
Identification
Internalisation
Types of Conformity
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Term
Definition
Going along with the majority although privately we may not actually
agree with them
Temporarily changing behaviour and beliefs because of a group
Identification
membership.
Conforming because we do not know how to behave; others provide
Internalisation this information so we adopt their beliefs and behaviours. Attitude
becomes consistent
Compliance
Authority figure: someone with more power and control than another.
Deindividuation
Deindividuation: Loss of personal self-awareness and responsibility as a
result of being in a group.
When we lose our individual identity we blend into a group and become anonymous.
As a result, we tend to act differently and feel less responsible for our own actions.
Bystander Effect
Bystander Effect: People’s reluctance to help because they believe others
will help instead.
In 1964, Kitty Genovese was murdered outside her New York apartment. Although
there were many witnesses to the event, none immediately stepped in to help her.
Factors Affecting Bystander Intervention
One of the main reasons for the bystander effect is because we feel less personally
responsible when there are more people around to potentially help.
Diffusion of responsibility: When we believe others will help so we do not
have to.
Pluralistic ignorance: When we interpret the situation according to others’
reactions.
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Situational vs Personality Factors
Situational factors are features of a situation that influence how likely we are to
intervene in an emergency. Personality factors are features specific to us that
influence whether we help or not.
Term
Definition
Diffusion of
When we believe others will help so we do not have to
responsibility
Pluralistic ignorance When we interpret the situation according to others’ reactions
Features of a situation that influence whether or not we
Situational factors
intervene in an emergency
Features of an individual (e.g. traits) that influence how likely
Personality factors
they are to intervene in an emergency
Additional Terms
Complete the table with the correct term for each description.
Description
Term
Although Elliot preferred classical music, he listened to pop music
Compliance
with his friends because they liked it.
Louis saw a person stumble and fall in the street. He thought they Diffusion of
must be drunk so he did not stop to help.
Responsibility
When Carolyn put on her police uniform for work she could not be
her usual silly and fun-loving self because she was expected to
Identification
act as a police officer would.
Factors Influencing Bystander Intervention
The Cost of Helping
The decision to intervene in a situation often involves a cost-benefit analysis. We
weigh the potential risks and inconveniences to ourselves against the potential harm
to the victim.
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If the cost of getting involved is high, such as risking personal safety, we may be
less likely to help.
If we are in a rush or perceive that we don't have time, we might also be less
inclined to assist.
However, if the cost of not helping is substantial (e.g., a dangerous emergency),
we are more likely to act, especially if the victim's potential harm outweighs our
personal cost. This isn't necessarily selfless; it can be driven by a desire to avoid
guilt.
Mood
Our mood significantly affects our inclination to help:
Good Mood: When we are happy, our attention tends to be directed outward,
making us more aware of the needs of others.
Bad Mood: Conversely, when we are sad or in a bad mood, we tend to focus
inward, reducing our awareness of external needs.
Competence
Our perceived ability to help plays a crucial role in our decision to intervene.
If we feel competent to offer assistance, we are more likely to step in. For
example, someone trained in CPR is more likely to help a person who has
stopped breathing.
Without specific skills or knowledge, we are less likely to provide direct
assistance. Instead, we might offer indirect help, like calling for emergency
services.
Similarity
We are more likely to help someone we perceive as similar to ourselves.
Identification: We identify with the victim, imagining ourselves in their
situation.
Example: Someone who has been bullied is more likely to intervene in a
bullying incident because they can relate to the victim's experience.
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Jerome's Dilemma: Applying Situational Factors
Jerome's failure to help a person who collapsed in the street can be explained by
situational factors. People often assume that a person doesn't care when they don't
help, but psychological research indicates that bystander intervention is largely
influenced by situational factors.
Investigating the Bystander Effect
While conducting practical investigations into obedience may not be appropriate, you
can explore the bystander effect on a smaller scale without causing distress or harm.
An example could be dropping a pile of books.
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