Disasters, 2001, 25(3): 216–226
Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness: The Case
of NGOs in the Philippines
Emmanuel M. Luna
University of the Philippines
The Philippines is very vulnerable to natural disasters because of its natural setting, as
well as its socio-economic, political and environmental context — especially its
widespread poverty. The Philippines has a well-established institutional and legal
framework for disaster management, including built-in mechanisms for participation of
the people and NGOs in decision-making and programme implementation. The nature
and extent of collaboration with government in disaster preparedness and mitigation
issues varies greatly according to their roots, either in past confrontation and political
struggles or traditional charity activities. The growing NGO involvement in disaster
management has been influenced by this history. Some agencies work well with local
government and there is an increasing trend for collaborative work in disaster
mitigation and preparedness. Some NGOs, however, retain critical positions. These
organisations tend to engage more in advocacy and legal support for communities
facing increased risk because of development projects and environmental destruction.
Entry points into disaster mitigation and preparedness vary as well. Developmentoriented agencies are drawn into these issues when the community members with
whom they work face disaster. Relief organisations, too, realise the need for community
mobilisation, and are thus drawn towards development roles.
Keywords: Philippines, NGO, community, disaster management.
Disasters and disaster management in the Philippines
The natural geographic and physical setting of the Philippines between the South China
Sea and the Pacific Ocean, places the country at the centre of typhoon, tectonic and
volcanic belts. The country’s natural vulnerability is compounded by its socioeconomic conditions. The vulnerability of the people is a legacy of the dictatorship and
widespread violation of human rights prevalent during the Marcos regime in the 1970s.
These also gave rise to the emergence of cause-oriented non-governmental
organisations established to alleviate poverty through the provision of alternative socioeconomic programmes and services and to assist the victims of political actions and
insurgency in the countryside. With the series of national disasters striking the country
in the 1990s, such as the central Luzon earthquake, Mt Pinatubo eruption, Ormoc flash
flood and eruption of Mt Mayon, many NGOs became involved in disaster
management as well.
The NGOs engaged in disaster management (DM) vary in scale, development
orientation, scope of services and programme attributes. While recognising that the
NGOs have a wealth of knowledge and experience in disaster mitigation and
preparedness (DMP), there remains a need for greater reflection and synthesis of
© Overseas Development Institute, 2001.
Published by Blackwell Publishers, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
DMP NGOs in the Philippines
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experience, as well as further research to systematise understanding and thereby
contribute to improved DMP practice. The objective of this study is to review NGO
engagements in DMP, with particular attention to how different relationships with the
state have influenced priorities and programming. This includes looking at how
traditional relief agencies have become more involved in community-based activities,
and how a concern for disaster risk has become integrated into the work of
development NGOs. Also important is analysis of the political factors that influence
NGOs’ range of action, with different agencies adopting confrontational or
collaborative relationships with the government.
Methodology
This study is based on 10 NGOs selected to represent different types of scale,
orientation, origin and programmes. Using a standard guideline for in-depth interviews,
three to six members of staff from each agency were interviewed, representing top and
middle management positions, as well as those actually working in the field.
The 10 NGOs selected range from an internationally affiliated resource NGO
that supports local NGOs to a community-based organisation. The oldest one was
established 53 years ago while the youngest one was organised only last year, after
being a part of a larger NGO for the past 16 years. In terms of scale, annual budgets
range from US$4 million to below $10,000. Staffing ranges from 600 paid staff to five
community volunteers.
In light of the vast number of NGOs operating in the Philippines, a study such
as this cannot of course claim to provide a statistically valid or representative overview
of how different types of NGOs engage in disaster mitigation and preparedness
activities. These interviews provide illustrations of the range of approaches to risk
management and relations with governmental actors that can be found. These
interviews are complemented by a review of the political and historical processes that
have shaped NGO roles.
Overview of hazards and disasters in the Philippines
The Philippines is affected by a number of severe hazards. This archipelago of 7,100
islands lies between the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean, and in the path of an
average of nine typhoons each year. As a consequence of typhoon and even ordinary
monsoon rain, flooding is very common in both urban and rural areas. The worst flood
was the Ormoc flash flood which killed 8,000 people in 1991 (Citizen Disaster
Response Center, 1992: 48–55).
The Philippines lies on the western rim of the Pacific and is part of the
Circum–Pacific seismic belt, between two active major plates: the Pacific and Eurasian.
A total of 74 destructive earthquakes have been registered since 1599. The latest and
most destructive earthquake in the country happened on 21 July 1990. It affected 23
provinces, killing 1,666 people and resulting in damages placed at $305 million (op.
cit.: 62–8).
There are more than 200 volcanoes distributed among five volcanic belts. The
most recent and destructive volcanic eruption was Mt Pinatubo in central Luzon in June
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Emmanuel M. Luna
Table 1 Natural disaster incidents, 1995–1999
Disaster
incidents
1. Typhoon
2. Flooding
3. Landslide
avalanche
4. Tornado
5. Earthquake
6. Red tide
7. Volcanic
eruption
8. Drought
9. Pest infestation
10. Tidal wave
Total
Number of
occurrences
1995–1999
37
143
Annual
average
7
27
Number
of people
affected
19,610,029
4,942,255
49
38
87
11
1
10
8
17
2
–
68,209
4,905
769
56,359
5,986
115
15
11
7
–
5
23
1
5
963,523
166,950
–
2
3
397
–
–
859
–
2,557
Number
1,973
434
Source: National Disaster Coordinating Council, 2000
1991 which resulted in 773 deaths, 184 injuries and 23 missing, with 276,748 families
adversely affected (op. cit.: 70–75).
Table 1 shows the most common natural disaster incidents in the country for
the past five years (1995–1999). The first four disaster events are typhoon related,
though flood generally takes place even with just monsoon rain. It can be observed that
most of the recent natural disasters happened in the early 1990s, the start of the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. This period also proved to be the
beginning of greater disaster consciousness and disaster management work among the
country’s NGOs.
It is also important to note that there are so-called complex political
emergencies affecting the country, particularly the political conflict with the
communists and the Muslim secessionists in the South. Furthermore, NGO
involvement in DMP is also motivated by concerns about increased risk due to
‘development’. Many agencies work with communities threatened by dams and other
infrastructure construction, flooding and landslides due to illegal logging and estate
development, conversion of prime agricultural lands and the uncontrolled exploitation
of marine resources.
Overview of relief and development NGOs
The history of relief and development work among non-governmental organisations
can be traced back to colonial times, when religious and traditional groups pioneered
the provision of welfare services. This was reinforced after the Second World War
when the need for reconstructing war-damaged communities became a priority. Civic
and emergency charity activities were carried out by the Community Chest, Red Cross
and YMCA, based on goodwill and humanitarian values (National Council for People’s
Development, 1988).
DMP NGOs in the Philippines
219
At the same time, more progressive and politically motivated groups like the
trades unions and peasant organisations were also growing. The communist party was
established and its affiliate organisations also gained support in the countryside.
In the 1970s, the declaration of martial law by Marcos and the suppression
freedom and democratic rights coincided with the UN’s declaration of the 1970s as the
Second Development Decade. Participatory development was pushed, mostly by those
espousing alternative development strategies. Radical voluntary organisations emerged
as legal entities to confront the dictatorial Marcos regime and protest against human
rights abuse and corruption. Members of the Catholic Church and the academic
community played significant roles in the establishment of these organisations which,
with their inherent legitimacy and credibility, the Marcos regime could not easily
challenge. These NGOs supported communities and people’s organisations in issues to
do with agriculture, labour, urban development, health, education, the environment,
political detainees and other issues that exposed the Marcos regime’s ineptitude and
failure to respect human rights. The NGOs were involved in conscientisation,
organising, mobilisation, advocacy and para-legal work. Despite their different
ideological persuasions, these NGOs also built alliances, coalitions and networks.
The ‘people’s power event’ which overthrew Marcos in 1986 changed the
terrain of NGOs. The new government under President Aquino embraced a new
relationship with civil society, which in turn led to a mainstreaming of NGO concepts
and practice. These values were subsequently enshrined in the new constitution and
national policies. NGO desks were established in a number of government departments.
Policy guidelines and manuals for the implementation of government programmes
were revised to accommodate people’s participation and the NGOs.
But with the common enemy gone — the Marcos dictatorship —
fragmentation within the NGO community became more evident. Different positions
among the NGOs emerged concerning relations with the government, depending on
their ideological persuasion.
Analysis of how NGOs started their disaster management work reveals the
dynamics of how both development-oriented NGOs have become involved in disaster
management and how relief-oriented NGOs have integrated mitigation and
preparedness into their programmes. Based on the experiences of the 10 NGOs, several
trends can be identified.
The first trend is towards relief and humanitarian NGOs. Many of these are
affiliated with international organisations and the establishment of the NGO was a
product of the need to have a Philippines counterpart. In effect, these NGOs act as
public service contractors on behalf of international organisations. Others are
traditional relief agencies, which have begun to become involved in community-based
approaches that assist in mitigation and preparedness through organising, capacity
building and disaster response planning. Socio-economic projects to foster community
capacity and decrease vulnerability are also increasingly undertaken. The shift to these
approaches on the part of traditional relief agencies is part of the movement for
participatory and people’s empowerment that became popular after the fall of the
Marcos regime. Criticism of dependency-creating relief provision led to pressure for
more progressive and community-based programmes and the re-orientation of disaster
management programmes away from mere charity. Many of these agencies still provide
relief in times of calamity, while managing community-based disaster management
programmes on an ongoing basis.
The second trend is towards the development NGOs with disaster
management programmes that have expanded their programmes to incorporate disaster
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management capability building for local government. While these NGOs continue to
be critical of the government, there is increasing NGO–government collaboration in
disaster management programmes, particularly in strengthening the capacity of local
government units (LGUs).
A third trend is development NGOs that have integrated relief and
rehabilitation work into their programming in the aftermath of a major disaster. One
such NGO had been entirely focused on community development in the 1980s. But
with the 1990 earthquake and 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption, the NGO was caught in a
situation where the communities they were empowering were devastated by disaster,
destroying earlier socio-economic and political investment. Faced with this situation,
the NGO started relief and rehabilitation activities. ‘By using their stock knowledge in
community organising and development, they were able to systematise the work in
forming community core groups to facilitate the operations and, in succeeding
activities, in mobilising resources’ (Luna, 1999: 17). In the long run, the NGO
eventually integrated DM concerns through community-based approaches.
A fourth category is NGOs formed in response to actual disaster events. One
province-wide NGO was created when local volunteers became aware that Mt Pinatubo
would soon be erupting and decided to mobilise. When the eruption occurred,
volunteers decided to go on with their work on an informal basis, even without
financial support. Working on the basis of volunteerism, they assisted other victims of
Mt Pinatubo. These volunteers later decided to formalise their group into an NGO and
were able to secure funding from a large, international NGO to implement mitigation
and preparedness programmes in the province.
In another example, a community-based organisation was formed because of a
crisis brought about by connivance between a private corporation and LGU officials.
Knowing that the project planned by the private corporation would result in
environmental pollution, people in the community mobilised to resist the project.
Forming a legitimate organisation was partly a legal strategy, but it remained
sustainable as the community continued to undertake mitigation activities through
environmental education, advocacy and mobilisation against disaster threats posed by
government and private projects. This NGO exemplifies a very effective way of
preventing disaster through advocacy, environmental education, mobilisation and legal
assistance services.
Disaster mitigation and preparedness methods and
practices
The methods and practices of NGOs in disaster mitigation and preparedness vary from
simple on-site specific strategies to nation-wide coverage; from LGU capacity building
to direct confrontation with the government; from single- to multi-component
strategies; from structural to non-structural; and from traditional ways to
unconventional tactics and creative innovations.
Infrastructural mitigation strategies
Most NGOs perceive that infrastructural development to prevent and mitigate disasters
is a responsibility of the government because of the financial and technological input
DMP NGOs in the Philippines
221
necessary. NGOs with greater funding, however, like those affiliated internationally,
are able to undertake small-scale and community-based infrastructural mitigation
projects such as shelter provision and assistance, protective walls, dike construction,
footpath and footbridge building and sand bagging. Project costs are significantly
reduced because the beneficiaries themselves provide the labour as well as materials
available in the community — say, boulders and sand. In addition to the benefits
derived by the people, these concrete projects also contribute to strengthening
organisations and fostering greater community spirit.
Community-based disaster management (CBDM)
Other approaches, such as integrated community disaster planning and citizen-based
development-oriented disaster response, are pursued in different ways. One is through
actual and direct involvement. This is where the community residents themselves are
the ones constituting the organisation. They organise themselves because of the need to
protect themselves from possible threat of disaster. Although technical and financial
support is often sought from external NGOs, these organisations plan activities as
well as implementing and evaluating them.
Outside NGOs often facilitate community-based disaster management through
community organising and capability building. In one example, the staff from the NGO
first selected vulnerable communities. After being invited by some communities to
participate, they began with social preparation like community integration and
identification of contact leaders. With the participation of the contact people, they
conducted community hazards and vulnerability analysis. Training activities were also
undertaken, especially on disaster management. In communities where there were
existing organisations, they established village committees for disaster response. In
cases where there was no organisation, the community organiser from the NGO helped
to form organisations for disaster preparedness and response.
Other NGOs do not go into direct CBDM, but provide technical and financial
support for community-based disaster management activities for their partners or
programme recipients. The resource NGO provides funds and training, and later
facilitates exchanges from which the partners can synthesise experiences and lessons.
As part of their community-based programming, some NGOs undertake socioeconomic projects that aim to reduce the vulnerability of the people. Among the
projects implemented include those to improve food security by providing soft loans
for agricultural production, animals, farm tools and boat distribution, co-operatives,
assisting the urban poor to secure land, community mortgages, health-care and
educational services.
Capacity building
Training activities are part of preparing the community for disasters. This includes
orientation to disaster management, disaster preparedness, para-legal training, and
specialised topics on community organising, evacuation management, emergency
response, health and sanitation, environmental education and simulation exercises.
Other outputs of disaster preparedness training are hazard analysis and disaster
planning. A number of training modules have been developed by the NGOs.
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Some NGOs have programmes that aim to enhance the capacity of LGUs in
disaster management. They assist LGUs in institutionalising disaster management
practice by conducting training for LGU in planning, reorganising and strengthening
co-ordinating institutions, mobilising other NGOs and the private sector for disaster,
providing equipment to LGU and direct assistance in actual disaster through relief.
Collaboration with LGUs is increasing because of the recognition that LGUs have a
significant role in disaster management. Ultimately, it is the communities which suffer
if LGUs are not ready to face disaster events.
Advocacy
Many NGOs are actively involved in advocacy for influencing LGUs (and even central
government) in their programmes and in decision-making. This is a mitigating measure
since the NGOs advocate for the integration and mainstreaming of DM in government
development strategies. These include popular participation in planning processes,
advocacy for children’s rights, gender issues, environmental implications and
encouraging LGUs to set aside budgetary resources for disaster mitigation and
preparedness.
In a number of cases, the NGOs are involved in confrontational advocacy and
mobilisation when they see that the government or other entities, such as private
corporations, are engaged in activities that increase risk to the community.
One case involves a community that would have been adversely affected by
the setting up of a cement plant. Local people resisted the project by questioning the
legality of the project in the LGU. They mobilised support from other agencies and
NGOs. They put up barricades, including women and children lying on the street to
prevent trucks getting in. The same community questioned the LGU’s plan to establish
a solid-waste processing plant in their locality which would include hospital waste.
They also petitioned against a property developer who was quarrying and destroying a
nearby mountainside without the necessary environmental clearance certificate (ECC).
They succeeded in all these efforts.
Influencing jurisprudence for disaster prevention and mitigation
There are cases when disasters occur because those who would be affected by the
disaster are unable to use legal means to prevent inappropriate development schemes.
One NGO specialises in this by assisting local communities in legal work. For example,
one affected community filed a case against the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources for not allowing them to see documents pertaining to the issuance of
the ECC necessary before a development project can proceed. Assisted by the NGO,
the community won the case up to the Court of Appeals. The Department of
Environment and Natural Resources brought the matter to the Supreme Court, which
was what the NGO was hoping for. If the Supreme Court upheld the people’s side, then
this would be a landmark in jurisprudence because it would recognise that the people
have legal rights to documents and consultation in the issuance of ECCs.
DMP NGOs in the Philippines
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Addressing and adapting to conflict
For the past three decades, there has been an ongoing war between the government and
several revolutionary groups. These include the communist-led New People’s Army
(NPA) and the Muslim secessionist groups such as the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
(MILF). The war with the MILF in Mindanao caused the displacement of more than a
million people, and NGOs were consequently mobilised to respond to the situation.
The NPA, on the other hand, is scattered throughout different parts of the country. The
NPA controls a decreasing proportion of the countryside, but unrest is spreading with
ambushes and violent confrontation even in urban areas. The situation thus definitely
affects NGO operations. When there is armed conflict, the NGO programmes and
resources get diverted for relief and emergency purposes.
NGO funding as an external influence
NGOs find it more difficult to get funds for disaster mitigation and preparedness,
compared to relief and emergency operations. There is a perception that the impact of
DMP programmes is more difficult to measure, hence priority is given to emergency
response. Funding is more easily accessed in a disaster because the need is visible.
NGOs in the Philippines are generally dependent on external funding, both
from local and foreign sources. Established as non-profit and non-stock corporations
and for social development services, mechanisms have emerged such that the NGOs
have become local partners of international humanitarian resource and development
organisations. Although there are attempts to mobilise local resources — such as
membership fees and donations — the amounts are usually insignificant. Lately,
because of the need for sustainability, NGOs have experimented with other ways of
generating resources by offering services as consultants to other organisations,
undertaking projects with the government, charging fees for services and encouraging
their local partners to have counterparts.
Financial sustainability has become an issue within the NGO community
because of the falling level of resources being supplied by foreign NGOs and
development assistance. There are many factors which are perceived to have affected
the funding drain from the Philippines. One reason is the designation of the Philippines
as a middle-income country (as defined by the World Bank). This category is
misleading, since families suffering from extreme poverty make up between 30 to 60
per cent of the total population (depending on the source of information). Whichever
figure applies, the number in absolute terms is between 21 and 42 million people. NGO
work among the poor therefore remains a formidable task in the Philippines. In disaster
management, this means that the potential population at risk is very large and the
decreasing external resources are contributing to the vulnerability of both the NGOs
and the people and communities they serve.
The NGOs which are affiliated with international counterparts for relief
response are the largest and the most stable. These NGOs are the ones that can easily
mobilise emergency funds from their international partners. Funds for relief operations
are easier to obtain if there is media exposure. Proposals need to be submitted while the
disaster is still ‘hot’ in the international news, because this adds to the awareness of the
relevance of the project. These agencies cite the need to be ready to produce project
proposals for relief within 24 hours of a disaster striking.
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One issue concerning external funding is balancing the agendas of both the
donor and the NGO. Some agencies finance projects if the proposed initiative is within
their programme areas. Differences in the standards used by the donor and the
receiving NGOs in implementing the project is another issue. One NGO manager
described a case where the donor representative came to the field to supervise and give
sermons to the implementing staff. It was recognised that there were no common
expectations in the programme outcome, nor in the roles of the two parties. As a result,
the partnership was terminated. Another case involves a foreign-based hamburger chain
that donated thousands of hamburgers as food relief to the victims of a disaster. The
NGO workers, known for their nationalistic and progressive stance, refused the
hamburger donation because they judged it inappropriate in the situation and in conflict
with their values.
NGO relations with the government
Whereas an increasing number of NGOs are entering into partnerships with the
government in implementing development and disaster management programmes,
others remain critical and only participate in certain government programmes.
Currently, there are two types of engagement with the government. Some
NGOs, although retaining a critical stance, agree to participate in government
initiatives and consider this an opportunity to influence government partners
constructively and help deliver genuine services to the people. Others provide
unconditional support to the government. This latter tendency has emerged owing to
the resources made available to the NGOs in the post-Marcos era, the role accorded to
NGOs in the constitution, and the popularity of the generic name NGO, which now
encompasses all entities which lie outside the government bureaucracy, including
consulting firms, professional organisations, individuals and politicians.
There is an inevitable tension because of the NGOs’ desire to influence the
government towards more participatory approaches and to focus their programmes on
the poor and vulnerable. The NGOs develop alternative strategies and programmes
which they hope they can mainstream within government structures for greater impact.
For disaster prevention mitigation and preparedness, the NGOs participate in
implementing development programmes to reduce the vulnerability of the people and
communities they serve. They also strive to influence legislation in order to be
environmentally and disaster sensitive, gender sensitive and pro-people.
Many Philippine NGOs have been outspokenly critical of the government in
many respects. NGOs are often in the street, demonstrating and advocating for better
disaster preparedness, mitigation and response, and criticising government for its
actions. A major criticism is government’s tendency to be more reactive than
preventive. This is a result of inadequate institutional capacity due to insufficient
funding, inadequate skills and inappropriate processes that would support disaster
prevention, mitigation and preparedness. While the country has numerous laws which
could theoretically contribute to preventing and mitigating disasters, they are
inadequately implemented. The government is then perceived as lacking political will
in implementing the laws. In times of disaster, corruption is also prevalent.
With the volume of resources pouring in for relief and rehabilitation, questions
are often raised about government’s use of these funds. The NGOs complain of
bureaucratic procedures in disaster response, where mandated procedures cause undue
DMP NGOs in the Philippines
225
delay. For example, the calamity fund of the local government unit can be released only
after a declaration of a state of calamity if at least one-third of the area is affected. But
if a disaster occurs in a small and secluded area, a state of calamity cannot be declared.
Consequently, money from the calamity fund cannot be released.
The tendency to give priority to economic growth is also seen as problematic.
There are circumstances in which the LGU favours development initiatives which
threaten to create disaster or environmental havoc in the long run after supplying shortterm profit. This is aggravated if the proponent of the initiative is close to political
leaders.
Conclusions
These cases have shown that the participatory and people’s empowerment approaches
which emerged in the struggle against Marcos have influenced the transformation of
NGOs’ traditional relief and rehabilitation approaches to a new focus on mitigation and
preparedness. Similarly, the series of massive disaster events that struck the country in
the early 1990s caused development NGOs to pursue disaster relief and rehabilitation,
and later emphasise mitigation and preparedness through community-based disaster
management approaches.
A number of creative NGO mitigation and preparedness activities can be
observed. These include community-based disaster management; undertaking socioeconomic projects to reduce the people’s vulnerability; capacity building through
training, small-scale infrastructural measures; institutionalising DM work among the
LGUs; advocacy work to mainstream alternative approaches; and confrontational
advocacy and mass mobilisation to counter threats from inappropriate development.
Still, the existing level of work is inadequate considering the magnitude of disasters
taking place in the country and the degree of the people’s vulnerability. But with
increasing conviction in the need for participatory approaches and people-oriented
development, NGOs are committed to facing the challenges in mitigating and preparing
for the variety of disasters facing the Philippines.
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Address for correspondence: Department of Community Development, College
of Social Work and Community Development, University of the Philippines, Diliman,
Quezon City, Philippines. E-mail: <<lunakids@expert.net.ph>>