i
Advanced Strength and Conditioning
Becoming an effective strength and conditioning practitioner requires the development of a professional skills set and a thorough understanding of the scientific basis of best practice. Aimed at advanced
students and novice-​to-​expert practitioners, in this book the authors explore the latest scientific evidence
and apply it to exercise selection and programming choices across the full range of areas in strength and
conditioning, from strength and power, speed and agility, to aerobic conditioning.
Since the first edition of this text was written extensive research has expanded the supporting evidence
base that provides the theoretical foundation for each chapter. In addition, some areas that were previously under-​researched have now been expanded and some key concepts have been further challenged.
Each chapter is written by experts with experience in a wide variety of sports, including both applied and
research experience, ensuring this concise but sophisticated textbook is the perfect bridge from introductory study to effective professional practice.
While advanced concepts are explored within the book, the coach must not forget that consistency in
the application of the basic principles of strength and conditioning is the foundation of athletic development. Advanced Strength and Conditioning: An Evidence-​based Approach is a valuable resource for all advanced
students and practitioners of strength and conditioning and fitness training.
Anthony N. Turner is Associate Professor in Strength and Conditioning and the Director of
Programmes for postgraduate studies in sport at the London Sport Institute, Middlesex University.
Anthony is a consultant to numerous sports teams as well as the British Military. Anthony is Associate
Editor for the Strength and Conditioning Journal, has published over 100 peer-​reviewed journal articles and
numerous book chapters, and has edited two textbooks.
Paul Comfort is Reader in Strength and Conditioning at the University of Salford (UK), where he leads
the master’s degree in Strength and Conditioning. He is Adjunct Professor at Edith Cowan University
(Australia) and an honorary research fellow at Leeds Beckett University (UK). He regularly consults
with numerous professional rugby and soccer teams and is a founder member and accredited member
of the United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA). Paul is an editorial board
member for the European Journal of Sport Science and Sports Biomechanics, Associate Editor for the Strength
and Conditioning Journal, Senior Associate Editor of the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, and has
edited three textbooks.
ii
“Advanced Strength and Conditioning: An Evidence-based Approach is a fantastic core text which students in particular should read. It covers all the key areas relating to developing your athlete, programming and
monitoring your athletes and of course, coaching your athlete, which provides a great blend of theory
and practice with a fantastic author line-up adding to the credibility of this book.”
Chris Bishop, Programme Leader: MSc in Strength and Conditioning,
Middlesex University, UK
iii
Advanced Strength and
Conditioning
An Evidence-​based Approach
Second Edition
Edited by
Anthony N. Turner and Paul Comfort
iv
Cover image credit: vm / Getty Images
Second edition published 2022
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Taylor & Francis
The right of Anthony N. Turner and Paul Comfort to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters,
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2017
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Turner, Anthony (Anthony N.), editor. | Comfort, Paul, editor.
Title: Advanced strength and conditioning : an evidence-based
approach / edited by Anthony Turner and Paul Comfort.
Description: Second edition. | New York, N.Y. : Routledge, 2022. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021045906 (print) | LCCN 2021045907 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367491369 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367491352 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003044734 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Physical education and training. | Muscle strength. |
Physical fitness–Physiological aspects.
Classification: LCC GV711.5 .A37 2022 (print) |
LCC GV711.5 (ebook) | DDC 613.7/13–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021045906
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021045907
ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​49136-​9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​49135-​2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​003-​04473-​4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/​9781003044734
Typeset in Baskerville
by Newgen Publishing UK
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/​9780367491352
v
Contents
List of figures List of tables List of contributors 1
viii
xii
xiv
Introduction 1
Strength and conditioning: coach or scientist? 3
P E R RY S T E WART, PAU L C O MFO RT AND ANT HONY N. TURNER
PART I
Developing your athlete 11
2
13
Developing muscular strength and power T I M OT HY J. SU C HO MEL AND PAU L C O MFO RT
3
Stretch-​shortening cycle and muscle–​tendon stiffness 40
J O H N J. M C MAHO N
4
Understanding and developing aerobic fitness 55
R I C HAR D C . BLAG ROVE
5
Repeat sprint ability: physiological basis and implications for training 79
AN T HO N Y N. T U RNER AND DAVID BISHO P
6
Concurrent training 94
RO D R I GO ASPE, RIC HARD C LARKE, G ARET H H A RRIS A ND JONATH A N H UGH ES
PART II
Programming and monitoring for your athlete 109
7
111
Periodisation S HYA M C HAVDA, ANT HO NY N. T U RNER AND PAUL COM F ORT
vi
vi Contents
8 Strategies to enhance athlete recovery 133
V I N C E N T K ELLY, PAT RIC K HO LMBERG AND DAVID JENKINS
9 Priming match-​day performance: strategies for team sports players 155
M AR K RUS S E LL, NATALIE BROW N, SAMU EL P. H ILLS A ND LIA M P. KILDUF F
10 Fitness testing and data analysis 165
J O HN J. M C MAHO N, PAU L C O MFO RT AND AN TH ONY N. TURNER
11 Analysis and presentation of fitness test results 176
J O HN J. M C MAHO N, ANT HO NY N. T U RNER AND PAUL COM F ORT
12 Eccentric training: scientific background and practical applications 190
M E L L I S S A H ARD EN, PAU L C O MFO RT AND G. GREGORY H A F F
13 Cluster sets: scientific background and practical applications 213
G. GR E GO RY HAFF AND MELLISSA HARD EN
PART III
Coaching your athlete 233
14 Movement screening: a systematic approach to assessing movement quality 235
LO UI S H OW E AND C HRIS BISHO P
15 Technical demands of strength training 264
T I M OT H Y J. SU C HO MEL AND PAU L C O MFO RT
16 Weightlifting for sports performance 283
T I M OT H Y J. SU C HO MEL AND PAU L C O MFO RT
17 Plyometric training 307
C H R I S TO P H ER J. SO LE, C HRISTO PHER R. BELLON A ND GEORGE K. BECKH A M
18 Training for change of direction and agility 328
T HO M AS D O S’SANTO S AND PAU L JO NES
19 Speed and acceleration training 363
P E D RO J I M ÉNEZ - ​R EYES AND JEAN- ​B ENO ÎT M ORIN
20 Applied coaching science N I C K W I N K ELMAN
379
vi
Contents vii
21 Developing as a coach: leadership, culture, and purpose 396
BR I AN GE ARIT Y AND C HRISTO PH SZ ED LAK
Index 409
vi
Figures
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
5.1
Integration of coaching and applied science principles. S&C, strength and
conditioning; TL, training load Comparison of countermovement jump kinetic and temporal variables between
stronger and weaker athletes. RFD, rate of force development Medial gastrocnemius (MG) fascicle length (dashed line) and MG pennation
angle (θ), as measured between the superficial (A) and deep (B) MG aponeuroses Four sarcomeres in parallel Four sarcomeres in series Example emphasis change during a periodised training programme (phase
potentiation). 1RM, one repetition maximum Back squat exercise using variable resistance with chains Bench press exercise using variable resistance with elastic bands An example of an object that obeys Hooke’s law and the equation to calculate
stiffness (k), where ∆F =​change in force and ∆x =​change in length An example of the torsional spring model and how it corresponds to the human body An example of the joint moment–joint angular displacement relationship during
loaded flexion and extension An example of how joint touchdown angles influence leg and joint stiffness values An example of the spring–​mass model and how it corresponds to the human body A schematic illustrating how the legs change from being more compliant (opposite of
stiff) to more stiff for a range of stretch-​shortening cycle tasks. DJ, drop jump Relationship between intensity and oxygen uptake response during an incremental test Maximal oxygen uptake values for male and female elite endurance athletes, elite
athletes from selected intermittent sports, and healthy individuals (20–​40 years old)
from the population (50th-​percentile values from several studies shown; Kaminsky,
Arena, and Myers, 2016) Factors that influence an athlete’s exercise economy with examples Physiological profile and training zones for an elite male endurance runner Oxygen uptake kinetics during moderate-​(dotted line), heavy-​(dashed line), and
severe-​intensity (hatched-line) exercise Training strategies and recommended exercise prescription to develop aerobic fitness
components for various categories of sports. %HRmax, percentage of maximum
heart rate; V̇O2max, maximal oxygen uptake Endurance training intensity distribution for three common approaches adopted by
endurance sport athletes How modes of training differ between moderate-​intensity continuous training (MICT),
high-​intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT). HR max,
maximum heart rate; V̇O2max, maximal oxygen uptake 9
15
16
17
17
21
27
27
41
43
43
44
45
48
57
59
60
62
64
65
69
85
ix
List of figures ix
6.1
Putative adaptive pathways in response to the concurrent programming of endurance
and resistance exercises in a training program 6.2 The recommended decision-​making process during periods of concurrent training.
SIT, sprint interval training 7.1 (a) Distribution of training load; (b) distribution of training modes in Olympic fencers 7.2 Relationship between volume, intensity and training specificity over the three main
phases of training. GPT, general physical training; SSPT, sport-​specific physical
training; Comp, competition 7.3 Basic components of a periodised plan. GPT, general physical training; SSPT,
sport-​specific physical training 7.4 Soon ripe, soon rotten. Training intensity is inversely correlated with: (1) the time a
performance peak can be maintained; (2) the height of that performance peak; and
(3) the rate of detraining 7.5 The 3:1 loading paradigm, illustrating the increase and then dissipation of
excessive fatigue 7.6 The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) model 7.7 The stimulus–​fatigue–​recovery–​adaptation (SFRA) concept. 7.8 The fitness–​fatigue paradigm 7.9 Athlete preparedness based on the specific form of fatigue 7.10 The principle of diminishing returns 7.11 Basic model of periodisation entailing little variation and relatively flat workloads 7.12 The traditional, undulating approach to the design of periodised training, which is
attributed to the work of Matveyev (1977). Note the 3:1 loading method within each
mesocycle 7.13 The conjugate sequence system pioneered by Yuri Verkhoshansky (1986) 7.14 Schematic representation of the three principal tapering strategies 7.15 Schematic representation of the two-​phase taper 8.1 Flow chart detailing factors to consider when determining the implementation of
recovery methods 9.1 Model of implementing the performance-​enhancing strategies 10.1 Example of correctly identifying the unweighting, braking and propulsive phases
of a countermovement jump force–​time curve (solid grey line) by overlaying the
velocity–​time curve (dotted black line). The dotted grey line represents zero centre of
mass velocity 11.1 A typical normal data distribution curve with z-​scores and the corresponding
percentage of data that they comprise 11.2 A typical normal data distribution curve with z-​scores, corresponding standard ten
(STEN), t-​score and percentile values and integrated traffic-​light system example 11.3 Example results of a pre-​season fitness-​testing battery conducted within rugby league
and presented as a radar chart using a standardised t-​score scale and integrated
traffic-​light system 11.4 Example results from force platform assessments that were conducted as part of a
pre-​season fitness-​testing battery within rugby league presented as a radar chart
using a standardised t-​score scale and an integrated traffic-​light system 11.5 Example results from a countermovement jump assessment that was conducted using
a force platform as part of a pre-​season fitness-​testing battery within rugby league
presented as a radar chart using a standardised t-​score scale and an integrated
traffic-​light system 96
102
112
113
113
114
116
117
118
119
119
120
121
122
123
127
128
145
161
171
178
182
185
187
188
x
x List of figures
12.1
12.2
Schematic diagram illustrating an approach to tempo training Schematic diagram illustrating augmented eccentric training using weight releasers,
with a total of 80% 1RM as an example 12.3 Schematic diagram illustrating augmented eccentric training during back squats using
weight releasers, with a total of 80% 1RM as an example 12.4 Schematic diagram illustrating accentuated eccentric training using weight releasers 12.5 Schematic diagram illustrating accentuated eccentric training using weight releasers 12.6 Schematic diagram illustrating accentuated eccentric training using weight releasers 12.7 Schematic diagram illustrating accentuated eccentric training using weight releasers 13.1 Example set structures used in resistance training 13.2 Example undulating, wave, ascending, and descending cluster sets 13.3 Example cluster set repetition modifications 13.4 Suggested exercise alignments for cluster sets 13.5 Suggested training target /​goal set type alignments 13.6 Cluster sets: set and repetition examples 13.7 Inter-​repetition and intra-​set rest interval alignments with training phase 13.8 Partner cluster sets 13.9 Set alignments with phases of a periodised training plan 14.1 Model to establish the cause(s) of movement fault(s) 15.1 Ground reaction forces (orange arrow) and local coordinate frames (blue arrows)
during a sprint acceleration 15.2 Scenario requiring weightlifting alternatives for the snatch: (a) range of motion
must be reduced and the bar raised for the start of the lift; (b) if planning to use a
catching variation in subsequent phases a catching variation at 80–​95% 1RM may be
advantageous to reinforce technique; (c) if the athlete cannot catch (e.g. due to injury
or limited range of motion) and/​or higher loads (≥100% 1RM power snatch) are
desired pulling derivatives may be advantageous 15.3 Scenario requiring weightlifting alternatives for the hang power clean 16.1 Hook grip –​(a) thumb wraps under the bar with (b) the fingers wrapped around the
thumb and bar 16.2 Clean (top) and snatch (bottom) grip spacing 16.3 Starting position for (left) the snatch and (right) clean 16.4 The end of the first pull for (left) the snatch and (right) clean 16.5 Mid-​thigh position side view for (left) the snatch and (right) clean 16.6 Second pull of (left) the snatch and (right) clean 16.7 Catch position of the snatch (left) and clean (right) 16.8 Power snatch (left) and power clean (right) catch positions 16.9 Recovery position for the snatch (left) and clean (right) 16.10 Starting position for a jerk variation 16.11 Completion of the dip phase of the jerk 16.12 The drive phase of the jerk 16.13 Split jerk receiving position 16.14 Power jerk receiving position 16.15 Jerk recovery 16.16 Force–​velocity curve for weightlifting exercises. 1RM, one repetition
maximum; HPC, hang power clean; PC, power clean 16.17 Sequenced progressions of speed and strength-​power development with the
weightlifting derivatives that may be used within each phase. CM, countermovement 202
203
204
204
205
205
206
214
216
218
223
225
225
227
227
228
248
268
274
274
284
285
285
286
287
287
288
289
289
290
291
292
293
293
294
298
301
xi
List of figures xi
17.1
17.2
17.3
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9
19.1
19.2
19.3
20.1
(a) Mechanical and (b) neurophysiological models of stretch-​shortening cycle
potentiation. SEC, series elastic component; CC, contractile component; PEC, parallel
elastic component; MS, muscle spindles; EF, extrafusal fibers The force–​time histories of two 40-​centimeter drop jumps performed by the same
athlete within the same training session: the athlete was instructed to perform a
compliant or “soft” landing (dashed line) or a stiff “spring-​like” landing (solid line) Plyometric tier progression with example exercises. CMJ, countermovement jump;
COD, change of direction Model summarizing factors that underpin successful agility performance Braking strategy and technique requirements for different directional changes.
FFC, final-​foot contact; PFC, penultimate-​foot contact; XOC, crossover cut Summary of the biomechanical differences between side-​step, crossover, and split-​step
cutting techniques. Side-​step manoeuvres present higher knee joint loads and thus,
potential knee injury risk, but can be performed from a faster approach compared to
a split step and are effective for sharp directional changes. Crossover cuts are ideal
when velocity maintenance is required to shallow cutting angles. Split-​steps are ideal
to avoid opponents and can achieve sharp directional changes, but from relatively slow
approaches. GCT, ground contact time; VM, vastus medius; GM, gluteus medius;
XOC, crossover cut Change of direction (COD) underpinned by the interaction between velocity,
deceleration, mechanics, and physical capacity. PFC, penultimate-​foot contact Summary of biomechanical factors associated with peak knee abduction moments
based on literature. GRF, ground reaction force Side-​step cutting model to mediate the performance–​injury conflict. PFC,
penultimate-​foot contact Important physical preparation considerations for change-​of-​direction (COD)
actions: developing physical capacity for load tolerance Mixed multicomponent programmes for change-​of-​direction (COD) speed and agility
development. SSGs, small-​sided games Change-​of-​direction (COD) speed and agility development framework. XOC,
crossover cut The resultant or “total” ground reaction force (FTot) during sprinting support phase
can be split and illustrated as the vectorial sum of antero-​posterior horizontal (FH) and
vertical (VH) components. FV, force–​velocity; RF, ratio of forces Ratio of forces (RF) and decrease in the ratio of forces (DRF). In this typical example
(sprinter performing a maximal acceleration over 60 m from the starting blocks)
ground reaction force was assessed at each step on a force plate instrumented track
(Morin et al., 2019). The DRF is −7.42%, which means that the athlete’s mechanical
effectiveness (RF) decreases on average by 7.42% for each meter per second of speed
increase. The dashed black and grey lines illustrate a more and less efficient athlete,
with similar first-​step RF. Range of DRF values reported is ~−5 to −14%, from elite
sprinters to non-​specialists Force–​velocity–​power profile of Usain Bolt’s world record. The input data used are the
athlete’s body mass and running speed–​time data Newell (1986) Interacting Constraints Model 308
317
318
329
331
338
339
343
346
348
349
353
365
368
371
390
xi
Tables
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.1
6.2
6.3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
11.1
11.2
11.3
The definition of scientific disciplines in relation to potential strength and conditioning
(S&C) coach roles 6
Muscle architectural adaptations in response to different training stimuli 18
Neurological adaptations in response to different training stimuli 20
Relative power outputs for male athletes during various exercises 22
Summary of studies that have determined the effects of training interventions on
global lower-​limb stiffness measures 49
Comparison of SIT vs HIIT vs. MICT protocols on peripheral muscle adaptations
and central adaptations 86
Effective training systems to enhance aerobic fitness (Helgerud, Hoydal, Wang,
Karlsen, Berg, & Bjerkaas, 2007): * significantly (p < 0.001) different from pre-​to
post-​training 87
Interval distances for high-​intensity interval training using maximal aerobic speed
(MAS), and calculated using a 1.5-mile run time of 10 min (Baker, 2011) 87
High-​intensity interval training (HIIT) based on each energy system 89
Typical training week 103
Programming for concurrent training over an 8-​week block 104
Mean (±S D ) values for performance measures conducted in elite women’s rugby
players pre-​and post-​8 weeks of concurrent training interventions 104
The main phases and sub-​phases of periodisation 114
Exercise deletion and representation 120
Example sessions used as part of a basic periodised model 121
Two example strength sessions and two example power sessions, which can be
implemented as part of an intermediate periodised programme 123
A practical example for applying and adapting the conjugate system 124
Example microcycle completed as part of a non-​traditional periodisation strategy 126
Summary of performance gains following a taper 127
Effect of training variables on the effect size of taper-​induced performance adaptations 128
Practical recommendations for recovery strategies 134
Example of a 12-​week periodized training plan for college soccer and
recommendations for use of water immersion therapy 135
Example of an in-​season week for American football and recommendations for use of
water immersion therapy 136
Practical recommendations to improve sleep 143
Example performance test results, corresponding z-​scores and total score of athleticism 178
Corresponding percentile, standard ten (STEN) and t-​score values for a given z-​score 180
Example performance test results and corresponding individual and average percentiles 183
xi
List of tables
12.1
12.2
12.3
13.1
13.2
13.3
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
15.1
15.2
15.3
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
19.1
21.1
xiii
Four eccentric training modalities and specificities underpinning each modality 195
Summary of the physiological responses to eccentric training regimes and the role of
these responses in developing muscle hypertrophy, strength, and power output 198
Examples of different isoweight eccentric training methods and application examples
for different-​level athletes 200
Traditional training emphasis alignments with repetition ranges 215
Example training session employing cluster sets 224
Example loading patterns for cluster sets 226
Example movement screens, including standardisation procedures 239
Performance criteria for each example screen, including a brief underpinning rationale 241
Key considerations to improve reliability when screening movement quality 247
Example task manipulations for an overhead squat screen that can be applied at stage
3 of the investigation process 250
Isolated assessments for mobility testing 251
Movement screen findings and associated investigatory process for an international
distance runner 257
Potential training effects of partial and deep squat variations 265
Rest interval length to achieve specific training goals 271
Cluster set rest interval length to achieve specific training goals 271
Plyometric focus within a periodized annual training plan 314
Plyometric tiers 315
Athlete A 321
Athlete B 322
A technical framework for a side-​step cutting manoeuvre from a running approach 332
A technical framework for a 180° pivot from a running approach 335
Summary of important physical qualities for successful change-​of-​direction performance 342
Side-​step cutting technique checklist 345
Example multi-​component training programme to reduce change-​of-​direction (COD)
biomechanical characteristics associated with increased anterior cruciate ligament
(ACL) injury risk 350
Sprint running phase mechanics, corresponding key muscle actions and suggestions for
training. These are indicative points (not exhaustive rules) based on published research
evidence 369
Summary of coaching philosophies and applied suggestions to promote servant (SL)
and transformational leadership (TL) behaviours in strength and conditioning coaching 404
xvi
Contributors
Rodrigo Aspe is Lecturer in Applied Sport and Exercise Science at Robert Gordon University. He
previously held academic posts at Abertay University, University of Gloucestershire, and Hartpury
University. He obtained an MSc in Strength and Conditioning at the University of Edinburgh and is
an accredited strength and conditioning coach with the United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning
Association (UKSCA). In addition to his academic career, Rodrigo continues to work as an applied
coach with Aberdeen Grammar Rugby in the Scottish Premiership. He previously held positions with
Scottish Hockey and the Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme (TASS).
George K. Beckham is Assistant Professor at California State University, Monterey Bay. He holds a
PhD in Sports Physiology and Performance from East Tennessee State University.
Christopher R. Bellon is Assistant Professor in the Department of Health and Human Performance
at The Citadel, Military College of South Carolina. He earned his doctoral degree in Sport Physiology
and Performance at East Tennessee State University. He is also a certified strength and conditioning
specialist with the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).
Chris Bishop is Senior Lecturer in Strength and Conditioning at the London Sport Institute, Middlesex
University, where he is also the Programme Leader for the MSc Strength and Conditioning degree.
Chris has been accredited with the UKSCA since 2011 and served on the Board of Directors for the
association from 2017 to 2021, with the last three years as Chair of the Board. Chris has published
extensively, with over 140 peer-​reviewed journal articles and three book chapters to date; his main
areas of research are focused on inter-​limb asymmetry and athlete profiling through fitness testing and
movement screening.
David Bishop has more than 20 years of experience as both a researcher and an applied sport scientist working with elite athletes. He was the inaugural research leader at the Institute of Health and
Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Australia, and also leads the skeletal muscle and training research
group. His team is interested in optimising skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise training, so as to
improve health and performance. He is known for his many highly cited articles on repeated sprint
ability. A more recent focus of his research group is to examine how diet, exercise, and genes interact
to regulate skeletal muscle mitochondrial content and function. Professor Bishop has written more
than 280 peer-​reviewed articles and ten book chapters in the area of exercise and sport science.
His research is currently funded by the Australian Research Council (ARC), the National Health
and Medicine Research Council (NHMRC), and the Australian Defence Force. He is also the past
president of Exercise and Sport Science Australia (ESSA), and Assistant Editor of Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise (MSSE). In the three years prior to the 2000 Sydney Olympics, he worked
with Australian hockey, water polo, netball, beach volleyball, and kayak teams. Professor Bishop
has also gained invaluable experience consulting with professional teams such as the Fremantle
Football Club.
xv
List of contributors xv
Richard C. Blagrove is Lecturer in Physiology and the Programme Leader for the MSc in Strength and
Conditioning at Loughborough University. He previously worked at Birmingham City University as
Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science and at St Mary’s University as Programme Director for
the BSc Strength and Conditioning Science course, where he also managed the sport science support
to The Royal Ballet Company in London. Richard’s research investigates the physiological factors that
underpin performance in endurance running and how strength-​training exercise can be used as a tool
to improve the metabolic cost of exercise. He is also interested in health-​related issues associated with
endurance sports, particularly the consequences of low energy availability on bone health. Richard
is an accredited strength and conditioning coach and previously a director of the UKSCA. He has
provided strength and conditioning coaching support to numerous athletes over the last 12 years,
including endurance runners who have competed in finals at the last three Olympic Games.
Natalie Brown is a research assistant for the Welsh Institute of Performance Science working in collaboration with Sport Wales.
Shyam Chavda is the programme lead for the MSc in Strength and Conditioning distance education
at the London Sport Institute, Middlesex University. He is also the performance scientist for British
Weightlifting and the head coach at Middlesex University Weightlifting Club.
Richard Clarke is an accredited strength and conditioning coach with the UKSCA, having served as
a director of the association. Richard has a strong history of athletic performance delivery to elite
athletes working in professional football, rugby, and basketball. Richard has also had a track record of
working in higher education, previously leading and teaching on degrees at undergraduate and postgraduate level at the University of Gloucestershire and Birmingham City University.
Thomas Dos’Santos is Lecturer in Strength and Conditioning at Manchester Metropolitan University.
He was awarded his bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, and PhD from the University of Salford.
Brian T. Gearity is Director and Associate Professor of Sport Coaching and online sport graduate
­certificate programmes at the University of Denver. In addition to over 50 peer-reviewed publications,
he co-​edited the book, Coach Education and Development in Sport: Instructional Strategies and co-​authored
Understanding Strength and Conditioning as Sport Coaching: Bridging the Biophysical, Pedagogical and Sociocultural
Foundations of Practice. He is Editor-​in-​Chief for the NSCA practitioner journal NSCA Coach, a fellow
of the NSCA, and is on the editorial board for Sport Coaching Review, International Sport Coaching Journal,
Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health, and Strength & Conditioning Journal.
G. Gregory Haff is Professor of Strength and Conditioning at Edith Cowan University (Perth, Western
Australia) and an honorary professor at the University of Salford, UK. He is a past president of the
NSCA (2015–​2018). Professor Haff was the 2021 NSCA Impact Award winner for his contributions
to the strength and conditioning profession. In 2014, he was named the UKSCA Strength &
Conditioning Coach of the Year –​Education and Research. Additionally, Professor Haff was the 2011
NSCA’s William J. Kraemer Sport Scientist of the Year award winner. He is also a Certified Strength
and Conditioning Specialist with Distinction, a Fellow of the NSCA, and an accredited member of
the UKSCA.
Mellissa Harden is a teaching and learning fellow at the University of Salford, UK. She completed
her PhD in eccentric training at Northumbria University, funded by Great Britain Cycling, while
working as a strength coach with the cyclists.
Gareth Harris is Head of Athletic Performance at Bristol Bears Women’s Rugby Club. He has an
extensive applied background, having worked with athletes across the performance spectrum from
junior golfers to university scholars and elite international athletes. Gareth completed his education
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xvi List of contributors
at the University of Gloucestershire, achieving an MSc in Sports Strength and Conditioning with
distinction.
Samuel P. Hills is Lecturer in Sports Science at Bournemouth University, having achieved his PhD
from Leeds Trinity University in 2020. He has contributed to more than 20 peer-​reviewed publications
and presented internationally on the topic of team sports preparation.
Patrick Holmberg has over 15 years of experience working as a collegiate strength and conditioning
coach and athletics administrator. He holds an EdD in Higher Education Leadership. Patrick is a
certified strength and conditioning specialist and registered strength and conditioning coach with
distinction through the NSCA. He has worked with multiple National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) team and individual national champions across a range of sports. Patrick is currently a PhD
student at Queensland University of Technology.
Louis Howe has been a strength and conditioning coach since 2007, having helped prepare numerous
athletes for the British Athletics Championships, European Athletics Championships, Pan American
Games, Commonwealth Games, and Olympic Games. Louis currently lectures at the University of
Essex, having previously held positions at Edge Hill University, University of Cumbria, and St Mary’s
University. Louis is an accredited strength and conditioning coach with the UKSCA, and has a PhD
in investigating compensatory movement strategies derived from ankle dorsiflexion range of motion
restrictions.
Jonathan Hughes is Academic Course Leader for the MSc in Sports Strength and Conditioning at
the University of Gloucestershire, UK. Jonathan has applied experience of delivery across both team
and individual sports spanning 20 years; he is currently Head of Physical Performance for the Italian
Lacrosse National team. having fulfilled a similar role for the Great Britain Women’s Ice Hockey
team. Jonathan is an accredited strength and conditioning coach with the UKSCA and serves on
its Research and Community Grants Panel. Jonathan has published over 35 peer-​reviewed journal
articles and is currently supervising six PhD students, all linked to high-​performance sport research.
David Jenkins is Professor of Sport and Exercise Science in the School of Health and Behavioural
Sciences at The University of the Sunshine Coast. He also holds an adjunct appointment at The
University of Queensland, where he worked for 30 years prior to 2020. Professor Jenkins is an exercise physiologist with an international reputation in researching physiological responses to acute
and chronic high-​intensity intermittent exercise. Many of his 180 peer-​reviewed published papers
have described the acute and chronic responses to sprint, multiple sprint, and interval exercise across
different populations and groups.
Pedro Jiménez-​Reyes is Lecturer at the Faculty of Sport of the Catholic University of San
Antonio, USA.
Paul Jones is Lecturer in Sports Biomechanics & Strength and Conditioning at the University of
Salford, UK. Paul earned a BSc(Hons) and MSc in Sports Science, both from Liverpool John Moores
University, and a PhD in Sports Biomechanics at the University of Salford. He is a certified strength
and conditioning specialist, recertified with distinction (CSCS*D) with the NSCA, an accredited
sports and exercise scientist with the British Association of Sports and Exercise Sciences (BASES),
and a chartered scientist (CSci) with The Science Council. Paul has over 20 years’ experience in biomechanics and strength and conditioning support to athletes and teams, working in sports such as
athletics, football, and rugby, and was a former sports science support coordinator for UK disability
athletics (2002–​2006). Paul has authored/​co-​authored over 90 peer-​reviewed journal articles, mainly
in the areas of change-​of-​direction biomechanics, assessment and development of speed, change-​of-​
direction speed, and agility and strength diagnostics. Paul has co-​edited a book, Performance Assessment
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List of contributors xvii
in Strength and Conditioning, published by Routledge, and is a member of the BASES accreditation
committee.
Vincent Kelly is Associate Professor of Strength and Conditioning and Sport Science at the School
of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology. His areas of research
interest include fatigue and recovery in athletes, strength and conditioning in high-​performance sport,
mental fatigue in sport and exercise, resistance-​training priming, quantification and management of
athlete training load, the neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations to exercise, and ergogenic aids
and sport nutrition supplementation. He has over 20 years’ experience in elite sport, working in high-​
performance, sport science, and strength and conditioning roles with professional football teams, the
Queensland Academy of Sport, and individual athletes. He is a member of the National Rugby
League (NRL) Research Committee and a member of several committees with Exercise and Sport
Science Australia.
Liam P. Kilduff obtained his PhD from Glasgow University examining the effects of creatine supplementation in sport, health, and disease. He has worked for the last 18 years as Professor of Performance
Science at Swansea University, where his research interests focus on elite athlete preparation strategies. He is currently Head of the Applied Sports, Technology, Exercise and Medicine Research
Centre (A-​STEM) and chairs both the Research Steering Group and Strategic Management Board
of the Welsh Institute of Performance Science. He has published in excess of 180 peer-​reviewed
papers and has secured over £3m in research income. He sits on the editorial board of three sports
science journals.
John J. McMahon is Lecturer in Sports Biomechanics and Strength and Conditioning at the University
of Salford. He received his PhD in sports biomechanics from the University of Salford in 2015
following his research into dynamic muscle–​tendon stiffness and stretch-​shortening cycle function.
John has been an accredited strength and conditioning coach with both the NSCA and UKSCA
since 2010 and has worked as a strength and conditioning coach across several team sports. He has
also co-​authored 70 peer-​reviewed journal articles relating to athletic performance assessment and is
currently researching how to develop force plate-​testing batteries across different sports to help inform
athletes’ training priorities. John is also a co-​editor of a book titled, Performance Assessment in Strength and
Conditioning, published by Routledge.
Jean-​Benoît (JB) Morin is Full Professor at the University of Saint-​Etienne (France), and a member of
the Interuniversity Laboratory of Human Movement Biology (LIBM). He is also associate researcher
with the Sports Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ) at Auckland University of Technology, and
visiting Professor in Locomotion Biomechanics at the School of Sport, Exercise and Health Science at
Loughborough University. He obtained a Track and Field Coach National Diploma in 1998 and a PhD
in Human Locomotion and Performance in 2004 under the joint supervision of Professor Alain Belli
(University of Saint-​Etienne, France) and Professor Pietro di Prampero (University of Udine, Italy).
JB’s field of research is mainly human locomotion and performance, with specific interest in running
biomechanics and maximal-​power movements (sprint, jumps). He has edited a textbook (Biomechanics
of Training and Testing, published by Springer in 2018) and published over 150 peer-​reviewed scientific
papers. He is also a consultant for professional sports groups in soccer, rugby, sprint, and other power-​
speed sports. He practised soccer for ten years, practised and coached track and field (middle distance
and 400m hurdles) for eight years, and he now enjoys trail running and triathlon.
Mark Russell is Professor of Performance Nutrition and Applied Exercise Physiology at Leeds Trinity
University. As a result of his research, Professor Russell has published over 90 peer-​reviewed articles
and book chapters, presented at international conferences, and led multiple industry-​funded contract research projects from inception to completion. Professor Russell currently leads the Enhancing
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xviii List of contributors
Human Performance research theme at Leeds Trinity University and has a special interest in team
sport performance enhancement strategies. Professor Russell works with a range of professional rugby
and football teams and has consulted for a number of English Premier League football clubs and
national and international rugby squads.
Christopher J. Sole PhD is Assistant Professor in the Department of Health and Human Performance
at The Citadel, Military College of South Carolina. He earned his doctoral degree in Sport Physiology
and Performance at East Tennessee State University. He is also a certified strength and conditioning
specialist with the NSC.
Perry Stewart is a lead academy strength and conditioning coach at Arsenal Football Club and a
visiting lecturer at the London Sport Institute, Middlesex University. He is an accredited strength
and conditioning coach and chartered sport scientist who has worked with athletes from a range of
sports, including football, tennis, fencing, taekwondo, judo, karate, and athletics. Perry is currently
studying for a PhD at Loughborough University and was the winner of the UKSCA Strength and
Conditioning Coach of the Year award for Youth Sport in 2020.
Timothy J. Suchomel is Associate Professor of Exercise Science and the Program Director for the
Sport Physiology and Performance Coaching masters programme at Carroll University. He also
serves as the Director of the Carroll University Sport Performance Institute (CUSPI) and works as
a human performance coach at the university. He has published over 85 peer-​reviewed journal articles on strength and power development, weightlifting movements and their derivatives, and athlete
monitoring. He is a certified strength and conditioning specialist (recertified with distinction) and
registered strength and conditioning coach through the NSCA.
Christoph Szedlak is an academic, researcher, and the lead strength and conditioning coach at
the University of Southampton. He has worked with a variety of different-​level athletes, including
Olympic and world champions, for over 13 years. His research focuses on examining the psychological
and social aspects of coaching and their impact on the development of the athlete. With a specific
emphasis on innovative qualitative methods to present and disseminate findings, his research has
gained international recognition within strength and conditioning coach development and education.
Nick Winkelman is Head of Athletic Performance and Science for the Irish Rugby Football Union.
His primary role is to oversee the delivery and development of strength and conditioning and sports
science across all national (Men and Women, XVs, and sevens) and provincial teams (Leinster, Munster,
Connacht, and Ulster). Prior to working for Irish Rugby, Nick was the director of education and
training systems for EXOS (formerly Athletes’ Performance), located in Phoenix, AZ. As the director
of education, Nick oversaw the development and execution of all internal and external educational
initiatives. As a performance coach, Nick oversaw the speed and assessment component of the EXOS
National Football League (NFL) Combine Development Program, and supported many athletes
across the NFL, Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), national sport
organizations, and Military. Nick completed his PhD through Rocky Mountain University of Health
Professions with a dissertation focus on motor skill learning and sprinting. Nick is an internationally
recognized speaker on human performance and coaching science and has multiple peer-​reviewed
publications and book chapters alongside his own book, The Language of Coaching: The Art & Science of
Teaching Movement.
1
Introduction
Becoming an effective strength and conditioning practitioner requires the development of a professional skills set and a thorough understanding of the scientific basis of best practice. Aimed at advanced
students and practitioners (from novice to expert), the authors explore the latest scientific evidence and
apply it to exercise selection and programming choices across the full range of areas in strength and conditioning, from strength and power, speed and agility, to aerobic conditioning.
With coverage of data analysis and feedback on performance assessments to key stakeholders, both
vital skills for the contemporary strength and conditioning coach, this concise but sophisticated textbook
is the perfect bridge from introductory study to effective professional practice. Written by experts with
experience in a wide variety of sports, including both applied and research experience, the chapters are
enhanced with new illustrations and address key topics such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
fitness testing
data analysis and interpretation
weightlifting for sports performance
applied coaching science
strategies for competition priming
eccentric training
the use of cluster sets.
Advanced Strength and Conditioning: An Evidence-​based Approach is a valuable resource for all advanced students
and practitioners of strength and conditioning and fitness training. While advanced concepts are explored
within the book, the coach must not forget that consistency in the application of the basic principles of
strength and conditioning is the foundation of athletic development.
Since the first edition of this text was written extensive research has expanded the supporting evidence base that provides the theoretical foundation for the majority of the chapters. In addition, some
areas that were previously under-​researched have now been expanded and some key concepts further
challenged.
Research within the area on the use of weightlifting to enhance sports performance has expanded
noticeably, and as a result, some of the theoretical concepts and original figures are now out of date.
Similarly, research relating to change-​of-​direction and agility performance has expanded substantially
since the first edition of this book, with the chapter now being re-​written by two new authors who
are currently at the forefront of research in this area. Fitness testing and data analysis and interpretation have been divided into two chapters, to permit more detailed and focused content on this
important area.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003044734-1
2
newgenprepdf
2
Introduction
Some training practices that are seen as being more advanced have received much more attention by
researchers, resulting in the need for specific chapters to explore these research findings and the appropriate application: the two new chapters are ‘Eccentric training: scientific background and practical
applications’ and ‘Cluster sets: scientific background and practical applications’. To complement the
‘Applied coaching science’ chapter, which has been updated, a further chapter on ‘Developing as a coach’
has also been included, exploring the art of applying the underpinning science.
3
1
Strength and conditioning: coach or
scientist?
Perry Stewart, Paul Comfort and Anthony N. Turner
Introduction
With sport playing an increasingly important role in the rapidly changing economic, political, cultural
and social world, the demand for elite sports organizations to be successful and profitable is unprecedented. A result of the growing demand is a rise in the medicalization and scientization of organizations
in the pursuit of a competitive advantage. Subsequently, there has been an increased presence and reliance on sophisticated sport medicine and sport science (SM&SS) staff and systems being employed.
The support network for an athlete and/​or team has increased exponentially and now often includes
a complex team of support staff, including coaches, assistant coaches, strength and conditioning (S&C)
coaches, physiotherapists, doctors, sports rehabilitators, soft-​tissue therapists, psychologists, physiologists,
biomechanists, nutritionists and performance analysts. Such support personnel are appointed in the
majority of sports and across all sectors, including government-​funded (e.g. national institutes of sport),
educational establishments (e.g. schools, colleges and universities), professional sport clubs, commercial
performance facilities and by individual athletes (Dawson et al., 2013).
S&C coaches have become a common feature of the modern support network, especially within elite
sport organizations. Fundamentally, the role of an S&C coach is to test, monitor and enhance athleticism, by typically utilizing periodized programme designs that include strength, power, speed, agility
and flexibility strategies as part of a holistic model of athletic development (Ebben and Blackard, 2001;
Ebben et al., 2004; Simenz et al., 2005). However, in reality, the specification of each S&C job role
will likely depend on a number of factors, including specific context (e.g. competition level, age of athlete), the organizational structure (e.g. centralized vs. decentralized, hierarchical structure), the financial
resources of the organization (e.g. S&C roles may be merged with other roles to save money) and the
organization’s vision, objectives and training philosophy. It is also likely that boundaries become blurred
as S&C coaches engage in activities unrelated to their specific discipline, for example, helping with logistics and operations. Despite some inconsistencies existing in role specification, one central requirement
for most S&C coaches is the need to integrate and interact with multiple stakeholders such as athletes,
coaches, support staff and management. It is evident that although S&C is a discipline grounded in the
physical preparation of athletes, the role of the S&C coach is multifaceted with responsibilities extending
far beyond that of designing and implementing training programmes.
It is valuable for all current and aspiring S&C coaches to appreciate the breadth and depth of knowledge and skills that are typically required to effectively work in, and excel in, the discipline of S&C.
Arguably the role now is very different to the one carried out as little as 10 years ago, and we must appreciate its evolution towards a practitioner who is just as much a scientist as a coach. Therefore, the aim of
this introductory chapter is to review the attributes required to be an effective S&C practitioner within
today’s industry. It is the intention that this will in turn set the context and significance of each chapter
that follows, where all these components are discussed in far greater detail.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003044734-2
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P. Stewart, P. Comfort and A.N. Turner
The coach
It is prudent to start this chapter by addressing the foundation of the role, the (S&C) coach. The role of
any coach is simply to improve athletes’ physical, mental and emotional performance, in preparation
for sporting competition (Dorgo, 2009). Previous conceptual models of coaching have emerged from
different theoretical perspectives, including leadership, expertise, coach–​athlete relationships, motivation
and education, highlighting the complexity of a coach’s role –​all of which are important. Cote and
Gilbert (2009) define coaching effectiveness as:
The consistent application of integrated professional, interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge to
improve athletes’ competence, confidence, connection, and character in specific coaching contexts.
This definition can be better understood when the three components of this model (knowledge, outcomes
and contexts) are considered in more detail. The coach’s skills, attitudes and behaviours –​collectively
referred to as ‘knowledge’ –​are separated into three interrelated categories.
1.
2.
3.
Professional knowledge. Expert knowledge of subject-​specific matter. For example, an S&C coach is
likely to have knowledge of competition demands, applied physiology and biomechanics, principles
of planning and periodizing, dynamic correspondence and testing/​monitoring.
Interpersonal knowledge. To be successful, coaches have to successfully interact with their athletes and
head and assistant coaches, as well as other key stakeholders. This refers to the soft skills (sometimes
referred to as emotional intelligence) required to identify, use, understand and manage interactions.
Intrapersonal knowledge. Described as self-​awareness and introspection, this is the ability of a coach to
critically reflect. Gilbert and Trudel’s (2001) research examined good coaches and how they translate
experience into knowledge and skills through reflection.
In summary, for an S&C coach to maximize athletes’ outcomes they must possess comprehensive professional knowledge and effective interpersonal skills and also practise continuous introspection, review and
revision of their practice (Cote and Gilbert, 2009). Despite S&C coaches focusing most of their attention,
time and energy towards developing professional knowledge, it is the aggregate of professional knowledge, the ability to connect with others (interpersonal skills) and the willingness to engage in continued
learning and self-​reflection (intrapersonal skills) that will determine how effective and successful an S&C
coach will be. Previous research has reported that stressful and dysfunctional relationships between
technical coaches and sport science personnel exist (Soanes and Williams, 2019), and that technical
coaches’ perceptions of the relevance, applicability and language associated with sport science teams
vary (Martindale and Nash, 2013). Martindale and Nash (2013) highlight the need to practically apply
professional knowledge, build effective working relationships, efficiently disseminate information and
apply user-​friendly language.
The second component of effective coaching focuses on ‘athlete outcomes’, which typically relate
to performance improvements (successful performances and player development) and positive psychological responses (high level of self-​esteem, intrinsic motivation, enjoyment and satisfaction). Cote and
Gilbert (2009) identified four athlete outcomes, namely: competence, confidence, connection and character/​caring. It is believed that the coach responsible for designing appropriate training conditions can
enhance all of these. These are explained in relation to the S&C industry below.
•
•
Competence. Optimizing an athlete’s physical performance in relation to their sport.
Confidence. Improved sense of overall positive self-​worth. A coach and athlete should agree achievable
objectives and the coach should design programmes that balance challenge and success.
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Strength and conditioning: coach or scientist? 5
•
•
Connection. Facilitating positive social relationships inside and outside sport. A coach can encourage
communication between athlete and staff, parents and non-​sporting peers.
Character. Encouraging moral attributes such as respect, integrity, empathy and responsibility.
Encourage athletes to take responsibility for their own environment, personal standards and
development.
The third and final component of effective coaching is ‘coaching contexts’, which refers to the unique
settings in which coaches work. Cote and Gilbert (2009) describe coaching effectiveness and expertise as
context-​specific, identifying three classifications: (1) recreational; (2) developmental; and (3) elite sport.
Further to this, the following situational factors should be considered: (1) context (individual athlete or
team sport, male or female, senior or youth populations); (2) employment type (full-​or part-​time); (3) the
role (senior position or intern); and (4) the employer (amateur/​professional organization, state-​funded or
education). The context alters the focus and attention of the coach and requires a high level of specificity
related to programme design and delivery. For example, an S&C coach working with a developmental
team athlete with a low training age will plan, deliver and evaluate outcomes differently than if working
with an elite individual athlete in a highly demanding performance environment.
The scientist
It is clear from criteria detailed in job specifications that the responsibilities of an S&C coach have
evolved to include roles from other sport science disciplines. Before exploring the application of sport
science we consider the definition of science:
pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding, following systematic methodologies based
on evidence
(Science Council, 2021)
Therefore, sport science can be thought of as a scientific process used to guide the practice of sport,
with the ultimate aim of improving sporting performance (Bishop et al., 2006). The British Association
of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) recognizes that the application of scientific principles in
sport is principally achieved through one of the three branches of science or through interdisciplinary
approaches: biomechanics, physiology and psychology (Table 1.1). The importance of nutrition in sport
and exercise science is evident and now recognized as an integral role within the multidisciplinary team,
hence its inclusion in this chapter. The discipline of S&C is fundamentally embedded in sport science
with, for example, the knowledge of programming being underpinned by the understanding of how the
anatomy will adapt (physiology), how changing movement patterns can impact the kinetic chain and
kinematics (biomechanics), goal setting and motivation (psychology) and advising an athlete what and
when to eat to maximize performance or recovery (nutrition). As previously mentioned, S&C job roles
and responsibilities are likely to vary based on various constraints (e.g. organizational structure, working
environment, level of athlete); however, it is common to observe that in addition to the underpinning
knowledge that allows S&C professionals to perform their primary role, coaches are progressively being
expected to perform additional services such as postural, gait and movement screening, testing using
laboratory-​based equipment (e.g. force plates, isokinetic dynamometry, body composition analysis) and
monitoring of physical and physiological responses (e.g. vertical jumps, heart rate, GPS, rate of perceived
exertion, subjective questionnaires, blood and saliva analyses).
It is not suggested that S&C coaches should fill the roles of biomechanists, physiologists, psychologists
or nutritionists; however, it appears that S&C coaches are expected to have a working understanding
of, or at times even embrace the role of, these professions. This may be a result of the limited financial
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P. Stewart, P. Comfort and A.N. Turner
Table 1.1 The definition of scientific disciplines in relation to potential strength and conditioning (S&C) coach roles
Definition
Biomechanics
Physiology
Psychology
Nutrition
Relation to S&C
An examination of the causes and
consequences of human movement
• Movement analysis
• Athlete performance testing/​profiling
• Monitoring external training responses
An examination of the way the body
• Athlete performance testing/​profiling
responds to exercise and training
• Monitoring internal training responses
• Recovery modalities
An examination of human behaviour within • Profiling
exercise science
• Monitoring (questionnaires, e.g. Profile of
Mood States (POMS))
An examination and practice of nutrition
• Fuelling
to enhance wellbeing and athletic
• Hydration
performance
• Recovery
• Supplementation
Source: www.bases.org.uk/​About-​Sport-​and-​Exercise-​Science.
and physical resources dedicated by some sporting organizations. In effect, the role of an S&C coach is
like that of an interdisciplinary sport and exercise scientist who attempts to utilize and integrate more
than one area of sport science to solve real-​world problems (Burwitz et al., 1994). The majority of S&C
coaches within the UK hold a minimum of an undergraduate-​level degree within an exercise science
discipline (Hartsthorn et al., 2016), and within the USA, it is essential to possess a degree for job roles
and relevant industry certifications. Therefore, it is perhaps unsurprising that S&C coaches are expected
to extend themselves to these roles. It is also hard to say whether these growing responsibilities were
academia-​led (noting that degrees in S&C teach would-​be coaches these skills as though it is a requirement to succeed) or a reflection of the economic status of the organization. However, it is important that
S&C coaches recognize their limitations and only work within their scope of practice.
In addition to having professional knowledge of a broad range of scientific areas and their practical
application, the S&C coach is commonly expected to perform data analysis. Due to the evidence-​based
environments in which S&C coaches work, the ability to run data and statistical analyses using appropriate platforms (Excel, SPSS, R, etc.), is becoming increasingly important. Such skills enable the S&C
coach to identify the success or failure of an intervention, to detect meaningful changes and trends, and
to develop models that inform performance. Furthermore, this information must be interpreted, filtered
and communicated to technical coaches, support staff, athletes and parents in a way that is relevant and
meaningful. This requires the S&C coach to, firstly, be competent at completing the required analysis
and, secondly, have adequate interpersonal knowledge to communicate the results within the correct
sporting context.
Performance lifestyle: non-​contact coaching
Since the dawn of professionalization within elite sport, and the subsequent increased commercial
attention and financial incentives (for both athlete and organization), performance outcomes (success
of team/​individual, win/​loss ratio, player development) have become of paramount importance. At
any level, athlete development and performance are undeniably multidimensional components that
require dedicated, individualized approaches. It is now expected that professionals such as S&C coaches
influence performance through the education of athletes, to capitalize on the non-​contact hours; in
essence, there is now a need for non-​contact coaching (i.e. the ability to influence athletes’ behaviours
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Strength and conditioning: coach or scientist? 7
and subsequently their performance when they are away from the training environment). A term that
embraces this concept is ‘marginal gains’. This was coined and popularized by Sir Dave Brailsford, who
sums it up as ‘put simply … how small improvements in a number of different aspects of what we do can
have a huge impact on the performance of the team’ (Slater, 2012). Similarly, Clive Woodward describes
using a strategy to improve ‘critical non-​essentials’ (CNe). Again, this approach focused on improving
the small details of everything in the preparation for performance. Whilst such approaches have yielded
great success for some athletes and teams, it is worth noting that such an approach should be reserved for
highly developed athletes who have maximized basic performance-​enhancing methods.
Although many of the approaches used within elite sport are outside the control of S&C coaches (for
example, development of technology, organizational culture, competition schedule, travel arrangements,
etc.), many alterations to daily lifestyle can be prescribed or controlled. These may include recovery
modalities, sleep hygiene, strategies to reduce risk of infection, ergonomics of equipment and travel,
dealing with travelling across time zones, etc. The aforementioned are concepts rooted in scientific
rationale and are designed and implemented to gain small advantages. The S&C coach must now be
constantly investigating ways to improve physical outcomes, positive psychology, training environment
and performance lifestyle for athletes to truly gain a competitive edge. However, to reiterate, the minor
advantages achieved via these small modifications are only meaningful if the S&C coach has successfully
implemented key concepts, such as appropriate analysis, planning, coaching, monitoring and recovery.
Considerations for a modern-​day S&C coach
An S&C coach must consider a multitude of factors before commencing a working relationship with an
athlete. Crudely, these can be categorized into analysis, planning, coaching, monitoring performance,
readiness and recovery (before returning to analysis). Below is a non-​exhaustive list of some of the elements that may need to be considered when working with athletes.
Analysis (and re-​analysis)
•
•
•
•
Athlete background/​objective. Short-​, medium-​, long-​term objectives? How to monitor success or failure?
Injury history? Training age/​history? Biological age? Preferences?
Sport/​competition demands. How many games/​
tournaments? Frequency of competition? Priority
games/​tournaments? How long is the season? Travel demands? Physical demands (how far and fast,
etc.)? Injury prevalence within sport/​population, including common mechanisms of injury?
Postural and movement screening. What type of movement screen? For what reason are you screening?
Are the results meaningful or confounded by subjectivity? What are the movement dysfunctions?
What drives movement dysfunction? Implications on transfer of force through the kinetic chain and
injury prevalence?
Physical performance testing. Determining successful athletic factors in the sport? Strength/​power/​
speed/​agility/​endurance tests? Laboratory or field-​based testing? Reliability and measurement
error? Validity of test? How to interpret and present results?
Planning (within context)
•
•
Periodization: block or undulating? How to structure macro-​, meso-​and micro-​cycles? Knowing when to
overload and when to taper and when to rest? How to structure technical sessions?
Exercise programming. Training methods? Associated adaptations? Exercise selection? Exercise sequence
(concurrent or single stimulus)? Prescription of training loads?
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P. Stewart, P. Comfort and A.N. Turner
•
Rehabilitation/​prehabilitation. Methods and exercises to tackle high-​risk groups/​muscles/​joints? When
to apply prehabilitation strategies? Return to play/​competition strategies? Remedial/​preparatory
exercise?
Non-​contact coaching. Nutritional guidance? Sleep hygiene? Strategies to reduce the risk of infection?
How to prepare for different time zones, climates, surfaces?
•
Coaching
•
•
•
•
Professional knowledge. How to apply fundamental training principles? Dynamic correspondence of
training? Understanding of sport/​competition rules, regulations and physical demands? Knowledge
of skill acquisition and pedagogical theory? Which method of training and coaching style induces
optimal physical and psychological response (might be different at different times)?
Interpersonal knowledge. How do you communicate with athletes, coaches and other stakeholders?
Awareness of verbal cues (internal vs. external) and non-​verbal communication? How do athletes
best retain information? Are you able to adapt the programme in relation to how the athlete is
feeling?
Intrapersonal knowledge. Do you evaluate sessions? How do you evaluate? Does it inform future practice? Open and willing to try new ideas?
Confidence, connection, character. Do you understand what motivates your athlete/​s? How to instil confidence? How to be a role model and leader? How can you instil good habits that transfer into wider
society? How to create a performance environment?
Monitoring
•
Monitor training load (TL) and responses to TL. Internal methods? External methods? Methods to
assess response to training? Performance tests? Physiological markers? Psychological assessments?
Wellbeing? Are the metrics/​markers/​questions sensitive enough to detect meaningful changes?
Determining differences between functional overreaching (FO), non-​functional overreaching (NFO),
overtraining (OT)? Data analysis? What, how and to whom to report the information? What actions
are required as a result?
Recovery
•
Do we need to use recovery strategies at this point? What is the aim of a recovery strategy? What
are the best strategies? When to apply? Should everyone use the same recovery strategy? Are they
proactively planned or reactive to environment? Physiological and pschosocial response?
Then return to analysis.
Conclusion
The role of an S&C coach is multifaceted and fundamentally requires the individual to effectively interact
and communicate with relevant stakeholders as well as apply scientific principles in the pursuit of optimizing sporting performance. Additional skills deemed integral to the role include organization, administration, athlete motivation, education and public relations (Kraemer, 1990). In an era when substantial
financial investments and the adoption of strategic approaches to enhancing performance are commonplace, it is unsurprising that a largely evidence-​based culture has evolved. S&C coaches must analyse,
interpret and influence decision making using facts and figures. Hunches and instincts are becoming
9
Strength and conditioning: coach or scientist? 9
Differences
Data analytics
Professional knowledge
Interpersonal knowledge
Intrapersonal knowledge
Relationships
Modelling (predictions)
Tracking
Knowledge
Biomechanics
Competence
Confidence
Connection
Outcomes
COACHING
Character
S&C
APPLIED
SCIENCE
Physiology
Movement analysis
Force profiling
Monitoring TL (external)
Monitoring fatigue
Performance testing
Monitoring TL (internal)
Monitoring responses to TL
Recovery
Recreational sport
Developmental sport
Context
Psychology
Elite sport
Well-being
Monitoring mood state
Goals and motivation
Performance preparation
Nutrition
Recovery
Body composition management
Figure 1.1 Integration of coaching and applied science principles. S&C, strength and conditioning; TL, training load.
increasingly more difficult to justify to technical coaches and managers, and can rarely promote change.
Although traditionally a coach may value professional knowledge above all else, it is recommended that
equal attention be applied to both the development of interpersonal skills and reflective practices.
In summary, the discipline of S&C requires the individual to be both an effective coach and an interdisciplinary sport scientist. (See Figure 1.1 for a non-​exhaustive list of coaching and applied science
principles.) These required skill sets should be embraced and seen as essential if the S&C coach is to
truly be effective. Therefore, due to the breadth and depth of knowledge and skills required it may be
suggested that S&C coaches should strive to be excellent ‘generalists’ and consider being a ‘specialist’ in
a specific area of expertise once the basics have been mastered. The following chapters provide a greater
in-​depth analysis of these areas and are an important part of appreciating the role of the contemporary
S&C coach.
The chapters will be principally structured in two sections: (1) an objective and concise review of pertinent literature in the specific subject area; and (2) a discussion (including applied examples) of context-​
specific real-​world practical applications.
References
Bishop, D., Burnett, A., Farrow, D., Gabbett, T., & Newton, R. 2006. Sports-​science roundtable: Does sports-​science
research influence practice? International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 1(2), 161–​168.
Burwitz, L., Moore, P.M., & Wilkinson, D.M. 1994. Future directions for performance-​related sports science
research: An interdisciplinary approach. Journal of Sports Sciences, 12(1), 93–​109.
Côté, J., & Gilbert, W. 2009. An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise. International Journal of
Sports Science & Coaching, 4(3), 307–​323.
Dawson, A.J., Leonard, Z.M., Wehner, K.A., & Gastin, P.B. 2013. Building without a plan: The career experiences
of Australian strength and conditioning coaches. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 27(5), 1423–​1434.
Dorgo, S. 2009. Unfolding the practical knowledge of an expert strength and conditioning coach. International Journal
of Sports Science & Coaching, 4(1), 17–​30.
Ebben, W.P., Carroll, R.M., & Simenz, C.J. 2004. Strength and conditioning practices of National Hockey League
strength and conditioning coaches. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 18(4), 889–​897.
Ebben, W.P., & Blackard, D.O. 2001. Strength and conditioning practices of National Football League strength and
conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 15(1), 48–​58.
10
10
P. Stewart, P. Comfort and A.N. Turner
Gilbert, W.D., & Trudel, P. 2001. Learning to coach through experience: Reflection in model youth sport coaches.
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 21(1), 16–​34.
Hartshorn, M.D., Read, P.J., Bishop, C., & Turner, A.N. 2016. Profile of a strength and conditioning
coach: Backgrounds, duties, and perceptions. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 38(6), 89–​94.
Kraemer, W.J. 1990. A fundamental skill of the profession. National Strength & Conditioning Journal, 12(6), 72–​73.
Martindale, R., & Nash, C. 2013. Sport science relevance and application: Perceptions of UK coaches. Journal of
Sports Sciences, 31(8), 807–​819.
Science Council. 2021. Our definition of science. Available online at: https://​sci​ence​coun​cil.org/​about-​scie​nce/​
our-​def​i nit​ion-​of-​scie​nce/​ (accessed 1 November, 2021).
Simenz, C.J., Dugan, C.A., & Ebben, W.P. 2005. Strength and conditioning practices of National Basketball
Association strength and conditioning coaches. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 19(3), 495–​504.
Slater, S. 2012. Olympics cycling: Marginal gains underpin Team GB dominance. 8 August 2012. Available online
at: www.bbc.co.uk/​sport/​olympics/​19174302 (accessed 1 November 2021).
Soanes, J., & Williams, M. 2019. “The team behind the team”: Exploring the organizational stressor experiences of
sport science and management staff in elite sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 31(1), 7–​26.
1
Part I
Developing your athlete
12
13
2
Developing muscular strength and power
Timothy J. Suchomel and Paul Comfort
Introduction
In this chapter we explore the importance of muscular strength and power to sport performance, discuss
the physiological underpinnings, and consider various methods of improving these qualities in athletes.
While basic concepts of periodisation and programming for improving strength and power characteristics
will be mentioned within this chapter, more thorough discussions can be found in Chapter 7, as well as
Stone et al. (1982), Bompa and Haff (2009), and DeWeese et al. (2015a, 2015b).
SECTION 1
The importance of muscular strength and power for athletes
Muscular strength is defined as the ability to exert force on an external resistance (Stone, 1993). Based on
the demands of a sport or an event, an athlete may have to manipulate (e.g., accelerate/​decelerate) their
own body mass against gravity (e.g., sprinting, gymnastics, etc.), both their body mass and an opponent’s
body mass (e.g., rugby, wrestling, etc.), or an external object (e.g., soccer, weightlifting, etc.). Ultimately,
the force exerted and the duration over which it is applied (impulse =​force × time) will change the
motion of a body in space. This concept is based on Newton’s second law (i.e., the law of acceleration),
whereby force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration (force =​mass × acceleration). Based
on this principle, the acceleration of a given mass is directly proportional to, and in the same direction
as, the force applied and the duration over which it is applied. Thus, it appears that muscular strength is
the primary factor for producing an effective and efficient movement of an athlete’s body or an external
object. This concept has been supported throughout the literature as muscular strength (maximal force
production) has been correlated to greater rate of force development (RFD), power output, jump height,
sprinting speed, change-​of-​direction performance, sport-​specific skills, and post-​activation potentiation
(PAP) magnitude (Suchomel et al., 2016b).
Previous researchers and practitioners have indicated that RFD and power output are two of the
most important characteristics regarding an athlete’s performance (Morrissey et al., 1995; Baker, 2001b;
Stone et al., 2002). Given that muscular strength serves as the foundation upon which other abilities can
be enhanced, it should come as no surprise that greater magnitudes of RFD and power output are by-​
products of increased strength. However, it should be noted that when assessing power, changes in technique alone (e.g., jump strategy during a countermovement jump) can alter the power output. Ultimately,
it is the relative net impulse that determines acceleration, therefore both the force and time over which it
is generated are key to enhancing performance in athletic tasks.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003044734-4
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Timothy J. Suchomel and Paul Comfort
Rate of force development
RFD may be defined as the change in force divided by the change in time, with the ability to rapidly
produce force being critical given the time constraints of various tasks. For example, during high-​velocity sprinting, ground contact times are <250 ms, with a progressive decline in contact time as velocity increases (Weyand et al., 2000; Morin et al., 2012; Haugen et al., 2018), reaching contact times
as low as 80 ms when running at velocities >11 m·s−1 (Tidow, 1990). The importance of rapid force
production is further supported by the fact that it takes a longer duration (>300 ms) to produce a maximum force (Aagaard et al., 2002a; Andersen et al., 2003) compared to the duration of jumping and
ground contact time during sprinting (Andersen and Aagaard, 2006). As mentioned above, increases
in muscular strength enhance an athlete’s ability to increase their magnitude and RFD. The results of
previous research, albeit assessing force production via single-​joint tasks, has demonstrated that resistance training may enhance an athlete’s RFD characteristics, which may lead to improved performance
(Häkkinen et al., 1985; Aagaard et al., 2002a, 2010). In a review, Taber et al. (2016) provided evidence
that RFD, along with greater muscular strength, may underpin the development of greater power output
(Figure 2.1). Interestingly, the results of a recent training intervention indicate that high-​load (80–​90%
1RM, where 1RM =​one repetition maximum), multi-​joint resistance training, which follows moderate-​
load training (60–​82.5% 1RM), results in superior increases in early multi-​joint force production (force
at 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 ms) assessed via the isometric mid-​thigh pull, compared to the changes
observed after moderate-​load resistance training (Comfort et al., 2020).
Power output
As mentioned above, alongside RFD, power output is considered one of the most important characteristics
regarding an athlete’s performance. Power output may be defined as the rate of performing work, with any
sport task requiring the completion of a given amount of mechanical work. While the work performed is
important, athletes have limited time to perform these tasks and, thus, it would seem beneficial to complete the work in the shortest duration possible. For example, an athlete who completes the required
work of a given task more quickly may be given a competitive edge compared to their opponent (e.g.,
rebound in basketball) or may win the overall competition (e.g., 100-​m sprint). The findings of previous
research indicate that power output differs between the playing level of athletes (Fry and Kraemer, 1991;
Baker, 2001a; Hansen et al., 2011) and between starters and non-​starters in various sports . Furthermore,
researchers have noted strong relationships between power output and performance characteristics such
as sprinting (Weyand et al., 2000, 2010), jumping (Newton et al., 1999; Hori et al., 2008), change of direction (Nimphius et al., 2010; Spiteri et al., 2012), and throwing velocity (McEvoy and Newton, 1998;
Marques et al., 2011). Given the importance of power output to an athlete’s success, many strength and
conditioning practitioners have sought to improve these qualities through various training strategies.
Common training strategies that have been used to enhance power output will be discussed in the second
half of this chapter.
Impulse
Impulse may be defined as the amount of force produced over a given time period (impulse =​force ×
time). This characteristic has been deemed important due to the fact that relative net impulse ultimately
determines vertical jump performance (Kirby et al., 2011) and may influence weightlifting performance
(Garhammer and Gregor, 1992). Due to its influence on movement, it is important to understand how
muscular strength characteristics influence the shape of an athlete’s relative net impulse. For example,
McMahon et al. (2017) indicated that senior-​level rugby athletes applied greater relative impulses during
15
Developing muscular strength and power 15
25
Greater braking/
eccentric rate of
force development
Force (N.kg–1)
20
Greater
force
15
10
Shorter
movement
time
5
0
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
Movement time (s)
Greater
power
55
45
Power (W.kg–1)
35
25
Shorter
movement
time
15
5
–5
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
–15
–25
Movement time (s)
Stronger
Subject
Relative squat
strength (kg·kg–1)
Peak concentric
force (N·kg–1)
Stronger
Weaker
2.10
1.65
26.16 ± 2.08
22.66 ± 1.87
Weaker
Jump performance variables
Peak concentric
Eccentric RFD
power (W·kg–1)
(N·kg·s–1)
55.44 ± 4.19
49.07 ± 3.66
83.70 ± 31.05
47.11 ± 17.41
Movement
time (s)
0.707 ± 0.042
0.881 ± 0.122
Figure 2.1 Comparison of countermovement jump kinetic and temporal variables between stronger and weaker
athletes. RFD, rate of force development.
16
16
Timothy J. Suchomel and Paul Comfort
the braking and propulsive phases of a countermovement jump compared to academy-​level athletes,
resulting in greater jump heights in the senior athletes. While the shape of an athlete’s applied impulse
may be affected by their jumping strategy (e.g., shallow versus deep countermovement), it should be
noted that the ability to rapidly apply force during both the braking and propulsive phases also plays
a role. If an athlete is strong enough to tolerate a rapid countermovement, it is likely that the shape of
their impulse will be taller (higher-force) and skinnier (reduced-duration); however, a weaker athlete who
cannot decelerate momentum as effectively may produce a shorter (lower-​force) and wider impulse
(longer-​duration) (McMahon et al., 2018). The component pieces of force production and time are
important given the constraint of time within sports.
Morphological factors affecting strength and power
Cross-​sectional area
Researchers have indicated that an increase in an athlete’s muscle cross-​sectional area (CSA) and
work capacity (i.e., force production capacity) may lead to an enhanced ability to increase their muscular strength (Stone et al., 1982; Minetti, 2002; Zamparo et al., 2002). Typically, this is achieved via a
resistance-​training phase that includes a high volume of work completed with moderate to moderately
high intensity (60–​80% 1RM). Greater detail will be provided in the second half of this chapter.
An increase in muscle fibre CSA results in an increased size of the overall muscle (hypertrophy). From
a physiological perspective, increases in muscle CSA lead to improved force production capacity due to
an increased number of newly formed sarcomeres (i.e., the smallest contractile units within muscle cells).
Simply put, an increase in the number of sarcomeres increases the number of potential interactions
between actin and myosin microfilaments (i.e., cross-​bridges) which ultimately increases the force-​generating capacity of a muscle. This is supported by research from Kawakami et al. (1993) indicating that
muscle fibre pennation angles are greater in hypertrophied muscles. A greater pennation angle permits
a greater number of cross-​bridge interactions to occur within a given area of the muscle, due to the
packing of muscle fascicles within the area (Figure 2.2).
Another influence on the CSA of muscle fibres is the ratio of type II fibres to type I fibres. The
results of previous research indicated that an increased CSA following resistance training coincided
with a greater type II:I ratio due to a greater rate of hypertrophy of type II muscle fibres compared to
type I fibres (Campos et al., 2002). Additional research findings demonstrate that a greater percentage
change in type II:I ratio following 8 weeks of resistance training strongly correlated with the percentage
change of squat jump power (Häkkinen et al., 1981). Thus, it appears that an increased CSA coinciding
Figure 2.2 Medial gastrocnemius (MG) fascicle length (dashed line) and MG pennation angle (θ), as measured
between the superficial (A) and deep (B) MG aponeuroses.
17
Developing muscular strength and power 17
S1
S2
S3
S4
Figure 2.3 Four sarcomeres in parallel. (Adapted from Stone et al., 2007.)
Figure 2.4 Four sarcomeres in series. (Adapted from Stone et al., 2007.)
with a greater type II:I ratio may increase the ability to generate power by altering the force–​velocity
characteristics of the muscle. However, it should be noted that the training method will greatly impact
which motor units will be recruited and thus affect which muscle fibres (e.g., type I, IIa, IIx) adapt to
the training stimulus. This concept is discussed in greater detail below (see the section ‘Neuromuscular
factors affecting strength and power’).
The training method may also affect how additional sarcomeres are added. For example, high-​force
training (i.e., resistance training) may result in increases in a muscle’s CSA by adding sarcomeres in parallel (Figure 2.3), which may increase the overall force produced by the muscle given that each sarcomere
acts independently. In contrast, high-​velocity training (e.g., plyometrics, discussed in detail in Chapter 17)
may add sarcomeres in series (Figure 2.4), which may increase shortening velocity at the expense of force
production given that the sarcomeres in series pull against each other (Suchomel et al., 2019b). This concept is important to consider given the demands of athletes in various sports.
Muscle architecture
While the overall size of the muscle may affect the magnitude of force produced, additional muscle
architecture characteristics may affect muscle tension. A muscle’s pennation angle may be defined as
18
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Timothy J. Suchomel and Paul Comfort
Table 2.1 Muscle architectural adaptations in response to different training stimuli
Training stimulus
CSA Pennation angle Fascicle length Fascicle thickness ↑ Sarcomeres in series
↑ Sarcomeres in parallel
Hypertrophy
Strength
Power
Eccentric focus
↑
↑
–​
–​
Yes
Yes
No
No
↑
↑
↓
↓
↓
↓
↑
↑
↑
↑
–​
–​
No
No
Yes
Yes
CSA, cross-​sectional area; ↑ =​increase; ↓ =​decrease; –​=​minimal change.
the angle in which the fascicles (i.e., bundle of muscle fibres) attach to the superficial or deep aponeurosis
(Figure 2.2). The muscle’s pennation angle will determine the force–​velocity characteristics of the
muscle. For example, a greater pennation angle will allow the muscle to place a greater emphasis on force
due to the ability to pack more muscle fascicles into a given area, leading to a greater number of cross-​
bridge interactions and enhanced force production (Huxley, 1974). In contrast, a smaller pennation angle
will place a greater emphasis on velocity due to the position of the fascicles being more parallel in relation
to the muscle’s aponeuroses, leading to a greater shortening velocity due to the combined shortening of
sarcomeres across the area of the muscle belly.
Researchers have assessed longitudinal changes in muscle architecture (i.e., muscle thickness, pennation
angle, and fascicle length) following various resistance-​training programmes, illustrating that changes in
muscle architecture may affect performance outcomes. For example, Nimphius et al. (2012) indicated
that moderate increases in fascicle length following resistance training were strongly correlated with
sprint times to first and second base from home plate in elite softball players. In addition, Kawakami et al.
(1995) and Aagaard et al. (2001) observed increases in muscle thickness and pennation angles following
heavy strength training. Such adaptations may be favourable when it comes to producing greater overall
magnitudes of force within the muscle. Further research findings indicated that training with relatively
high movement velocity and lighter loads (<60% 1RM) may produce increases in fascicle length with
no changes in pennation angle (Blazevich et al., 2003; Alegre et al., 2006). From a practical standpoint,
architectural changes of this nature may increase the overall shortening velocity of the muscle, likely
leading to greater increases in power output. Based on the results of previous literature, it appears that
muscle architectural changes may be specific to the muscle actions performed (Table 2.1). Additional
research comparing eccentric and concentric muscle action training supports this notion (Blazevich et al.,
2007; Franchi et al., 2014).
It should be noted that the changes in muscle size and pennation angle may not be uniform throughout
an entire muscle belly (Ema et al., 2013; Wells et al., 2014). Given the demands of various sport tasks,
non-​uniform hypertrophy may result in greater growth proximally or distally depending on the activation
of musculature during training (Wakahara et al., 2012). For example, the quadriceps muscles of track
and field sprinters may hypertrophy more proximally than track cyclists due to the lower-​limb mechanics
required. This idea becomes important when selecting exercises with the intent of increasing the probability that training-​induced adaptations will transfer to an athlete’s performance.
Neuromuscular factors affecting strength and power
Motor unit recruitment
A motor unit may be defined as an alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it innervates. The magnitude and rate of force produced coincide with the number and type of motor units recruited. Classic
19
Developing muscular strength and power 19
work from Henneman and colleagues (1965) indicates that motor units are recruited in a sequenced
manner based on their size (Henneman’s size principle). Motor units are recruited in order from smallest
to largest based on the neuromuscular requirements of the activity. For example, smaller motor units that
include slow-​twitch type I fibres are recruited at low force magnitudes and are followed by larger motor
units that include fast-​twitch type IIa and IIx fibres if higher force and RFD are required. While the size
principle appears to hold true during slow, graded actions as well as isometric actions (Milner-​Brown and
Stein, 1975) and ballistic actions (Desmedt and Godaux, 1977, 1978), it should be noted that motor unit
recruitment thresholds may be lowered during ballistic-​type movements due to a greater RFD demand
(van Cutsem et al., 1998). Thus, the ability to recruit high-​threshold motor units during training would
be beneficial to the improvement of muscular strength, RFD, and power.
For a motor unit to be trained, it must be recruited. As mentioned above, the nature of the activity will
directly affect what motor units are recruited and how they will respond to training. For example, a distance runner repeatedly recruits low-​threshold, slow-​fatiguing (type I) motor units due to the low/​moderate forces that are produced during each stride. Due to the nature of the task, high-​threshold (type II)
motor units may not need to be recruited until the type I motor units fatigue and additional force production is needed to sustain the activity. In contrast, weightlifters performing the snatch require high
magnitudes and rates of force production during a task that lasts less than 5 seconds. In this case, both
low-​and high-​threshold motor units are recruited due to the order of recruitment. However, it appears
that the preferential recruitment of high-​threshold motor units would be beneficial for the weightlifter
in order to enhance muscular power (Kraemer et al., 1996; Duchateau and Hainaut, 2003). Seminal
work by van Cutsem et al. (1998) demonstrated that while the orderly recruitment of motor units existed
during both slow, ramp and ballistic actions following ballistic-​type training, motor units were recruited
at lower force thresholds. From a practical standpoint, training methods that are ballistic in nature will
allow recruitment of larger, type II motor units at lower thresholds, thus allowing for positive strength
and power adaptations to occur, even without near-​maximal loads.
Firing frequency (rate coding)
Firing frequency may be defined as the frequency at which neural impulses are transmitted from the
α-​motoneuron to the muscle fibres of recruited motor units. Following the recruitment of specific motor
units, force production properties may be modified in two ways by the firing frequency. Enoka (1995)
indicated that force production magnitude may increase upwards to 300–​1500% when the firing frequency of recruited motor units increases from its minimum to its maximum. In addition, RFD may be
impacted by the firing frequency of motor units due to high initial firing frequencies being linked to an
increase in doublet discharges (i.e., two consecutive motor unit discharges in ≤5 ms) (van Cutsem et al.,
1998). Both the increase in magnitude and RFD, as the result of an increased firing frequency, may
ultimately contribute to positive strength and power adaptations. Practically speaking, certain training
methods may lead to improvements in the firing frequency of recruited motor units. Previous research
findings demonstrate that ballistic-​type training may enhance motor unit firing frequency within 12 weeks
(van Cutsem et al., 1998). Additional researchers suggest that other ballistic training methods, such as
weightlifting movements (Leong et al., 1999) and sprinting (Saplinskas et al., 1980), may enhance motor
unit firing frequency, leading to enhanced strength-​power characteristics.
Motor unit synchronisation
Motor unit synchronisation refers to the simultaneous activation of two or more motor units resulting
in increased force production. While the physiological underpinnings are not fully understood, some
20
20
Timothy J. Suchomel and Paul Comfort
Table 2.2 Neurological adaptations in response to different training stimuli
Training stimulus
MU recruitment
Firing frequency
MU synchronisation
Neuromuscular inhibition
Hypertrophy
Strength
Power
Eccentric focus
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
↑
↑
↑
↓
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
↓
↓
MU, motor unit; ↑ =​increase; ↓ =​decrease; –​=​minimal change.
literature indicates that motor unit synchronisation is more related to RFD compared to the magnitude of
force produced (Semmler, 2002). Milner-​Brown and Lee (1975) indicated that 6 weeks of strength training
led to an increase in motor unit synchronisation. Results of another study indicated that motor unit synchronisation strength was largest in the dominant and non-​dominant hands of weightlifters compared to
musicians and untrained individuals (Semmler and Nordstrom, 1998). Although van Cutsem et al. (1998)
found that motor unit synchronisation did not appear to change following ballistic-​type training, another
study indicated that motor unit synchronisation was enhanced during tasks that require movement, especially those involving rapid muscle actions (Semmler et al., 2000). Finally, Aagaard et al. (2000) suggested
that heavy strength training (~6RM loads) may result in an increase in motor unit synchronisation, possibly contributing to force production.
Neuromuscular inhibition
Neuromuscular inhibition, which refers to a reduction in the voluntary neural drive of a given muscle
group during voluntary muscle actions, may negatively affect force production due to neural feedback
received from muscle and joint receptors (Gabriel et al., 2006). Undoubtedly, neural mechanisms that
negatively affect the development of force and power may alter potential adaptations. However, Aagaard
et al. (2000) indicated that heavy strength training (~6RM loads) may down-​regulate Ib afferent feedback to the spinal motoneuron pool, ultimately reducing neuromuscular inhibition and increasing force
production. Results of additional studies highlighted an enhanced neural drive from the spinal and
supraspinal levels following strength training that coincided with a decrease in neuromuscular inhibition
(Aagaard et al., 2002b) and enhanced RFD (Aagaard et al., 2002a; Table 2.2). Taking the above into
account, heavy resistance training may lead to an enhanced neural drive, increased RFD, and decreased
neuromuscular inhibition, creating potential enhancements in the strength-​power characteristics of
athletes.
SECTION 2
Training considerations for improving muscular strength and power
In addition to understanding the physiological underpinnings that affect both strength and power,
practitioners must select a periodisation model, exercises and/​or training methods, the movement
intent (i.e., ballistic or non-​ballistic), and loads for each exercise, all while implementing each factor in
a sequenced progression. Moreover, the athlete’s training status must be considered, as certain training
methods may be more appropriate for those who are more/​less well trained. Readers are directed to
Suchomel et al. (2018a) and Cormie et al. (2011) for more thorough reviews on developing muscular
strength and neuromuscular power, respectively.
21
Developing muscular strength and power 21
~90% strength
~10% power
Return to fitness
65–75% 1RM
3–4 sets
4–6 reps
Hypertrophy
65–75% 1RM
3–4 sets
8–12 reps
~80% strength
~20% power
General strength
80–85% 1RM
3–4 sets
4–6 reps
~20% strength
~80% power
~70% strength
~30% power
Absolute strength
85–90% 1RM
3–4 sets
2–3 reps
Peaking
0–90% 1RM
2–5 sets
1–3 reps
~60% strength
~40% power
Absolute strength
85–95% 1RM
2–4 sets
1–3 reps
Strength-power
75–90% 1RM
3–4 sets
2–5 reps
~40% strength
~60% power
Figure 2.5 Example emphasis change during a periodised training programme (phase potentiation). 1RM, one repetition maximum.
Periodisation model
An abundance of periodisation models exist within the strength and conditioning field. Much of the
extant literature supports the notion that block periodisation may provide superior results compared to
other models, as discussed by DeWeese and colleagues (2015a). This model is based on the idea that a
concentrated load may be used to emphasise the development of one specific characteristic during each
training phase, while maintaining the previously developed characteristic(s) (Figure 2.5). This appears to
be advantageous considering that researchers and practitioners have indicated that it may be difficult,
and potentially less productive, to develop multiple physiological characteristics or motor abilities simultaneously (Stone et al., 2007; Issurin, 2008, 2010). It should be noted that other models of periodisation
may still provide an effective blueprint for developing an athlete’s strength-​power characteristics (e.g.,
traditional, undulating, conjugate, etc.). However, further research comparing periodisation models with
different athletic populations, with different competition schedules, is still needed to determine their
effectiveness. Periodisation and the effectiveness of various periodisation models for athletic performance
are explored in greater detail in Chapter 7.
Resistance-​training methods
The type of training method may provide a vastly different stimulus that may affect gains in muscle CSA,
strength, or power. As discussed in Chapters 7 and 15, the training mode and exercises should be selected
based on their ability to achieve the goals of each training phase. For example, exercises may be selected
based on their power characteristics. Because power is the product of force and velocity, certain exercises
may emphasise one or both characteristics. Simply put, force–​velocity, force–​velocity or force–​velocity are all
combinations of exercise types used in training. Table 2.3 displays relative power outputs of a variety of
exercises discussed within the literature.
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Timothy J. Suchomel and Paul Comfort
Table 2.3 Relative power outputs for male athletes during various exercises
Exercise
Relative power outputs:
male (W kg−1)
Force–​velocity characteristics
Clean
Hang power clean
Jerk
Jerk drive
Power clean
Snatch
33–​80
22–​47
44–​80
28–​56
25–​80
34–​80
High-​force and high-​velocity movements
Clean pull from floor
Hang high pull
Hexagonal barbell jump
Jump shrug
Mid-​thigh clean pull from dead stop
Mid-​thigh snatch pull from dead stop
Snatch pull from floor
33–​80
47–​54
45–​80
57–​87
35–​67
35–​48
30–​80
Moderate–​high-​force and moderate–high-​
velocity movements
Countermovement jump squat
Static jump squat
64–​75
58–​69
Low-​force and high-​velocity movements
Bench press
Deadlift
Squat
0.3–​8.3
11–​13
11–​30
High-​force and low-​velocity movements
Notes: The relative power outputs displayed may vary based on the level of the athlete, load lifted, technical efficiency of the athlete, and method used to quantify power output. The data presented represent the ranges of averages across various loads within
the literature.
(Adapted from Garhammer (1980, 1985, 1991, 1993), Haff et al. (1997, 2001, 2012, 2015), McBride et al. (1999), Driss et al. (2001),
Kawamori et al. (2005), Cormie et al. (2008), Stone et al. (2008), Thompson et al. (2010), Comfort et al. (2012, 2015) and Suchomel
et al. (2013, 2014, 2015, 2019a).)
Bodyweight exercise
Bodyweight exercise is one of the most basic forms of resistance training that has been used for decades.
Some of the most common bodyweight exercises, such as bodyweight weight squats, push-​ups, pull-​ups,
and sit-​ups, are still implemented in resistance-​training programmes to this day as a training exercise,
progression, or regression. Bodyweight exercises have several advantages, including being specific to the
individual’s anthropometrics and muscle/​tendon insertion, the inclusion of closed-​chain exercises, the
ability to train multiple muscle groups simultaneously, and its accessibility and versatility compared to
other training methods (Harrison, 2010).
Like any training method, bodyweight exercise has its limitations. The most obvious limitation of
bodyweight exercises is the inability to continue to provide an overload stimulus to the athlete, preventing
a significant transfer to absolute strength measures (Harrison, 2010). For example, practitioners may
continue to prescribe a greater number of repetitions or modify the movement (e.g., bilateral squat →
split squat → single-​leg [unilateral] squat, etc.) in order to progress each bodyweight exercise. However, a
continual increase in repetitions would lead to an emphasis on strength-​endurance characteristics instead
of the development of strength-​power characteristics necessary for enhanced sport performance. Based
on their advantages and limitations, it is suggested that bodyweight exercises should be prescribed to
enhance basic strength and movement characteristics before progressing to other training methods that
may result in greater strength and power adaptations.
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Developing muscular strength and power 23
Machine vs. free-​weight training
When prescribing either machine or free-​weight exercises, practitioners should note that each method
has its limitations. For example, machine-​based exercises allow for the isolation of specific muscle groups,
which may be important from a rehabilitation standpoint. However, utilising machine-​based exercises
for sport performance may be questionable. Researchers have indicated that athletic movements rarely
include muscle actions performed in an isolated manner (Behm and Anderson, 2006), with the transfer
from isolation (single-​joint) exercises to athletic performance being somewhat limited (Augustsson et al.,
1998; Blackburn and Morrissey, 1998; Östenberg et al., 1998). Thus, it appears that exercises that incorporate multiple muscle groups may provide a superior training alternative (Bobbert and Van Soest, 1994;
Anderson and Behm, 2005). Furthermore, it is been noted that free-​weight exercises may recruit muscle
stabilisers to a greater extent than machine-​based exercises (Haff, 2000). Collectively, it appears that the
movement similarities with athletic movements and the recruitment of muscle stabilisers of free-​weight
exercises may produce greater strength-​power adaptations as they relate to sport performance.
Training with weightlifting movements
Weightlifting exercises produce some of the greatest power outputs compared to other types of exercise (Table 2.3). Given the importance of muscular strength and power in sport, it is not surprising
that many practitioners implement the weightlifting movements and their derivatives within resistance-​
training programmes. Weightlifting movements are unique in that they exploit both the force and velocity aspects of power output by moving moderate–​heavy loads with ballistic intent. In fact, weightlifting
pulling derivatives (i.e., those that remove the catch phase) may expand the force and velocity spectrum
of weightlifting exercises and produce superior strength, sprint, jump, and change-​of-​direction training
adaptations compared to weightlifting catching derivatives alone (Suchomel et al., 2017, 2020a, 2020b).
One key advantage of the ballistic nature is the fact that the athlete aims to accelerate throughout the
propulsive phase, whereas exercises such as the bench press and squat result in deceleration during the
later stages of the propulsive phase (Newton et al., 1996; Lake et al., 2012b). Previous researchers have
demonstrated that weightlifting movements may provide a superior strength-​power training stimulus
compared to jump training (Tricoli et al., 2005; Teo et al., 2016), traditional resistance training (Hoffman
et al., 2004; Channell and Barfield, 2008; Arabatzi and Kellis, 2012; Chaouachi et al., 2014), and
kettlebell training (Otto III et al., 2012). Greater detail regarding the use of weightlifting movements
during resistance training will be provided in Chapter 16.
Plyometric training
While a thorough discussion of plyometric exercises will be provided in Chapter 17, this chapter will provide a brief discussion on their effectiveness as a strength-​power training stimulus. Plyometric movements
may be defined as quick, power-​based movements that utilise a pre-​stretch/​countermovement that
includes the stretch-​shortening cycle (SSC). Specifically, plyometrics refer to a concentric muscle action
that is enhanced by a rapid preceding eccentric muscle action, generally with a movement time of
<250 ms. Their ballistic nature, combined with an emphasis on power development, has led to their use
within strength and conditioning programmes for athletes. The authors of a meta-​analysis concluded
that training with plyometric exercises may produce similar improvements in jump height compared
to training with weightlifting exercises (Hackett et al., 2016), demonstrating that plyometrics may be an
effective training stimulus for athletes.
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Timothy J. Suchomel and Paul Comfort
When it comes to designing a plyometric training programme, practitioners should consider the fact
that plyometric exercises are a form of resistance training and should therefore be periodised. Previous
research findings demonstrate the effectiveness of programming plyometric exercises in a periodised
fashion during 6-​week training programmes by decreasing the volume of foot contacts and increasing
the intensity of the plyometric exercises during the final 4 weeks of the training (Ebben et al., 2010,
2014). Practitioners should also consider the frequency of training sessions, length of programme, and
recovery time between repetitions, sets, and training sessions. Typical training frequencies range from 1
to 3 sessions per week, while the length of most programmes ranges from 6 to 10 weeks (Allerheiligen
and Rogers, 1995).
Most plyometric exercises are implemented using the athlete’s body mass as the resistance to ensure
a short movement duration and rapid pre-​stretch of the muscle to stimulate the SSC. However, using
only the athlete’s body mass as a resistance may be limited in terms of strength-​power development.
Practitioners may be able to prescribe small additional loads to increase the loading stimulus on the athlete; however, a more sensible method would be to increase plyometric exercise intensity, while simultaneously adjusting the volume to meet the needs of each athlete. See Chapter 17 for a detailed discussion
of plyometric training.
Eccentric training
Eccentric muscle actions are those that lengthen the muscle as a result of a greater force being applied
to a muscle than the muscle itself can produce. Although not well understood, eccentric muscle actions
result in unique molecular and neural characteristics that may contribute to a variety of adaptations
(Douglas et al., 2017b; Suchomel et al., 2019b). Douglas et al. (2017a) indicated that eccentric training
may produce similar or greater adaptations in muscle mechanical function (e.g., muscular strength,
muscular power, RFD, and stiffness), morphological adaptations (e.g., tendon and muscle fibre CSA),
neuromuscular adaptations (e.g., motor unit recruitment and firing frequency) and performance (e.g.,
vertical jumping, sprint speed, and change of direction) compared to concentric, isometric, and traditional (eccentric/​concentric) training. Due to the potential adaptations listed above, it is not surprising
that eccentric exercise has received growing interest as a training stimulus.
Although interest in utilising eccentric training has grown, less is known about how to effectively implement this type of training. Recent reviews highlighted some of the most common methods of eccentric
training (e.g., tempo, flywheel inertial training, accentuated eccentric loading [AEL], and plyometric
training) and provided some insight on how these methods may be implemented within an athlete’s
resistance-​training programme (Suchomel et al., 2019b, 2019c). It should be noted that researchers have
indicated that adaptations from eccentric exercise are based on their intensity (Malliaras et al., 2013;
English et al., 2014) and eccentric phase speed (Farthing and Chilibeck, 2003; Isner-​Horobeti et al.,
2013; Stasinaki et al., 2019). It is worth noting, however, that performing the lowering phase of an exercise rapidly initially results in a reduction in force, to permit gravitational acceleration, with a higher
force required during the braking phase, to permit deceleration over a shorter duration. Taking this
into account, higher eccentric loads may produce favourable adaptations compared to lighter loads.
Interestingly, practitioners have the opportunity with eccentric-​type training to prescribe loads in excess
of what the athlete can lift concentrically (i.e., > 1RM). This concept will be explored in greater detail
in Chapter 12.
Another aspect to consider with eccentric training is the type of movement(s) the athlete can perform.
For example, much of the previously discussed literature within this section has focused on eccentric-​only
movements. However, AEL is becoming increasingly popular amongst practitioners and researchers.
Training with AEL involves performing the eccentric phase of a lift with a heavier load than the concentric phase as a result of a portion of the load being removed by a weight release system (Ojasto and
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Developing muscular strength and power 25
Häkkinen, 2009; Wagle et al., 2018; Lates et al., 2020), spotters (Brandenburg and Docherty, 2002), or
the athlete dropping it (Sheppard et al., 2008) at the end of the eccentric phase. Collectively, the results
of the previous studies provide evidence that AEL may produce greater adaptations in explosive performance characteristics (i.e., jumping, sprinting, and concentric power). Although a limited body of
literature exists, it appears that AEL may provide an effective training stimulus to improve an athlete’s
strength-​power performance. A further discussion of AEL and its benefits may be found in Chapter 12
and within a review by Wagle et al. (2017).
Complex training and strength-​power potentiation complexes
Complex training (CT) is a training method that involves completing a resistance-​training exercise
prior to performing a ballistic exercise that is biomechanically similar (Robbins, 2005). For example,
back squats may be paired with countermovement jumps, while the bench press may be paired with
bench press throws. CT may allow athletes to perform high-​force or power exercises at a higher intensity compared to traditional training (Verkhoshansky, 1986; Ebben et al., 2000), ultimately creating a
superior training stimulus. In theory, CT may result in greater strength and speed adaptations compared
to traditional resistance-​training methods longitudinally by providing a broader range of training stimuli
(Ebben and Watts, 1998; Jones and Lees, 2003).
A topic of frequent research that uses CT principles is PAP. PAP is defined as an acute enhancement in performance as a result of the muscle’s contractile history (Robbins, 2005). Training complexes
designed to produce a potentiated state are termed strength-​power-​potentiating complexes (SPPCs)
(Robbins, 2005; Stone et al., 2008). SPPCs involve performing a high-​force or high-​power movement
to potentiate the performance of a subsequent high-​velocity or power movement. While several studies
have demonstrated that various potentiation stimuli may acutely enhance strength-​power performance
(Gullich and Schmidtbleicher, 1996; Young et al., 1998; Bullock and Comfort, 2011), a number of factors
within the SPPC or the athlete’s characteristics may affect the magnitude of potentiation produced
(Suchomel et al., 2016a). Thus, it is not surprising that similar SPPCs resulted in no change or a decrease
in subsequent performances in other studies (Jensen and Ebben, 2003; Till and Cooke, 2009; Tsolakis
and Bogdanis, 2011). While the concept of using implementing SPPCs within an athlete’s resistance-​
training programme is appealing, limited research has examined the longitudinal effects of training with
SPPCs (Docherty and Hodgson, 2007). In addition, practitioners should note that SPPCs may not be as
appropriate for weaker individuals as greater muscular strength may lead to faster and greater potentiation (Miyamoto et al., 2013; Seitz et al., 2014; Suchomel et al., 2016d). Finally, it should be noted that
the long-​term use of SPPCs may not be appropriate given the goals of specific resistance-​training phases.
For example, implementing SPPCs may be specific to the goals of a strength-​speed phase, but counterproductive during a strength-​endurance phase.
Unilateral vs. bilateral training
Some practitioners may argue that unilateral exercises may be more sport-​specific given the unilateral
weight-​bearing phase of various sport tasks (e.g., sprinting, cutting tasks, etc.). Thus, a frequent topic
of discussion within the strength and conditioning field is the use of unilateral exercises compared to
bilateral exercises. Unilateral/​partial unilateral movements may be defined as those where the resistance is unevenly distributed between an individual’s limbs, whereas bilateral movements are those where
the resistance is distributed evenly, for the most part, between an individual’s limbs (McCurdy et al.,
2005). The majority of resistance-​training programmes implement predominantly bilateral exercises
for strength and power development. This is not surprising given that strong relationships exist between
bilateral strength and sprinting, jump height and peak power, and change-​of-​direction performance