ENGLISH
Formal Type of Communication Skills
This type of communication is also referred to as "official communication" and covers the gamut of verbal
expressions that address a formal need.
Informal Communication
Informal communication is surprisingly popular and also referred to as "the (unofficial) grapevine." This is
often spread by word-of-mouth. In fact, it is this type of communication that exposes you to unofficial yet
provocative information.
Oral Communication (Face-to-Face)
Face-to-face oral communication is the most recognized type of communication. Here, what you express
comes directly from what you speak. Again, this can be formal or informal: with your friends and family, in a
formal meeting or seminar, at work with your colleagues and boss, within your community, during
professional presentations, etc.
Oral Communication (Distance)
Distance (oral) communication has made the world a smaller and more accessible place. Mobile phones,
VOIP, video conferencing, two-way webinars, etc., are all modern expansions of distance communication,
taking its expression to the next subtle level. In this type of communication, your tone of voice and pace of
delivery take priority over other expressions.
Non-verbal Types of Communication
This type of communication is more subtle yet far more powerful. It includes the entire gamut of physical
postures and gestures, tone and pace of voice, and the attitude with which you communicate.
Written Communication
A few decades ago, written communication depended on the trusty old mailman as we wrote to people who
were far away. On rare occasions, this also included the formal note or legal notice from the bank, landlord,
business client, etc. It is surprising, then, that this type of communication has now taken over every aspect
of our world!
Kinesics
Kinesics or kinesic communication is all about communication through body movements, such as gestures
and facial expressions. It is all about non-verbal behavior using any part of the body. It also includes
communicating using the body as a whole. In popular culture, we call this 'body language.'
Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of space and how we use it, and how it makes us feel more or less comfortable.
How close you stand next to someone, for example, depends on the relationship you have with that person.
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Intimate space: Very close, usually within one foot and sometimes touching.
Haptic Communication
Haptic communication is a branch of nonverbal communication that refers to the ways in which people and
animals communicate and interact via the sense of touch. Touch is the most sophisticated and intimate of
the five senses.
Paralanguage & Vocalics
We learned earlier that paralanguage refers to the vocalized but nonverbal parts of a message. Vocalics is
the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go along with verbal messages, such as
pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers (Andersen, 1999).
Chronemics
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. Time perceptions include
punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyles, daily agendas, speed
of speech, movements, and how long people are willing to listen.
Agyu - Epic Hero of Bukidnon
Setting:
Where and when is the story set? The setting represents both the physical location and the time (i.e., past,
present, future) and the social and cultural conditions in which the characters exist.
Character:
A person, animal, or really anything personified. There can be one main character or many, and often there
are secondary characters, but not always.
Plot:
The plot consists of the events that happen in the story. In a plot, you typically find an introduction, rising
action, a climax, the falling action, and a resolution. Plot is often represented as an arc.
Conflict:
Every story must have a conflict, i.e., a challenge or problem around which the plot is based. Without
conflict, the story will have no purpose or trajectory.
Theme:
The idea, belief, moral, lesson, or insight. It's the central argument that the author is trying to make the
reader understand. The theme is the "why" of the story.
Point of View:
"Who" is telling the story?
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First person ("I") or third person ("he/she/it").
Limited (one character's perspective), multiple (many characters' perspectives), or omniscient
(all-knowing narrator).
Second person ("you") is not often used for writing stories.
Tone:
The overall emotional tone or meaning of the story. Is it happy, funny, sad, depressed? Tone can be
portrayed in multiple ways—through word and grammar choices, choice of theme, imagery and description,
symbolism, and the sounds of words in combination (i.e., rhyme, rhythm, musicality).
Style:
This is how things are said—word choices, sentence structure, dialogue, metaphor, simile, hyperbole. Style
contributes significantly to tone.
Confucianism & Buddhism
Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system that focuses on the importance of personal ethics and
morality. Whether it is only a philosophy or also a religion is debated. Mencius (or Meng Ke, who lived from
372 to 289 B.C.E.) is the best-known Confucian philosopher after Confucius himself.
Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama ("the Buddha") more than 2,500 years ago
in India. With about 470 million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions.
Evolution
Evolution involves gradual changes from simple to more complex forms. Humans are believed to have
developed from simpler forms. Evolution is hypothesized to have begun in the oceans billions of years ago.
Darwin introduced the theory of evolution in his book The Origin of Species, stating that evolution occurs
through natural selection. His theory emphasized the following points:
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Natural Selection
Variation
Struggle for Existence
Survival of the Fittest
Evolution is the outcome of the interaction among the following five processes:
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Mutation
Genetic Recombination
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Reproductive Isolation
Natural Selection
Early Human Ancestors
Dryopithecus
These are considered the ancestors of both humans and apes. They lived in China, Africa, Europe, and
India. The genus Dryopithecus refers to the "oak wood apes." They inhabited tropical lowlands with dense
forests and were predominantly herbivores.
Ramapithecus
Their first remains were discovered in the Shivalik range in Punjab and later in Africa and Saudi Arabia.
They lived in open grasslands. Two pieces of evidence confirm their hominid status:
1. Thickened tooth enamel, robust jaws, and shorter canines
2. Use of hands for food and defense, suggesting an upright posture
Upward Communication – Suggestions for improvements from a student in the department
Brainstorming – Group creativity technique by gathering ideas from members
Outlining – General plan of what you are going to write
Expands on the first – How the second sentence develops the thought in the mobile checkout system
passage
Trade war between America and China – Cause of the country's inflation rate (as per Roque)
War on drugs campaign would not be successful – Possible outcome of Duterte pardoning policemen
involved in killings
Vision – What the author is praising Da Vinci for
They reinforce each other – How the two sentences about sleep relate
Formal outline – Outline with sub-points and main points
Research proposal – Document describing ideas for investigation
Full block – Most formal presentation in drafting a job application letter
Fairy tales shed light on child psychology – Best statement for a thesis
The problem is worth answering – What makes a good paper topic
Chick literature – Fiction addressing womanhood, often humorously
Catharsis – Purification of emotions in literature or art
Sestet – A stanza with six lines
MATHEMATICS
In propositional logic, modus ponens (/'moudes 'pounenz/; MP), also known as modus ponendo ponens
(Latin for "mode that by affirming affirms") or implication elimination or affirming the antecedent, is a
deductive argument form and rule of inference. An example of an argument that fits the form modus
ponens: If today is Tuesday, then John will go to work. Today is Tuesday. Therefore, John will go to work.
Modus tollens is a valid argument form in propositional calculus in which p and q are propositions. If p
implies q, and q is false, then p is false. It is also known as an indirect proof or a proof by contrapositive. For
example, if being the king implies having a crown, not having a crown implies not being the king.
In mathematics and logic, a direct proof is a way of showing the truth or falsehood of a given statement by a
straightforward combination of established facts, usually axioms, existing lemmas, and theorems, without
making any further assumptions.
An indirect proof relies on a contradiction to prove a given conjecture by assuming the conjecture is not
true and then running into a contradiction, proving that the conjecture must be true.
A normal distribution, sometimes called the bell curve, is a distribution that occurs naturally in many
situations. For example, the bell curve is seen in tests like the SAT and GRE.
The inverse is usually shown by putting a little "-1" after the function name, like this: f⁻¹(y). We say "f
inverse of y." So, the inverse of f(x) = 2x + 3 is written as f⁻¹(y) = (y - 3)/2.
DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE
D=2xr
CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE
C=2xπxr
A=πxr
AREA OF A CIRCLE
Square side*2
Cube side’3
Square 4 x side
Rectangle
2x(length+width)
Rectangle
lengthxwidth
Parallelogram 2x(side1+side2)
Parallelogram base xheight
Triangle
Triangle
side1+side2+side3
Regular n-polygon
nxside
basex height/2
Regular n-polygon (1/4)xnxside2xcot(pi/n
Trapezoid
heightx(base1+base2)/2
Trapezoid
base1 +base2+heightx[csc(theta1)+csc(theta2)]
Cube side'3
Rectangular Prism side1xside2xside3
Mathematicians normally use a two-valued logic: Every statement is either True or False. This is called the
Law of the Excluded Middle.
A statement in sentential logic is built from simple statements using logical connectives. The truth or falsity
of a statement built with these connectives depends on the truth or falsity of its components.
For example, the compound statement P → (Q ∨ R) is built using the logical connectives →, ∨, and ∧. The
truth or falsity of P → (Q ∨ R) depends on the truth or falsity of P, Q, and R.
A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a compound statement depends on the truth or falsity of the
simple statements from which it's constructed. So, we'll start by looking at truth tables for the five logical
connectives.
Here’s the table for negaton:
P
-P
T
F
F
T
This table is easy to understand. If P is true, its negation ¬P is false. If P is false, then ¬P is true.
P ∧ Q should be true when both P and Q are true and false otherwise.
P
Q
P∧Q
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F
F
P ∨ Q is true if either P is true or Q is true (or both—remember that we're using "or" in the inclusive sense).
It is only false if both P and Q are false.
P
Q
PVQ
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
Here's the table for logical implication:
P
Q
P- Q
T
T
T
1
F
F
F
1
T
1
F
T
To understand why this table is the way it is, consider the following example:
"If you get an A, then I'll give you a dollar."
The statement will be true if I keep my promise and false if I don't.
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Suppose it's true that you get an A and true that I give you a dollar. Since I kept my promise, the
implication is true. This corresponds to the first line in the table.
Suppose it's true that you get an A but false that I give you a dollar. Since I didn't keep my promise,
the implication is false. This corresponds to the second line in the table.
What if it's false that you get an A? Whether or not I give you a dollar, I haven't broken my promise.
Thus, the implication can't be false, so (since this is a two-valued logic) it must be true. This
explains the last two lines of the table.
P ⇔ Q means that P and Q are equivalent. So, the double implication is true if P and Q are both true or if P
and Q are both false; otherwise, the double implication is false.
P
Q
P⇔Q
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F
T
A bond is a contract between two companies.
Companies or governments issue bonds because they need to borrow large amounts of money. They issue
bonds, and investors buy them (thereby giving the people who issued the bond money).
Bonds have a maturity date. This means that at some point, the bond issuer has to pay back the money to
the investors. They also have to pay the investors a little bit more than what they paid for the bond.
Amortization is the process of spreading out a loan into a series of fixed payments. The loan is paid off at
the end of the payment schedule. Some of each payment goes towards interest costs, and some goes toward
your loan balance. Over time, you pay less in interest and more toward your balance.
An annuity is a long-term agreement (contract) between you and an insurance company that allows you to
accumulate funds on a tax-deferred basis for later payout in the form of a guaranteed income that you cannot
outlive. When considering the purchase of an annuity, don't be distracted away from its simplicity.
Shares are units of equity ownership interest in a corporation that exist as a financial asset, providing for an
equal distribution in any residual profits, if any are declared, in the form of dividends. Shareholders may
also enjoy capital gains if the value of the company rises.
A stock is a general term used to describe the ownership certificates of any company. A share, on the other
hand, refers to the stock certificate of a particular company. Holding a particular company's share makes you
a shareholder.
Description: Stocks are of two types—common and preferred.
Hypothesis Testing:
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H₀ (The Null Hypothesis): It is a statement about the population that either is believed to be true or
is used to put forth an argument unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable doubt.
H₁ (The Alternative Hypothesis): It is a claim about the population that is contradictory to H₀ and
what we conclude when we reject H₀.
Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to decide if you
have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the form of sample data.
After determining which hypothesis, the sample supports, you make a decision. There are two options for a
decision:
1. "Reject H₀" if the sample information favors the alternative hypothesis.
2. "Do not reject H₀" (or "fail to reject H₀") if the sample information is insufficient to reject the null
hypothesis.
Mathematical Symbols Used in H₀ and H₁:
Ho
EQUAL (=)
GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO
LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO (<, =)
H.
NOT EQUAL (#)
LESS THAN (<)
MORE THAN (>)
Note:
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H₀ always has a symbol with an equal sign in it.
H₁ never has a symbol with an equal sign in it.
The choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. However, be aware that many
researchers (including one of the co-authors in research work) use = in the null hypothesis, even when > or <
is used as the symbol in the alternative hypothesis.
This practice is acceptable because we only make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.
Asymptotes
An asymptote is a line that the graph of a function approaches as either x or y goes to positive or negative
infinity. There are three types of asymptotes: vertical, horizontal, and oblique.
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A vertical asymptote is a vertical line where the function approaches infinity. It is typically written as x = a.
A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line that the graph approaches as x goes to positive or negative
infinity. It is written as y = a.
An oblique (or slant) asymptote is a diagonal line of the form y = mx + b, where m ≠ 0.
o Oblique asymptotes occur when the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one more than
the degree of the denominator.
A probability distribution is a statistical function that describes all the possible values and likelihoods that
a random variable can take within a given range.
Standard deviation is a number used to describe how measurements for a group are spread out from the
average (mean or expected value). A low standard deviation means that most of the numbers are close to
the average, while a high standard deviation means that the numbers are more spread out.
Confidence Intervals
For a given statistic calculated from a sample of observations (e.g., the mean), the confidence interval is a
range of values around that statistic that are believed to contain, with a certain probability (e.g., 95%), the
true population value of that statistic. Strictly speaking, a 95% confidence interval means that if we were
to take 100 different samples and compute a 95% confidence interval for each sample, then
approximately 95 out of 100 confidence intervals would contain the true mean value (μ).
An interest rate is a percentage charged on the total amount you borrow or save. Even a small change in
interest rates can have a significant impact.
Dividend – Share in the company's profit
Negatively skewed – Distribution with mean 19, median 20, mode 22.5
₱20,000.00 – Amount invested at 10% if total income is ₱7,000.00 from ₱50,000.00
₱24 – Simple interest earned from ₱1,200.00 at 6% for 4 months
Point estimator – Single-value estimate of a population parameter
Reject H₀ – Decision when p-value is less than significance level
(-1, -1) – Point where f(x) = 7x + 2 intersects with its inverse
Percentage – Used to express parts of a whole, often in interest/discount calculations
Bond – A loan made by an investor to a borrower, usually government or corporation
Annuity – A series of equal payments made at regular intervals
Stocks – Shares that represent ownership in a company and a claim on part of its profits.
Shares – Units of ownership in a company or financial asset.
p- value – The probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the observed results, assuming H₀
is true.
Amortization – Gradual repayment of a debt over time through regular payments of principal and interest.
Probability distribution – A table or function that shows the likelihood of different outcomes in an
experiment.
Standard distribution (Normal distribution) – A symmetric, bell-shaped distribution where most values
cluster around the mean.
Modus ponens – Logical rule: If P → Q and P is true, then Q is true.
Modus tollens – Logical rule: If P → Q and Q is false, then P is false.
Bell curve – Graphical representation of a normal distribution; symmetric and shaped like a bell.
Vertical line – A line that goes up and down, undefined slope, equation: x = a constant.
Horizontal line – A line that goes left to right, zero slope, equation: y = a constant.
Oblique line – A slanted line that has a non-zero, non-infinite slope (not vertical or horizontal).
SCIENCE
Oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth's surface, and half of those waters are at least 1.86 miles (3
km) deep.
As far as we know, the deepest point in the ocean is 36,200 feet (11,000 m or almost 7 miles) deep. On
average, the ocean is about 12,100 feet (3,688 m) deep.
Animals living in the bathypelagic zone or deeper never see sunlight. Some organisms living there, such
as vampire squid and humpback anglerfish, produce their own light.
More than 99% of Earth's inhabitable space is in the open ocean.
The ocean is divided into five zones:
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Epipelagic zone (upper open ocean): Surface to 650 feet deep
Mesopelagic zone (middle open ocean): 650–3,300 feet deep
Bathypelagic zone (lower open ocean): 3,300–13,000 feet deep
Abyssopelagic zone (the abyss): 13,000–20,000 feet deep
Hadopelagic zone (deep ocean trenches): 20,000 feet and deeper
The ocean produces more than 50% of the air we breathe.
Humans have only explored 5% of the world's oceans. However, it is believed that humans have impacted
every part of the ocean with waste and chemical pollution.
Comet nuclei are loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles, ranging from a few kilometers to
tens of kilometers across. They are composed of rock, dust, ice, and frozen gases such as carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia.
When meteoroids enter Earth's atmosphere (or that of another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn up,
the fireballs or "shooting stars" are called meteors. When a meteoroid survives a trip through the
atmosphere and hits the ground, it's called a meteorite.
An ecosystem is a community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with each oth
er in a specific environment.
The Skin
The integumentary system is the largest organ of the body, making up 15-20% of our total body mass. It acts
as a barrier against physical, chemical, and biological agents. The skin prevents water loss, regulates
body temperature, and transmits the senses of touch, pain, and pleasure. It helps maintain body
temperature by secreting sweat.
Hair lubricates the scalp, secretes pheromones, and helps cool or warm our heads. Nails protect our
fingers, which are essential tools for self-defense, obtaining food, building shelter, and experiencing
sensations.
The skin is most vulnerable when compromised by open wounds, allowing infectious agents to enter the
body.
Musculoskeletal System
Skeletal System (Bones, Joints)
The skeletal system supports and protects the body's internal organs. The ribs protect the abdominal
organs, which are both vulnerable to injury and dangerous to our well-being when damaged. The
skull protects the brain, which controls all functions of the body and mind.
The skeleton provides structure and shape to the body and connects to major muscles, allowing
movement. Bones store essential minerals like calcium and produce blood cells in the soft bone tissue
called marrow.
Without enough calcium, bones can break easily and are susceptible to diseases such as:
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Arthritis
Cancers
Scoliosis
Osteoporosis
Gout
Bursitis
Fractures and breaks
Amputations
The human skeleton is composed of 206 bones.
Muscular System (Cardiac, Smooth, and Skeletal Muscles)
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Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and power the actions that maintain blood flow throughout
the body.
Smooth (involuntary) muscles are found in the organs and surround internal structures. They
are responsible for movements such as moving food through the digestive tract.
Skeletal (voluntary) muscles carry out movements based on messages sent from the brain
through the nervous system. They also help maintain posture and produce heat.
When muscles lack oxygen, they can cramp and tear, causing pain. If not used, they may atrophy and
become weak.
Diseases and disorders of the muscular system include:
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Muscular dystrophy
Fibromyalgia
Tendinitis
Multiple sclerosis
Muscle strains and sprains
Hernias
Lymphatic System (Red Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic Vessels, Thoracic Duct, Spleen, Lymph
Nodes)
The lymphatic system transports clean fluids back to the blood while draining excess fluids and debris
from tissues and cells. It also houses white blood cells (lymphocytes), which protect the body from
infection.
Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system include:
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Anemia
Leukemia
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Tuberculosis of the lymph nodes
Hodgkin's disease
Other blood disorders
Respiratory System (Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus, Lungs)
The respiratory system enables breathing by supplying the body with oxygen for cellular respiration
and removing carbon dioxide as a waste product. It is also responsible for speech and smell.
Diseases and disorders of the respiratory system include:
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Allergies
Rhinitis and sinusitis
Laryngitis
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Pleurisy
Bronchitis
Emphysema
Asthma
Sarcoidosis
Pulmonary fibrosis
Asbestosis
Pulmonary vascular diseases
Fungal or bacterial infections of the lungs
Sleep apnea
Tuberculosis of the respiratory system
Lung, throat, and other respiratory cancers
Digestive System (Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Liver, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine,
Rectum, Anus)
Starting from the mouth, the digestive system is responsible for breaking down food, absorbing
nutrients, and eliminating waste that the body does not use. It identifies which minerals, vitamins, and
other essential nutrients from food can be absorbed, stored, or disposed of.
Diseases and disorders of the digestive system include:
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Diverticulitis
Gastritis
Pancreatitis
Cholecystitis
Cirrhosis
Hepatitis
Liver cancer
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
Crohn’s disease
Hemorrhoids
Nervous System (Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves)
The nervous system consists of two main parts:
1. The Central Nervous System (CNS) – Includes the brain and spinal cord.
2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – Includes all the nerves that connect the CNS to the rest
of the body.
This system controls all bodily functions, including digestion, heartbeat, breathing, and muscle
activation. It also transmits sensory information, such as pain and external stimuli, to the brain.
Diseases and disorders of the nervous system include:
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Paralysis
Parkinson’s disease
Cerebral palsy
Embolisms
Thrombosis
Arteriosclerosis
Polio
Myelitis
ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis)
Meningitis
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
Muscular tics
Huntington’s disease
Brain, spinal cord, or nerve cancers
Epilepsy and seizure disorders
Narcolepsy
Migraine headaches
Peripheral neuropathy
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Endocrine System (Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Thymus, Adrenal Glands,
Pancreas, Ovaries, Testes)
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones, regulating many bodily functions such
as growth, reproduction, metabolism, and blood glucose levels.
Diseases and disorders of the endocrine system include:
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Type 1 & Type 2 Diabetes
Hypoglycemia
Addison’s disease
Cushing’s syndrome
Hyperthyroidism / Hypothyroidism
Thyroid cancer
Other cancers of the endocrine glands
Cardiovascular (Circulatory) System (Heart, Blood Vessels)
The heart, made of cardiac muscle, pumps blood through arteries, veins, and capillaries, delivering
oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body.
Diseases and disorders associated with the cardiovascular system include:
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Myocardial infarction (heart attack)
Coronary bypass surgery
Arrhythmias
Valve replacements
Pacemakers
Heart transplants
Ischemic heart disease
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Hypertensive heart disease
Arteriosclerotic heart disease
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
Aneurysms
Fistulas
Arteriosclerosis
Anaphylactic shock
Varicose veins
Cold weather injuries affecting circulation
Sarcomas of the blood vessels
Urinary System (Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, Urethra)
The urinary system is responsible for eliminating waste products from metabolism and other materials
that are no longer needed by the body. It also plays a crucial role in maintaining fluid balance, regulating
electrolyte levels, and ensuring proper pH balance in the blood.
Diseases and disorders of the urinary system include:
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Nephrosis
Bladder cancer
Urethritis
Bedwetting (enuresis)
Kidney and urinary stones
Urinary tract infections (UTIs)
Renal failure
Incontinence
Blood in the urine (hematuria)
Interstitial cystitis
Genitourinary System (Prostate Gland, Penis, Testes, Scrotum, Ductus Deferens)
The genitourinary system includes the urinary and male reproductive systems. It is involved in both
waste elimination and reproduction, ensuring proper function of the urinary tract while also playing a role
in sperm production and hormone regulation.
Reproductive System
Male (Prostate Gland, Penis, Testes, Scrotum, Ductus Deferens)
The male reproductive system is responsible for producing sperm and testosterone. It plays a crucial
role in human reproduction.
Female (Mammary Glands, Ovaries, Uterus, Vagina, Fallopian Tubes)
The female reproductive system produces eggs (ova) and sex hormones. Fertilization occurs in the
fallopian tube, and the uterus serves as the site for fetal development. The mammary glands produce
milk for newborns.
Diseases and disorders of the female reproductive system include:
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Breast cancer
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Mastectomy or lumpectomy (removal of breast tissue)
Hysterectomy (removal of the uterus)
Pregnancy complications
Endometriosis
Ovarian or cervical cancers
Diseases or injuries affecting the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, or ovaries
Geology: Types of Rocks and Geological Processes
Igneous Rocks
Formed from the solidification of molten rock. Some form below Earth's surface (intrusive), while
others form on or above Earth's surface (extrusive).
Types of Igneous Rocks:
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Intrusive (cool slowly underground, forming large crystals):
o Diabase
o Diorite
o Gabbro
o Granite
o Pegmatite
o Peridotite
Extrusive (cool quickly on the surface, forming small or no crystals):
o Andesite
o Basalt
o Dacite
o Obsidian
o Pumice
o Rhyolite
o Scoria
o Tuff
Metamorphic Rocks
Formed by heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually deep underground, which change the
texture, mineral composition, and structure of the rock.
Types of Metamorphic Rocks:
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Foliated (layered or banded appearance due to directed pressure):
o Gneiss
o Phyllite
o Schist
o Slate
Non-foliated (no distinct layers or bands):
o Hornfels
o Marble
o Novaculite
o Quartzite
o Skarn
Sedimentary Rocks
Formed by the accumulation and compaction of sediments.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks:
1. Clastic (formed from mechanical weathering debris):
o Breccia
o Conglomerate
o Sandstone
o Siltstone
o Shale
2. Chemical (formed from precipitation of dissolved minerals):
o Chert
o Some Dolomites
o Flint
o Iron Ore
o Limestones
o Rock Salt
3. Organic (formed from plant or animal remains):
o Chalk
o Coal
o Diatomite
o Some Dolomites
o Some Limestones
Geological Processes: Erosion & Weathering
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Erosion: The process by which earth materials are worn away and transported by natural forces
like wind, water, and ice.
Weathering: The breaking down or dissolving of rocks on Earth’s surface due to factors like
water, acids, salts, plants, temperature changes, and animal activity.
Astronomical Events: Equinox & Solstice
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Equinox: When Earth’s hemispheres receive equal sunlight, making day and night nearly
equal. The term comes from the Latin words aequus (equal) and nox (night).
Solstice: Occurs when the Sun is farthest north or south of the Equator.
o Winter Solstice: Shortest day of the year.
o Summer Solstice: Longest day of the year.
Composition of Earth’s Atmosphere
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Nitrogen (N₂): 78%
Oxygen (O₂): 21%
Argon (Ar): 0.9%
Trace gases (CO₂, Methane, Ozone, Nitrous Oxides): ~0.1%
Type
Description
Example
Organisms
Fission
Occurs when a parent cell split into two identical daughters
cells of the same size.
Bacteria, Protists
Unicellular Fungi
Fragmentation
Occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or
pieces, and each fragment develops into a new organism.
Budding
Occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud. The bud stays
attached to the parent cell while it grows and
develops. When the bud is fully developed, it breaks away from
the parent cell and forms a new organism.
Starfish, some worms,
fungi, plants. lichens
Yeast, Hydra
Vegetative
Reproduction
Occurs when new individuals are formed without the
production of seeds or spores.
Plants
Agamogenesis
Any form of reproduction that does not involve a male
gamete.
Many plants and some
animals.
Vocabulary
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Agamogenesis: Any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete.
Asexual reproduction: Reproduction involving only one parent; occurs without the fusion of
gametes and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
Budding: A form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an outgrowth or
bud on another organism. The bud may stay attached or break free from the parent.
Clone: A genetically identical copy, which may be a gene, a cell, or an organism. An organism that
is genetically identical to its parent.
Diploid: The state of a cell containing two sets of chromosomes. In human somatic cells, two sets
equal 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes, 2n.
Fission: Asexual reproduction in which a parent separates into two or more individuals of about
equal size.
Fragmentation: Asexual reproduction in which the body breaks into several fragments, each of
which later develops into a complete organism.
Gamete: A reproductive cell in sexually reproducing organisms, such as sperm and egg cells.
Haploid: The state of a cell containing one set of chromosomes. In human gametes, one set equals
23 chromosomes, n.
Meiosis: A type of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes and forms gametes.
Parthenogenesis: A form of asexual reproduction where the growth and development of embryos
occur without fertilization.
Reproduction: The process by which living organisms give rise to offspring, making the next
generation.
Sexual reproduction: Reproduction involving the joining of haploid gametes, producing genetically
diverse individuals.
Spore: A haploid reproductive cell found in plants, algae, and some protists, capable of fully
developing without fusing with another cell.
Vegetative reproduction: A type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals are
formed without the production of seeds or spores.
Zygote: A fertilized egg; the first cell of a new organism.
Tropical Weather Terms
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Tropical Wave: An inverted trough (an elongated area of relatively low pressure) or cyclonic
curvature maximum moving east to west across the tropics. These can lead to the formation of a
tropical cyclone. Also known as an easterly wave.
Tropical Disturbance: A tropical weather system with organized convection (generally 100-300
miles in diameter) originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a non-frontal migratory character
and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or longer. It may or may not be associated with a detectable
perturbation of the wind field.
Tropical Cyclone: A low-pressure system (not associated with a front) that develops over tropical
and sometimes subtropical waters and has organized deep convection with a closed wind
circulation around a well-defined center.
Extratropical Cyclone: A cyclone (of any intensity) in which the primary energy source is
baroclinic, meaning it results from the temperature contrast between warm and cold air masses.
Post-Tropical Cyclone: A cyclone that no longer possesses sufficient tropical characteristics to be
considered a tropical cyclone. Post-tropical cyclones can continue to bring heavy rains and high
winds. Former tropical cyclones that become extratropical or remnant lows are two specific classes
of post-tropical cyclones.
Remnant Low: A class of post-tropical cyclones that no longer possess the convective organization
required of a tropical cyclone and have maximum sustained winds of less than 34 knots.
Subtropical Cyclone: A non-frontal low-pressure system with characteristics of both tropical and
extratropical cyclones. Subtropical cyclones originate over tropical or subtropical waters and have a
closed circulation around a well-defined center. Compared to tropical cyclones, their maximum
winds occur farther from the center (greater than 60 nautical miles), and they have a less symmetric
wind field and distribution of convection.
Tropical Depression: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds (one-minute
average) of 38 mph (33 knots) or less.
Tropical Storm: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds ranging from 39-73 mph
(34-63 knots).
Hurricane: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds of 74 mph or greater (64
knots or greater).
Note: The number of tropical storms and hurricanes increases substantially in August, peaks in midSeptember, and decreases towards a minimum by early November.
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Tropical Storm Watch: Issued when tropical storm conditions, including winds of 39-73 mph, pose
a POSSIBLE threat to a specified coastal area within 48 hours.
Tropical Storm Warning: Issued when tropical storm conditions, including winds of 39-73 mph, are
EXPECTED in a specified coastal area within 36 hours or less.
Hurricane Watch: Issued when sustained winds of 74 mph or higher are POSSIBLE within the
specified area of the watch. Because hurricane preparedness activities become difficult once winds
reach tropical storm force, the watch is issued 48 hours in advance of the onset of tropical stormforce winds.
Hurricane Warning: Issued when sustained winds of 74 mph or higher are EXPECTED
somewhere within the specified area of the warning. Because hurricane preparedness activities
become difficult once winds reach tropical storm force, the warning is issued 36 hours in advance of
the onset of tropical storm-force winds.
Note: A hurricane warning can remain in effect when dangerously high water or a combination of
dangerously high water and exceptionally high waves continues, even if the winds have subsided below
hurricane intensity.
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Eye Wall: An organized band of cumulonimbus clouds immediately surrounding the center of the
tropical cyclone.
Storm Surge: An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a tropical cyclone. This is the difference
in height between the observed level of the sea surface and the level that would have occurred in
the absence of the storm. Storm surge is usually estimated by subtracting the normal or
astronomical tide from the observed storm tide.
Storm Tide: The water level rise resulting from the astronomical tide combined with the storm
surge.
Genetic Engineering & Fermentation
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Genetic engineering: The process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to alter the
genetic makeup of an organism. Traditionally, humans have manipulated genomes indirectly by
controlling breeding and selecting offspring with desired traits.
Fermentation: A metabolic process in which microorganisms create desirable changes in food and
beverages, such as enhancing flavor, preserving food, and providing health benefits.
Examples of Products Formed by Fermentation
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Beer
Wine
Yogurt
Cheese
Certain sour foods containing lactic acid, including sauerkraut, kimchi, and pepperoni
Bread leavening by yeast
Sewage treatment
Some industrial alcohol production, such as for biofuel
Types of Fermentation
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Lactic acid fermentation: Converts glucose or other six-carbon sugars into energy and lactic acid,
used in making sauerkraut, pickles, kimchi, yogurt, and sourdough bread.
Ethanol fermentation (alcohol fermentation): Yeasts break down pyruvate molecules into alcohol
and carbon dioxide, producing wine and beer.
Acetic acid fermentation: Starches and sugars from grains and fruit ferment into vinegar and
condiments, such as apple cider vinegar, wine vinegar, and kombucha.
Theory of Evolution
Evolution describes the gradual development of life from simpler to more complex forms. Charles
Darwin proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection in his book On the Origin of Species. The
theory includes key concepts such as:
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Natural Selection - Organisms with traits that help them survive and reproduce are more likely to
pass those traits to their offspring. Over time, this leads to gradual changes in a species.
Variation - Within a species, individuals have differences in traits, such as size, color, or strength.
These variations can be passed from parents to offspring.
Struggle for Existence - Organisms compete for limited resources like food, water, and shelter.
Not all individuals survive because there isn't enough for everyone.
Survival of the Fittest - The individuals best suited to their environment are more likely to survive
and reproduce. "Fittest" doesn’t always mean the strongest—it means best adapted to survive.
Evolution results from five main processes:
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Mutation - A random change in DNA that can create new traits. Some mutations can be helpful,
harmful, or have no effect on an organism.
Genetic Recombination - The mixing of genes during reproduction, which creates unique
combinations of traits in offspring. This increases variation within a species.
Chromosomal Abnormalities - Errors in chromosomes, such as missing or extra parts, that can
lead to genetic disorders or changes in an organism’s traits.
Reproductive Isolation - When groups of the same species are separated and can no longer
mate, leading to the formation of new species over time.
Natural Selection - Organisms with traits that help them survive are more likely to reproduce,
passing those traits to future generations.
Marble, Schist, Gneiss – Group of rocks that represent metamorphic rocks
Ozone layer – Part of the atmosphere that blocks harmful UV radiation
Venus orbits the Sun faster than it rotates on its axis – What it means when a day on Venus is longer
than its year
Meteoroid (space), Meteor (burns in atmosphere), Meteorite (hits ground) – Difference between
meteoroid, meteor, and meteorite
Normal force – Force exerted by a surface when an object is placed on it
Light in vacuum – What the symbol “c” represents in E = mc²
Weight decreases – What happens as an airplane flies higher
32.0 km/hr – Average speed needed to travel 8 km in 15 minutes
9.2 x 10⁻¹² N – Force between two negatively charged balloons 5.0 cm apart
Series connection circuit – Type of circuit where available voltage decreases with more resistances
Heliocentric Model – Sun-centered model of the solar system by Copernicus
Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Great Rift Valley – Formations due to divergent boundary
Geological mapping, slope hazard detection – Ways to minimize landslide effects
Transpiration – How plants get rid of excess water
Hydrogen bonding – Strongest intermolecular force of attraction
Catalyst – Substance that increases rate of reaction without being consumed
Increased intermolecular forces – What happens when water’s surface tension increases