MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Politics in General
“Politics” comes from the Greek word “polis,” which
means “city-state.”
The origin of the word, therefore, suggests that
politics is a term encompassing the totality of
human activities transpiring within the city-state.
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It denotes a social activity. It is, in essence,
the interaction of individuals.
Politics is about conflict and cooperation.
Politics is the creation, maintenance, and
amendment of societal norms or rules.
Definition of Politics
Politics is the science of government - a systematic
body of knowledge that deals with the government
and regulation, maintenance and development, and
defense and augmentation of the state.
Other political scientists prefer to define politics as
the art rather than the science of government.
-​ It is an art because it involves the exercise
of control or authority within the society
through the creation and enforcement of
consensus arrived at by the leaders.
David Easton defined politics as the “authoritative
allocation of values.”
-​ Under this definition, politics takes place
only within the polity or the machinery of the
government. In other words, only the
processes and events that happen in the
government bureaus, departments, and
offices are said to be “political” while those
outside, like businesses, religion, and
family, are “non-political.”
Politics is the realm of public affairs or the state.
-​ “public” refers to the institution of the state,
which is funded by the people at large
through their taxes to satisfy their common
interest.
Politics is who gets what, when, and how
-​ famous definition of Harold Lasswell
-​ The definition underscores the reality of
“scarcity” in society. While human needs
and wants are diverse and numerous,
resources are always limited
According to Ponton and Gill, politics is the way in
which social affairs are understood and ordered
and by which people acquire greater control over
the situation.
-​ The definition puts to light the different
political ideologies and philosophies that
underlie societal structures.
Politics could be defined in either of two senses:
first, as associated to an “arena” or place, and
second, as a “process.
Basic Concepts: Order, Power, and Justice
1. Order is central to the study of politics because it
shows the different components of human
societies.
a.​ Community
-​ This identity is formed by the unique
circumstances
surrounding
the
group of individuals like geography,
history,
philosophy,
religion,
ideology, language, race, and
allegiance. The cause of its
existence is primarily the protection
of individuals.
b.​ Government
-​ higher level of social order that
exists primarily for the maintenance
and perpetuation of the community
-​ Monarchy is a kind of government in
which one man (king) is noted for his
noble lineage and honor, and he is
vested with the right to rule and
control society.
-​ Aristocracy is another kind of
government in which a selected few
who are known for their wealth and
education have the right to rule.
-​ Democracy is the rule by the people,
for the people, and of the people.
c.​ State
-​ largest social order today and in
which the term politics is originally
derived.
-​ It refers to a community of persons
more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of
territory, having a government of
their own to which the great body of
inhabitants render obedience, and
enjoying freedom from external
control.
2. Power
-​ The different social orders cannot be
maintained without power. Their creation
and perpetuation are brought about by the
exercise of power and the concomitant
establishment of structures.
-​ It is elementary to know that power has
many sources aside from physical force.
-​ These include wealth, culture, diplomatic
relations, and intelligence, to name a few.
3. Justice
-​ It is said that the correct exercise of power
produces justice.
-​ If in the exercise of its power and authority,
the government gives what the people
need, protect and respect their rights, and
put the common good over and above the
personal interest of the leaders, then there
is said to be justice.
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Approaches to the Study of Politics
●​ The two basic approaches to study politics
are political philosophy and political science.
●​ This approach aims to establish what
politics ought to be. As such, it is normative
or prescriptive, analytical, speculative,
and essentially ethical.
●​ political science is the empirical approach in
which it places little emphasis on abstract
and normative questions, and concentrates
on a dispassionate and objective description
of the realities of politics.
-​ it is descriptive, empirical, objective,
and it avoids ethics.
●​ ethics is the foundation of politics; the
ethical formation of the individual is a
condition precedent the society’s political
formation
●​ Political science concretizes the abstract
concepts of political philosophy, while
political philosophy provides a basis or
direction to political science.
Governance in General
The word “governance” came from the Latin verb
“gubernare,” or more originally from the Greek word
“kubernaein,” which means “to steer.”
-​ governance refers to the manner of steering
or governing, or of directing and controlling,
a group of people or a state.
-​ The study of governance, on the contrary, is
generally attuned to the concept of
democracy, and on how the government
and the civil society arrive at a decision in
meeting their needs.
Definition of Governance
●​ Governance is commonly defined as the
exercise of power or authority by political
leaders for the well-being of their country’s
citizens or subjects.
-​ It is the complex process whereby
some sectors of the society wield
power, and enact and promulgate
public policies which directly affect
human and institutional interactions,
and
economic
and
social
development.
MODULE 2: POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
Ideology - a set of opinions or beliefs of a group or
an individual
Political Ideologies - sets of related beliefs about
political theory
Anarchism - The belief that the best government is
absolutely no government is known as anarchism.
This ideology argues that everything about
governments is repressive and, therefore
must be abolished entirely.
A related ideology known as nihilism
emphasizes
that
everything—both
government
and
society—must
be
periodically destroyed in order to start anew.
Liberalism - The European discovery of the
Americas, the rise of Protestantism, the beginnings
of the free-market economy, and the early stages of
the scientific revolution fundamentally altered
Europe.
-​ People began developing different ways of
thinking to take account of these changes.
Conservatism - (also known as classical
conservatism) began as a reaction against the
liberal ideas taking hold of Europe during the
French Revolution in the late eighteenth century.
Nationalism - a strong belief that one’s nation is
great (and, usually, better than others), also arose
during the modern era.
-​ In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
nationalism emerged as a powerful force
that caused a number of revolutions.
-​ People began to identify with and take pride
in their particular nation-state.
Fascism - a highly nationalist, militaristic,
totalitarian political ideology in which one person
has absolute power.
Differentiate Political Ideologies
●​ A political ideology largely concerns itself
with how to allocate power and to what ends
it should be used.
●​ An ideology is a collection of ideas.
2 Dimensions of Political Ideologies
●​ Goals - how society should be organized
●​ Methods - the most appropiate way to
achieve this goal
Effects of Political Ideologies and its Impact to
Social and Political Life of a Filipino
- the impact of political ideology in political life puts
up set of different opinions and belief from group to
individual political party and through these the
ideals of how a society should work varies on how
the power will allocate.
- Political ideologies also affect one’s social life as
everyone fight for their right of understanding as
each opinion contain certain ideas to provide
recommendation for the betterment of one country.
MODULE 3: THE STATE AND GOVERNMENT
State is a community of persons more or less
numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, having a government of their
own to which the great body of inhabitants render
obedience, and enjoying freedom from external
control.
4 Elements of State
●​ People - inhabitants living within the state
●​ Territory - terrestrial, fluvial, maritime, and
aerial.
●​ Government - refers to the agency through
which the will of the state is formulated,
expressed and carried out.
●​ Sovereignty - defined as the supreme power
of the state to command and enforce
obedience to its will from people within its
jurisdiction and corollarily, to have freedom
from foreign control
-​ Internal
-​ External
Origin of States
1.​ Divine right theory
2.​ Necessity or force theory
3.​ Paternalistic theory
4.​ Social contract theory
State Distinguish from Nation
●​ The state is a political concept, while nation
is an ethnic concept.
●​ A state is not subject to external control
while nation may or may not be independent
of external control.
●​ A single state may consist of one or more
nations or peoples and conversely, a single
nation may be made up of several states.
State Distinguish from Government
●​ A state cannot exist without a government,
but it is possible to have a government
without a state.
●​ A government may change, its form may
change, but the state, as long as its
elements are present, remains the same.
State Distinguish from Government
The government is only the agency through which
the states articulate its will.
The state cannot exist without government, but it is
possible to have a government without a state.
A government may change, its form may change,
but the state, as long as its elements are present, it
remains the same.
Purpose and Necessity of Government
1.​ Advancement of the public welfare government exists and should continue to
exist for the benefit of the people governed.
-​ Constituent - protection of society,
security, justice, dealing with foreign
powers
-​ Ministrant - advancement of the
physical, economic, social, and
cultural well-being of the people.
Forms of Government
Monarchy - which the supreme and final authority is
in the hands of a single person without regard to
the source of his election of the nature or duration
of his tenure.
a.​ Absolute monarchy - the ruler rules by
divine right
b.​ Limited monarchy - the ruler rules in
accordance with a constitution
Aristocracy - political power is exercised by a few
privileged class which is known as an aristocracy or
oligarchy.
Democracy - which political power is exercised by a
majority of the people
a.​ Direct or Pure Democracy - the will of state
is formulated or expressed directly and
immediately through the people in a mass
meeting or assembly. REPRESENTATIVES
CHOSEN TO ACT FOR THEM
b.​ Indirect representative or Republican
Democracy - which the will of the state is
formulated and expressed through the
agency of a relatively small and select body
of persons chosen by the people to act as
their representatives.
As to extent of powers exercised by the central or
national government:
1.​ Unitary Government - the control of national
and local affairs is exercise by the central or
national government.
2.​ Federal government - the powers of
government are divided between two sets of
organs, one for national affairs and the
other local affairs, each organ being
supreme within its own sphere.
As to relationship between the executive and
legislative branches of the government:
●​ Parliamentary Government - which the
state confers upon the legislature the power
to terminate the tenure of office of the real
executive.
●​ Presidential Government - in which the state
makes
the
executive
constitutionally
independent of the legislature as regards
his tenure and to a large extent as regards
his policies and acts, and furnishes him with
sufficient powers
GOVERNANCE AND GOVERNMENT
But in the 1980s, political scientists broadened the
meaning of governance as including, not just
government actors, but also civil-society actors.
Today, governance includes three sectors: the
public sector (state actors and institutions), the
private sector (households and companies), and
the civil society (non-governmental organizations).
Many authors also distinguish the two by
associating government with “control and
domination,”
and
governance
with
“decentralization and relational management.”
government refers to a central institution which
wields power over its subjects. It is the instrument
patterned after the model of “command and
control,” the government being in command over
the affairs of the people
Governance entails two processes:
1. Decision-making
2. Implementation of the decision - process that
logically follows the decision; it entails the
actualization or materialization of the plan or
decision.
An actor is a sector or group or institution that
participates in the process of decision-making and
implementation.
A structure refers to an organization or mechanism
that
formally
or
informally
guides
the
decision-making process and sets into motion the
different
actors and apparatuses in the
implementation process.
Other informal actors also exist, such as organized
crime syndicates and powerful families. Their
influence is felt more clearly in local governments,
and in rural and urban areas. Most often than not,
these actors are the cause of corruption, in that
legitimate government objectives are distorted by
their illegal and private interests.
8 Indicators of Good Governance
1.​ Participatory
2.​ Rule of the law
3.​ Effective and efficient
4.​ Transparent
5.​ Responsive
6.​ Equitable and Inclusive
7.​ Consensus oriented
8.​ Accountability
MODULE 4: DEMOCRACY AND CITIZENSHIP
Democracy is a form of government in which
supreme power is held by the people and exercised
directly or through elected representatives. The
word comes from the Greek for “people’s rule.”
Liberal democracy is government characterized by
the twin pillars of democratic institutions, on the one
hand (e.g. elections, representative legislatures,
checks and balances).
-​ Democratic protections on the other (e.g.
the personal freedoms guaranteed by the
U.S. Bill of Rights). Liberal democracies
typically occur in capitalist economies and
stress private property rights. The approach
emphasizes individual rights over the
popular will.
Popular democracy stresses self-rule by a free and
equal people, sees government as an expression of
the “people’s will,” and thus seeks to maximize
citizen participation.
Representative (or indirect) democracy is the form
of government in which legislation is enacted by
representatives who are elected by the citizenry.
-​ In contrast to direct democracy, the majority
delegates power to a minority nominated to
act in their interest.
Direct (or participatory) democracy is a form of
government in which the citizenry itself makes
legislative decisions instead of delegating the
power to elected representatives.
-​ This is often considered the “purest form of
democracy”
Social democracy is based on the belief that
economic equity and social equality—can be
achieved through democratic institutions via
redistribution of wealth within a mixed-market
economy in a welfare state.”
Citizens as “Makers and Shapers”
Citizenship
is
learned
through education,
socialization, exposure to politics, public life, and
day-to-day experiences.
-​ Promoting active citizenship among people
who have been marginalized from politics is
not a straightforward task.
-​ A common vision of citizenship is helpful for
advocacy
-​ citizenship is often expressed through
participation in activities such as volunteer
neighborhood crime watch and clean-up
efforts.
History of Citizenship Concepts
●​ Civil citizenship took shape in the 18th
century western world. It refers to the rights
that are necessary for individual freedom,
such as the rights to free speech and
assembly, property rights, and equal rights
before the law
●​ Political citizenship emerged from struggles
in the 19th century. It emphasizes rights to
participate in the exercise of political
power—whether as a voter, a candidate, or
public official.
DIMENSIONS AND MODELS OF CITIZENSHIP
Three Main Elements or Dimensions
1.​ Legal Status - defined by civil, political and
social rights.
-​ Here, the citizen is the legal person
free to act according to the law and
having the right to claim the law’s
protection
2.​ Political Agents - actively participating in a
society’s political institutions.
3.​ Citizenship as Membership political
community that furnishes a distinct source
of identity
Identity dimension is the least straightforward of the
three. Authors tend to include under this heading
many different things related to identity, both
individual and collective, and social integration.
Arguably, this is inescapable since citizens’
subjective sense of belonging, sometimes called
the “psychological” dimension of citizenship.
Two Models of Citizenship: Republican and Liberal
Republican
-​
Aristotle, Tacitus, Cicero, Machiavelli,
Harrington and Rousseau
-​ is civic self-rule, embodied in classical
institutions and practices like the rotation of
offices,
underpinning
Aristotle’s
characterization of the citizen as one
capable of ruling and being ruled in turn.
Citizens are, first and foremost, “those who
share in the holding of office” (Aristotle
Politics, 1275a8).
-​ Active participation in processes of
deliberation and decision-making ensures
that individuals are citizens, not subjects.
-​ In
essence,
the
republican
model
emphasizes the second dimension of
citizenship, that of political agency
Liberal
-​ which developed from the 17th century
onwards, understands citizenship primarily
as a legal status: political liberty is important
as a means to protecting individual
freedoms from interference by other
individuals or the authorities themselves.
-​ But citizens exercise these freedoms
primarily in the world of private associations
and attachments, rather than in the political
domain.