Motivation
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Defining Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
•The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an
organizational goal.
•Three key elements:
• Intensity – how hard a person tries.
• Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with,
organizational goals.
• Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort.
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Defining Motivation
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Types of Motivation
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs; as each need is substantially satisfied, the
next need becomes dominant.
•Levels:
• Self-Actualization
• Esteem
• Social
• Safety
• Physiological
Higher order
Lower Order
•Assumptions
• Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower)
level are satisfied.
• Must move in hierarchical order.
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research
• Three groups of core needs:
• Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)
• Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)
• Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)
• Removed the hierarchical assumption
• Can be motivated by all three at once
• Popular, but not accurate, theory
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McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• Douglas McGregor (1960), proposed the theories based on the hypothesis related
to human behaviour in his book The Human Side of Enterprise.
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McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
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McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
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McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and
Theory Y (positive).
– Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
– The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
• Theory X
– Workers have little ambition
– Dislike work
– Avoid responsibility
• Theory Y
– Workers are self-directed
– Enjoy work
– Accept responsibility
• No empirical evidence to support this theory
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate
constructs
• Hygiene Factors - Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction
• Work Conditions
• Salary
• Company Policies
• Motivators - Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction
• Achievement
• Responsibility
• Growth
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Psychologist Frederick Herzberg wondered, “What do people want
from their jobs?” He asked people to describe, in detail, situations in
which they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs.
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
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McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
• David Clarence McClelland an American psychologist proposed the
theory that achievement, power, and affiliation are three important
needs that help explain motivation.
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McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
• Need for Achievement (nAch)
• The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to
succeed
• Need for Power (nPow)
• The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved
otherwise
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
• People have varying levels of each of the three needs
• Hard to measure
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Comparison of Content Theories of
Motivation
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Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
• Proposed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, reveals the impressive
effects of goals on performance. Intentions to work toward a goal are
considered a major source of work motivation.
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Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
• Basic Premise:
• That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher
performance.
• Difficult Goals:
• Focus and direct attention
• Energize the person to work harder
• Difficulty increases persistence
• Force people to be more effective and efficient
• Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
• Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
• Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
• Culture
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Skinner Reinforcement Theory
• B. F. Skinner demonstrated that people will likely engage in desired
behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so
• Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired
response
• Behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be
repeated.
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Skinner Reinforcement Theory
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Skinner Reinforcement Theory
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Skinner Reinforcement Theory
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Skinner Reinforcement Theory
• Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a behavioral
approach rather than a cognitive one
• Behavior is environmentally caused
• Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important
• Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
• Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers
• Not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior
• Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but not likely to be the sole
cause
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Adams’ Equity Theory
• John Stacey Adams, equity theory focuses on determining whether
the costs and rewards for each individual working for an organization
are fair.
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Adams’ Equity Theory
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Adams’ Equity Theory
• Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of
relevant others
• When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – no tension as the
situation is considered fair
• When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
• Underrewarded states cause anger
• Overrewarded states cause guilt
• Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity
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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• Victor Vroom’s theory argues that the strength of our tendency to act
a certain way depends on the strength of our expectation of a given
outcome and its attractiveness.
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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• Victor Vroom’s theory argues that the strength of our tendency to act
a certain way depends on the strength of our expectation of a given
outcome and its attractiveness.
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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
•Important linkages:
–Expectancy of performance success
–Instrumentality of success in getting reward
–Valuation of the reward in employee’s eyes
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