TRANSFORMATION IN SOUTH AFRICAN HIGHER EDUCATION
INSTITUTIONS:FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ADVANCEMENT OF
BLACK SOUTH AFRICAN LECTURERS
By
Nomalungelo Nompumelelo Ndlovu
217055247
A Dissertation submitted in partical fulfillment of the requirement for the
degree of Bachelor of Commerce Honours in Industrial Relations
College of Law and Management Studies
School of Management, Information, Technology and Governance
Supervisor: Lungile Ntombela
2020
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………………..4
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………..5
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………6
CHAPTER ONE……………………………………………………………………………...7
GENERAL INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………..7
1.1 Background………………………………………………………………………. ……….7
1.2 Introduction ……………………………..,………………………………………………..9
1.3 Rational of the study.……………………………………………………………………..10
1.4 Focus of the study..…….…………………………………………………………………11
1.5 Significance of the study….………………………………………………………………11
1.6 Problem statement.……………………………………………………………………….12
1.7 Objectives …………………………………………………………………….………….13
1.8 Research Questions.………………………………………………………………………13
1.9 Organization of the study...……………………………………………………………….14
Chapter One:Introduction ..……………………………………………………,….,…….14
Chapter Two: Literature Review...……………………. …………………………………14
Chapter Three:Research Design & Methodology….……………………………………..14
Chapter Four:Presentation of data and discussion of results…...…………………………14
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations…..:.………………………………….14
1.10
Conclusion….::.:.…………………..:………………………………………………..14
CHAPTER TWO…..………………………………………………………………………..15
LITERATURE REVIEW...……………………::……………………………………………15
2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………15
2.2 History of transformation of Higher education institutions in South Africa ..…………….15
2.3 Affirmative Action………………………………………………………………………..16
2.3.1 Black Academics in South African universities...………………………………………17
2.3.2 Black Female Academics in South African universities..……………………………….18
2.3.3 Black South African lecturers with disabilities…………………………………………19
2.4 Transformation in historically “black” Vs Former..………………………………………20
2.5 Institutional barriers to culture of inclusivity…..…………………………………………22
2.6 The recruitment and promotion of black lecturers in institutions of higher education….....23
2.7 Conclusion…………………………………………..:.:………………………………….24
CHAPTER THREE…..……………………………………………………………………..25
RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODOLOGY….……………………………………,………25
3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………25
3.2 Research design.………………………………………………………………………….25
3.3 Research Method…..………………………………………………….:…………………26
3.4 Research Approach…...…………………………………………………………………..26
3.5 Target population…...…………………………………………………………………….26
3.6 Sources of data…...……………………………………………………………………….27
3.7 Data Analysis…..…………………………………………………………………………27
3.8 Ethical considerations...…………………………………………………………………..28
3.9 Conclusion.……………………………………………………………………………….28
CHAPTER FOUR …………………………………………………………………………..29
DATA PRESENTATION,ANALYSIS &DISCUSSION OF RESULTS...………………….29
4.1 Introduction.……………………………………………………………………………...29
4.2 Presentation of results...…………………………………………………………………..29
4.2.1 Factors influencing the transformation agenda in South African higher education……..30
4.2.1.1 South African legislation….………………………………………………………….30
4.2.1.2 Political influences and stakeholder’s interest….……………………………………..31
4.2.1.3 Institutional culture within historically White institutions….……………………….. 31
4.2.1.4 Globalization...……………………………………………………………………….31
4.2.2 Transformation in historically White universities...…………………………………….32
4.3 Patterns of promotion at Senior levels of academic hierarchies for black lecturers in white
universities..………………………………………………………………………………….33
4.4 Challenges that impede the advancement of black South African lecturers….……………35
4.5 Conclusion .………………………………………………………………………………37
CHAPTER FIVE .…………………………………………………………………………..38
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS ………………………………………………38
5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………38
5.2 Conclusions from findings..………………………………………………………………38
5..2.1 Transformation in higher education..…………………………………………………..38
5.2.2 Promotion patterns...……………………………………………………………………38
5.2.3.Challenges that impede the advancement of Black South African lecturers...…………..39
5.3 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………..39
5.4 Limitations………………………………………………………………………………..40
5.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..40
DECLARATION
I, NOMALUNGELO NOMPUMELELO NDLOVU declare that:
i. The research reported in the thesis, except where otherwise indicated, is my original research.
ii. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university.
iii. This thesis does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other information,
unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons.
iv. This thesis does not contain other persons’ writing, unless specifically acknowledged as
being sources from other researchers. Where other written
sources have been quoted, then;
a. Their words have been re-written but the general information attributed to them has been
referenced;
b. Where their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside quotation
marks and referenced.
v. Where I have reproduced a publication of which I am author, co-writer or editor, I have
indicated in detail which part of the publication was written by myself alone and have fully
referenced each publication.
vi. This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet
unless specifically acknowledged, and the source being detailed in the dissertation/thesis and
in the References section.
Nomalungelo Nompumelelo Ndlovu
.......................................... .................
Signature
18 January 2020
……………………
Date
ABSTRACT
The shift from apartheid to democracy paved the way for notable changes in South Africa’s
institutions of higher education. The study investigates transformation in South African higher
education institutions and delve intensively into the advancement of black South African
lecturers in historically White universities. The major concern in which this study aims to
explore is the progression black South African lecturers within the sector. Studies have found
that black academics find it difficult to advance into senior academic positions and
professorships. The study aimed to explore the factors influencing transformation in South
African institutions of Higher learning, understand the patterns of promotions at senior levels
of academic hierarchies for black South African lecturers in historically white universities and
the challenges that impede the advancement of Black South African lecturers within
historically white institutions. The study used a desktop research style of research to investigate
the advancement of black South African lecturers in historically white universities. The
universities that were investigated were Stellenbosch university, University of Cape,
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Rhodes University and Witwatersrand University. Using
content analysis to analyze the data, the findings indicated that social and economic inequalities
as well as bias promotion systems are the key factors that contribute significantly to the
impediment of progression of black South African lecturers within higher education
institutions. The findings from analysis also revealed that the decolonization of higher
education is required to reconstruct the sector for the better and the development of a promotion
policy would help to address the issues of bias promotion systems. The findings also revealed
that institutional culture is the engine of transformation; to make progress, the sector must
enforce the universities to modify their institutional culture.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Undertaking this project has been a great learning curve and a life changing experience. I wish
to express my gratitude to my Supervisor Miss Lungile Ntombela for her sincere guidance and
support throughout the course of the research work. It would not have been possible to complete
this project without her.
I wish to extend my special thanks to my family (namely my parents) Thokozani and Jabulani
Ndlovu and my friend who been nothing but loving and supportive. I would like to thank God
for giving me the strength to complete this work.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Thompsell (2018) described apartheid as an Afrikaans word that means “separation” which
resulted in economic and political discrimination of non-white. Racism was strengthened by
European colonialism and the country’s black majority was controlled by the racists laws
enshrining white supremacy (Blakemore, 2019). The racial difference between blacks and
whites was a war of superiority and inferiority, this can be validated by the conflict theory by
Karl Marx. The implication of this theory is that those in possession of wealth and resources
will protect and hoard those resources, while those without will do whatever they can to obtain
them (Corporate finance institute ,2015). In this case, it was a deliberate decision by the
colonialists to segregate blacks away from whites, so as power is gained and to further control
the access to resources. This era brought much frustration to the black society while white
people were flourished as they had the right of access to land, sought to maintain domination
and power by monopolizing resources.
Economic and political changes that occurred as a result of industrialization forced the
government to provide schooling for blacks. (Mhlauli, 2015) The education system for black
people was referred to as Bantu education was established in 1953. Zungu (1977) argued that
Bantu education was based on the Afrikaner nationalism ideology whose intention was to
consolidate the dominance of white Afrikaners at the expense of poor blacks and other
minorities in every realm of the country. In 1953, prior to the apartheid government’s Bantu
education act, 90% of black South African schools were state-aimed mission schools. (South
African history,2019) Mission schools integrated the western cultures and narrative, these
schools were denied funding. This education system undermined the capabilities of black
people, its curriculum was of a poor content and did not correspond to the labour market
demands, it further brainwashed black people. In addition, Penfold (2018) highlighted that
Bantu Education aimed at constructing new ethnic nationalism amongst Africans whilst
making them consume a pre-determined version of their own culture. It made black people to
abominate their philosophy or ideology and view the world from eyes of a white man. After
19600s, there was an emergence of anti-apartheid movements including the black
consciousness movement by Steve Biko to essentially change the society. Hadfield (2017)
argued that it sought a full liberation of black South Africans through immediate and relevant
action that would make people self-reliant. Its initial plan was to decolonize the minds of black
people and reconstruct black political, social-cultural and economic ideologies.
Sultana (2011) contended patriarchy creates obstacles for women to go forward in society and
that patriarchal institutions and social relations are responsible for the inferior and secondary
status of women. It assumes the woman’s natural role is domestic one, the apartheid
government had studied the South African society and made jobs that were meant to attract
men and kicked women out of the equation. The stereotype that men should ‘take charge’ and
women should ‘take care’ which constructed the society haunted women down, made them do
the greatest share of household and childcare activities for survival. Booysen (2007) asserted
that racial hierarchies embedded under the system of apartheid created distinctive social
locations with structured gender and racial experiences. The apartheid simultaneously
established a race and gender hierarchy drive in unequal power relations. The best and highest
paid jobs in the economy including managerial positions were exclusively for white men.
(Booysen, 2007) Blacks were primarily employed in unskilled jobs characterized by low
wages, job insecurity and degrading working conditions. This signifies some firms never
attempted to develop and implement gender policies to address the issue of gender inequality
in the place of work and reveals the lack of trust in women to the do the same amount of work
as men. Despite differences in levels of domination and the broad principles remain the same,
men are in control. (Sultana,2011)
According to the Round Table (2008) in 1948, the national party came into power and members
of the government declared that they intended to apply the policy of apartheid to university
education. The higher education in South Africa was designed to keep and embed power and
privilege of the ruling white minority. Bunting (2006) asserted that higher education
institutions established in the early part of the century were incorporated into a system which
was subsequently shaped and fragmented with a view to serving the goals and strategies of
successive apartheid government. For instance, the Round Table (2008) outlined that the
English-medium University of Natal admitted only white students academically as well as
socially. According to Department of education (2011), more than 80% of student with
disabilities were not schools. Schools in lower levels and institutions of higher education did
not make special arrangements to accommodate student and academic staff member.
After the era or Apartheid ended in the early 1990’s, measures were taken to transform South
Africa into a democratic country which later became a reality in 1994. Jawitz (2012) argued
that in 1994, the South African government embarked on a drive to transform from the racially
segregated higher education, primarily designed to serve the minority white community into a
resource for all South Africans. To correct the past injustices the Employment equity Act 55
of 1998 was established, its purpose as described in section 2 of the act was to promote fair
treatment and equal opportunities in the workplace through the enforcement of the affirmative
act measure that ensures the economically marginalized group is put at the forefront.
The higher education act of 1997 repealed the private acts that placed by universities under
parliamentary oversight and established for the tighter central government control than ever
before.(Christopher &Merrett, 2014) Sehoole and Adeyomo (2016) contended that the pursuit
of transformational goals that would facilitate access and fair chance of success to correct past
inequalities in higher education came with many challenges. The EEA was put in place as a
vehicle for change and to decentralize into the hands of the minorities. The education system
in the higher education institutions was then reshaped to meet the goals of equity and
democratization. Hadfield (2017) asserted that black consciousness movement led to an
expansion of black universities, segregated according to ethnicity. There was an evolution of
ethnical universities around 19600s such as the University of Zululand, university of the North
and Mangosuthu University of technology to accommodate quite a number of students rejected
by non-white institutions and push the culture of teaching and learning in home language
because language has been found as the potential barrier to performance. Meierand Hartell
(2009) were of a view that a radically blind educational system may lead to ignorance of
diversity of students regardless of their race. The historically white universities including
Stellenbosch, Witwatersrand and the university of Cape town taught in Afrikaans language but
after 1994, they began to decolonize their curriculum and made efforts to diversify their staff
members and students.
1.2 Introduction
South Africa is faced with the challenge of redressing past inequalities. Professor Wim de
Villiers, Stellenbosch university’s vice-chancellor in his speech in a conference that was held
in Pretoria in 2019 mentioned that it was important for the country’s universities to change
their institutional culture to better accommodate a new generation of students and staff. He
further stated that universities play an important role in society and have a vital contribution to
make to national development. Schulze (2006) argued that academics’ tasks are primarily
teaching, research and community service, also that they have to keep abreast of new
developments in other fields that influence the way they work. Academics diffuse knowledge
and continuously gather information to respond to problems that arise from time to time. In
addition, for the universities to remain relevant, they heavily rely on academics to make use of
innovation and continuous learning to keep up with the fast-ever changing world. After 1994,
as stated by Bunting (2006) 36 higher education institutions included historically
disadvantaged universities and 7 Technikons for black Africans, Coloureds and Indians. The
demographics including the teaching context, ethnic group, employment period and gender
essentially changed to reduce barriers of employment of designated groups and for multiracial
profile of students’ enrollment. However, the white paper on higher education (Department of
education, 1997) attributed that the composition of staff in higher education fails to reflect
demographic realities.
This dissertation seeks to assess the equity in higher education institutions. It focuses on the
recruitment of academics in the post-digital era. The education system was reformed to meet
the goals of equity and democratization by ensuring access for all citizens including the
designated groups. Portnoi (2009) affirms that a significant area of transformation involves
reconfiguring institutions staff complements to achieve a welcoming environment for staff
from all backgrounds and more equitable workplace. The study outlines the challenges
encountered in the process of transforming the higher education and examines the efforts made
by the higher education institutions to diversify their staff members. Furthermore, evaluate the
institutional culture and the inclusive approaches by institutions in accommodating black
academics with special needs. Finally, make recommendations by incorporating theories to
enhance equity and ensure employee satisfaction.
1.3 Rational of the study
The globalization of higher education has led to new work arrangements and intensified
competition among universities. Christopher and Merritt (2014) observed that global trends
have affected all universities to some degree, there are now greater pressures on universities to
diversify to receive funding from the government in the form of subsidies. The paper
determines whether the equity measures by the institutions are relevant and respond to the
realities and investigate the relationship between research productivity and the promotion as
the academic staff members are under so much pressure to be active and productive in research
and teaching. Lekgotla (2017) stated that the universities continue to produce citizens with
PHD degrees, but it is the white South Africans who get to teach and work in the universities.
Despite the effort made by the government to promote equity, inequalities still persist, the
academic staff compliment is still majority white in historically non-white universities.
Lekgotla (2017) further stated that demographic inequality maybe be a result not of biased
promotion process but of recruitment processes and staff retention. The study is inspired to
find the underlying barriers holding back academics in advancing their career in historically
white universities.
1.4 Focus of the study
This paper focuses on the treatment of the black South African academics including men,
women. There are almost equal numbers of men and women (staff) overall, women are
clustered in lower ranks of academic hierarchy (RSA,2013) Despite the measures taken to
challenge a traditional male work environment, there has been limited progress in moving
towards equality at work for women. And Cloetta and Bunting (2002) emphasized that women
occupied between 30-35% of academic positions but 90% of senior and middles ranks were
male. Coetzee (2015) argued that one of the most difficult challenges of diversity management
concerns the treatment of employees, each with his or her unique needs, goals, experiences and
personal characteristics. This study looks exclusively at transformation of Black south African
lecturers in historically white institutions. Historically white universities continue to be
overwhelming white and in the natural sciences, male (Bellurgi and Thandhlana ,2018). )The
study focuses on academic staff who identify as black South Africans, who are employed in
institutions regarded white institutions. It provides the implications of employing academic
staff members with disabilities and investigate how these academics are treated in higher
education institutions as Brown and Leigh (2018) revealed that academics with health
conditions are concerned that they are not taken seriously or seen as academics in their own
right.
1.5 Significance of the study
The study is significant in the sense that it makes an important contribution to an understanding
of pressures faced by the black academics. The globalization of higher education has resulted
to an influx of foreign academics in South Africa. The national plan on higher education sought
to change the staff profile and proposed strategies and one of these included the active
recruitment of academics from the rest of the world to provide role models for black students
and helping to change institutional cultures.(Sehoole, Ojo, Adeyemo & Phatlane ,2019)
Universities such as the University of Cape Town, University of KwaZulu Natal and Fort Hare
university have been employing foreign academics for them to contribute to knowledge
generation and claiming that they have radially redressed not realizing that they are slowly
excluding black academics. Selesho and Naile (2014) contended retention of employees in
higher education institutions is a serious concern and the high turnover rate of academic staff
poses a major challenge to these institutions. The study seeks to evaluate the recruitment and
promotion strategies and integrate the findings with the staff turnover rates in exposing the
treatment of academics in higher education. The study will evaluate the organizational
architecture and in institutions of learning in higher education and highlight the demographic
positioning strategy to determine whether black academics including those with special needs,
are treated fairly and given equal opportunities as others. It also attempts to enhance the existing
literature on the injustices in higher education and contribute to the body of knowledge
regarding the employment of the academics.
1.6 Problem statement
The study seeks to find out the causes of demographic inequalities in higher education. Black
academics struggle to find a sense of belonging at formerly white institutions and this signifies
that some of the former white universities remain resistant to change. Vandeyar’s (2010)
findings were that black academics had to work harder to prove their competence even though
they had excellent academic credentials and years of teaching experience at tertiary at
institutions. Van Wyk (2004) was of an opinion that the University of Cape Town (UCT) is
experiencing the revolving door syndrome by which, as soon as they recruit people, they lose
them again. According to the UCT, it has developed a recruitment, development and retention
programme in 2018 sought to remove barriers that affect staff from the designated groups.
However, Issacs (2019) findings were that only 26% of academic staff were categorized in the
“generic” black South African category including black South Africans, Coloured, Indian and
Chinese and only 9% of the overall staff complement was black South African. On the other
hand, the university of KwaZulu Natal (UKZN) claims to play an actively part in the national
transformation agenda on their 2017 annual report as they welcome staff from all backgrounds.
However, Chetty and Merrett (2014) stated that UKZN was accused that the upper echelons of
the university were defending the apartheid status quo or pretend to accept change; argued that
deliberate policy had prevented any black academic from becoming a faculty dean.
UKZN reflects the national demographics and has made efforts to eliminate barriers of the
employment of black academics but transformation is not just about the numbers but also about
the transfer of power. A few academics from the designated groups hold higher positions at
UKZN, whereas UCT’s academic staff demographics comprise of a few black academics but
more female academics. The issue is that the universities fail to diversify the staff profile by
recruiting more black academics and promote the existing black academics into higher and
better positions. The struggle is that these institutions claim to have racially redressed, yet they
do not recruit and transfer power into the hands of black academics. Former non-white
institutions still have a few black professors even with higher education transformation efforts.
A study conducted in 2016 revealed White professors’ statistics in these institutions were as
follows; Stellenbosch university had 80,8%, University of Witwatersrand with 75% and North
West university with 83.8%. (Staff reporter 2016) Furthermore, Tshwane university of
technology, Durban University of technology and Zululand university were the only
institutions with more black professors. Why black academics have to go overboard to prove
themselves they are suitable for the available positions and what hinders the South African
universities from welcoming staff from all backgrounds while maintaining the highest
international standards of academic governance?
1.7 Objectives
•
To explore the factors influencing transformation in South African institutions of
Higher learning.
•
To understand the patterns of promotions at senior levels of academic hierarchies for
black South African lecturers in historically white Universities.
•
To highlight the challenges that impede the advancement of black South African
lecturers within historically white institutions.
1.8 Research Questions
The study seeks to answer the following questions
•
What are the factors influencing transformation in South African institutions of higher
learning?
•
What are the patterns of promotions at senior academic hierarchies for black South
African lectures in historically white Universities?
•
What are challenges that impede the advancement of black South African lecturers in
historically white Universities?
1.9 Organization of the study
The study consists of 5 chapters which are organized as follows:
Chapter One: Introduction
This chapter provides a broad overview of the study. It includes the background, followed by
the motivation of the study and the focus of the study. It further discusses the the significance
of the study, problem statement and the research objectives and questions.
Chapter Two: Literature Review
The chapter starts off by reflecting on the history of South African higher education and then
evaluate the effectiveness of the Affirmative Action Policy. It then compare transformation in
historically ‘Black’ and former ‘White’ institutions in South Africa. The study taps on the
institutional barriers to the culture of inclusivity and concludes with a discussion on the
recruitment and promotion of black lecturers in institutions of higher education
Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology
This chapter explains the research methodology in which the study was conducted. It gives the
direction in which the study is taking to fulfill the objectives of the study. The chapter discusses
the research approach, sources of data, data analysis and concludes with a discussion on ethical
consideration.
Chapter Four: Presentation of data and Discussion of Results
The chapter presents and analyzes data retrieved from journals, articles and dissertations that
have already been published. The data is interpreted and categorized under three key themes.It
analyzed data using qualitative content on analysis as a technique to investigate ad respond to
the research questions.
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations
The chapter provides the summary of the findings and make recommendations based on the
data retrieved. And outlines the limitations of the study
1. 10 Conclusion
This chapter provided a broad overview of the research and highlighted the major problem in
which the study focuses on. It also outlined the processes and steps to be undertaken in fulfilling
the research objectives
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter of the study discusses the literature review. A literature review is a survey of
scholarly sources on a specific topic; it provides a n overview of current knowledge, allowing
an author to identify relevant theories, techniques and gaps in the existing research
(McCombes,2019). It explores transformation in higher education institutions in South Africa
by focusing on the factors that influence the advancement of black lecturers. The chapter will
start off by looking at the history of transformation of higher education in South Africa prior
and after the apartheid era; discuss the impact of policies implemented by the democratic
government to promote equity and correct the past injustices. It involves discussions on
affirmative action that sought to give preferences first to previously disadvantaged people
including black African men, women and those living with disabilities. Furthermore, elaborate
on the racial segregation in higher education as institutions were divided in terms of race and
further explain how both historically black institutions and historically white institutions have
contributed to the process of transforming higher education and training sector. Finally, analyze
the recruitment and promotion of black African in institutions of higher education and examine
the institutional culture and inclusive approaches by various institutions to address the issues
of inequalities.
2.2 History of transformation of Higher education institutions in South Africa
Before 1994, the South African higher education institutions had inherited socio-economic
structures from the apartheid government. Jawitz (2011) asserted that prior to constitutional
democratic country, social inequalities were embedded and reflected in all spheres of social
life, as a product of the systematic exclusion of black men, women and those with disabilities
under colonialism and apartheid. When the democratic government took over, the focus was
on correcting the past injustices through inclusive policies and initiatives. These policies were
derived from the South Africa constitution, which includes the following principles: human
dignity, equality, freedom, non-racialism and non-sexism. The higher education act no 101 of
1997 was put in place to transform programmes and institutions to respond better to the human
resource, economic and development needs of the public and most significantly to establish a
single coordinated higher education system which promotes co-operative governance and
provides for programme-based higher education (Staatskoerant, 1998). The act was promoting
or supporting the goals by the government which is to transform the South Africa institutions
of higher education and training. It sought to progressively ensure the availability and
accessibility of higher education to all. However, there is a narrow interpretation of
transformation, the institutions are limiting themselves to demographic changes only (Majola,
2020).
To mirror the ideal society, the democratic government envisioned to eliminate the hierarchies
of races, identities, religions and gender and others and build a rainbow nation. Jawitz (2011)
contended that the academic practices in higher education is SA cannot be fully understood
without taking race into account. Racial classification was the foundation of apartheid laws,
and these laws enforced different racial groups to be treated differently and to be kept apart.
Price (2016) defined a critical race theory as a framework that offers researchers, practioners
and policymakers a race conscious approach to understand educational inequalities, structural
racism to find solutions that lead to greater justice. In this context, race is essential to
understanding current regimes of inequalities and how race impacts other forms of inequality
like gender, sexuality and disability to mention a few.
2.3Affirmative action
Affirmative action is one of the policies implemented to redress the imbalances in the place of
work. Affirmative action means affirming and promoting equal opportunities for people to
empower them so to have full engagement in society (Archibong and Adejumo, 2013). It was
put in place to give preferences first to those who were previously disadvantaged including
black African men, women and people living with disabilities. Affirmative action policy stems
from the Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998. In the higher education context, this policy was
embedded to promote the employment of qualifying black African lecturers and ensure equal
opportunities and fair treatment. Affirmative action has been one of the factors that have guided
the transformation process and influenced the recruitment of black African lecturers. Professor
Benatar from the UCT published an article expressing his views on affirmative action. He
contended that one the problems with this policy is that employers would appoint less qualified
or weaker black African applicants above more qualified of stronger white candidates (Van De
Bank, Mpahlali & Moloi,2015). On a broader perspective, the policy acknowledges the social
and economic inequalities hence the provisions it made to correct the injustices and thereby
focus on diversifying the workplaces. Basically, affirmative action is the prerequisite for the
development of diversity. Affirmative action is termed as ‘Positive discrimination’ or ‘Reverse
discrimination’ depending on the personal narratives, but the employment equity act no. 55 of
1998 recognizes affirmative action as one of the 4 grounds in which discrimination is permitted.
Furthermore, the employer is allowed to discriminate a candidate based on inherent
requirements, the conception that affirmative actions is unethical because it promotes the
appointment or the employment of unqualified black African lecturers can be challenged.
Affirmative action is thus deeply troubling exactly because it has the potential to affect deep
transformation (De Vos, 2007).Some institutions have narrowly interpreted the policy as the
focus is on increasing numbers of lecturers that were previously disadvantaged only, not
considering the fact that black African lecturers were socially, politically, economically and
culturally alienated. According to Seepe (2017), for more than a decade, the University of Cape
Town was led by two black African vice chancellors, but the institution failed to attract a
significant number of black scholars. Moreover, the university of Witwatersrand was also led
by a black leader at the top for a decade, yet in 2010, 90% of lecturers were white males.
Archibong and Adejumo (2013) argued that affirmative action is ineffective because people
living with disability are heavily marginalized, there is a stereotyping corruption, nepotism,
lack of monitoring, favoritism and the top has not changed. The impact of affirmative action
cannot be ignored, significant changes have been made in the institutions of higher education.
However, some universities have demographics that reflect the South African society but with
black academics used as gatekeepers. Job opportunities are still reserved for those who have
benefited under colonialism and males are preferred to female in new post-apartheid patriarchal
state (Subbage & Vithal, 2017).
2.3.1 Black academics in South African Universities
The impact of neoliberal policies on affirmative action in general was quite direct, the African
bourgeoisies were the most beneficiaries of the privatized assets; often black people were used
as a token representative to enable white-run companies to acquire assets (Ratuva,2013).
Neoliberalism influenced the institutions of higher education is South Africa to rely on or
support the principles of capitalism; universities compete with one another, all desperate to
recruit highly skilled academics and they have employed some of the academics on a temporary
basis of cut down on labour costs. A study that was conducted at UCT based on the issue of
race demographics suggested that quality is perhaps comprised at other universities that have
more black professors (Staff Reporter,2015). One of the arguments against affirmative action
is that it promotes the recruitment of unskilled black academics; this perhaps undermines the
competencies of black academics, the problem could be with the universities, as their focus is
on building a sustainable competitive advantage and rankings. Professor Xokela Mangcu who
is a sociologist at UCT voiced her opinion on the issues of racial demographics at UCT in 2015
by stating that the presence of African academics creates a false image of transformation (Staff
reporter, 2015) Black academics from other countries in Africa are counted as equity
candidates which is another problem that has triggered the issues of affirmative action.
Professor Mike Morris also from UCT argued against prof. Mangcu, He argued that those who
articulate identity politics focus on the subliminal shared experience of ‘Blackness’, of being
‘African’, and being oppressed by race. (Staff reporter,2015). His argument is that it would be
unfair for black foreign academics not to be counted as equity candidates because students in
all almost all universities in the country would not be able to learn from the varied experience
of Africa associates.
2.3.2 Black female academics in South African Universities.
Professor Momokgethi Phakeng from UCT in her speech in August on the women’s day event
in 2019 stated that black women face not only race and gender oppression but also oppression
that comes in the form of coloniality, culture and language. Black women suffered dual
oppression, the oppression of being black women in a segregated political system and
oppression from the patriarchal African culture (Mokhele,2013) and still have to work harder
and even when they achieve success, it is not guaranteed (Swingler,2019). The DHET have
made some progress over the past few years as the number of senior female lecturers has grown,
however, transformation goes beyond just access and diversity but also about the transfer or
distribution of power in the hands of those who were economically marginalized. The
employment equity and the affirmative action had minimal effect as the South African higher
education continues to be male dominated and still too few black female academics hold
professorships (Rillock, 2019). Bhopal (2019) revealed that in the United Kingdom, black
academics are the least likely of the main ethnic groups to be professors. The lack of black
female academics is almost a global issue, this is an evident that there are still barriers and
challenges of gender within higher education. The female participation rate at doctoral level is
relatively low in SA and Rillock (2019) made a reference to UCT, that in 2014 only 4% of SA
professors were black Africans and even now the number of black South African PHD students
is small. This can thus be linked to social inequalities, financial constrains or burdens
sometimes hinder black African women to go further with their studies. According to the report
on women and research (2010) many women have caring and other time-consuming
commitments outside of work which limits their ability to focus on the academic research
necessary to compete and build successful academics careers. Outside the world of work,
women are mothers and the backbone of their families, and these responsibilities affect their
productivity levels and allow men to outperform women and they also have burdens of high
teaching loads which prevent them from pursuing and completing doctoral degrees. Tyatya
(2020) contended that the MTT makes a number of recommendations including the
development of ‘Fit-for-purpose’ financial packages to recruit, retain and progress black and
female academics. This is a great initiative to push the culture of recruiting African female
academics and promoting them to superior positions as men.
2.3.3 Black South African lecturers with disabilities
One of the objectives of affirmative action was to address disability in the place of work. The
higher education and training sector acknowledges the right of people with disabilities to enjoy
equal opportunities and participate fully in the country (Strategic policy framework on
disability for post-school education and training system, 2018). The United Nations convention
on the right of person with disabilities recognizes persons who have long-term physical, mental,
intellectual, neurological, psychological or sensory impairments which in integration with
various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis
with others. The DHET has made efforts to include people with disabilities by enforcing
institutions to consider mainstreaming of people living with disabilities, creating enabling
environment and equitable allocation. According to the strategic policy framework on
disability for post-school education and training system, disability mainstreaming is the process
through which governments and other stakeholders ensure that persons with disabilities
participate equally with others in any activity and service intended for general public.
There has been an increase number of students in the institutions of higher education, almost
all universities are committed in prioritizing the needs of students with all kinds of disabilities.
However, Lehohla (2014) contended that the employment equity report 201 showed that people
living with disabilities only constitute 1,4% in top management white dominating (63%), 1,2
in senior management, while white males (44,2%) and white females (19,4%) constituted the
skilled workforce. This signifies employment percentage of black lecturers with disabilities
nationwide is relatively low, and the EEA allows an employer to terminate the employment
contract if the employee is unable to fulfill the job requirements and reasonable accommodation
cannot be made. Maja, Mann, Sing and Naidoo (2008) asserted that measures put in place to
ensure disability inclusion have not been effective as they suggest that disabled people cannot
be employed on merit and required special treatment within the work environment. It has been
said that the hiring of a person who is disabled comes with great costs and responsibility, hence
the number of disabled lecturers especially black African lecturers is very low.
2.4 Transformation in historically “black” vs former “white” universities in South Africa.
The apartheid government sanctioned racial segregation. Racial segregation was applied to the
rest of the society to higher education; the system divided institutions in terms of ethnicity and
socio-economic status. This racial segregation was formalized by what has become known as
historically black and historically white institutions (Belluigi & Thondhlana, 2019) The
historically white institutions were predominantly white, and included a few number of
students and the academic staff from the other ethnic groups including black people, Coloureds
and Indians; these ethnic groups were segregated to follow the principle of the ruling party
which was to entrench power and privilege of the ruling white minority. The historically black
universities in South Africa were established by the apartheid government to serve black
students from attending segregated white only universities (Itora,2006). Historically white
institutions continue to be overwhelming white, and Tyatya (2020) revealed that the percentage
share of white academics is particularly high in former white only institutions such as
Stellenbosch, university of Pretoria, Rhodes university where white academics comprised 77%,
76 and 70% respectively with the opposite being true for former black only universities. Seepe
(2017) further stated that the higher education seems to be locked into patterns of behavior in
terms of recruitment, skills development and promotion. The staff demographics in former
white institutions have changed swiftly, but the struggles for black African lecturers continues
because an employer can decide on whom to promote, institutions may increase the numbers
just to make black academics gatekeepers. Sadiq (2019) in his study found that white academics
at UCT were promoted approximately 1.85 years faster than non-whites and Zondi (2017)
claimed that non-white have unrealistic expectations placed on them for job opportunities
regardless of the fact that some have only been given opportunities in the last 24 years to catch
up with their white peers who had access to funding for years to build their academic profits.
Moreover, Maboleka (2011) asserted that research and publication are still dominated by the
male scholars at historically white universities, the majority of whom are white; one may argue
that this could the reason white male scholars are still dominating in these institutions because
research and publications are one of the factors considered when academic staff are promoted.
Black African lecturers still have to work ten times harder to get employed, pro ted and to keep
their jobs. Zondi (2017) also mentioned professor Phakeng for UCT raising her concern
regarding racial disparities within the institution who said that there are many white academics
who are given professorship but do not have any doctoral qualifications and nobody questions
their credentials at their academic track record and they do not even have and they can get away
with it because they are white. Furthermore, professor Ramugondo had a legal action against
UCT for supposedly hiring less qualified white academics for the post VC. Prof Ramugondo
had been an acting VC for 6 months but the hiring committee chose Professor Lis Lunge, a
white woman and less qualified for the position. Another issue is that some historically white
universities may be seeking to address staff transformation imperatives through the recruitment
of black academics from the continent (Mahlati, 2020). Recruiting black academics from the
other countries within the Africa is another way of promoting multiculturalism, it is more likely
that these academics could bring in new ideas, innovation and indigenous knowledge, but
institutions must ensure black African academics from South Africa are employed as much as
the foreign academics. However, according to SAHRC report (2020) there is still a glimmer of
hope as one of the formerly white universities UKZN has demonstrated genuine efforts in the
transformation of higher education and has shattered the narratives on the employment of black
African men and women. Seepe (2017) proves that UKZN is indeed in promising position and
in the path of transforming further higher education as she stated that in 2011, 33% of academic
leaders were females as compared to 0% in 2004 and the institutions disrupts the ‘only black
person’ or the ‘only women’ syndrome as gatekeepers.
Dlakavu (2014) argued that the South African dilemma is that some institutions with good
equity are poor knowledge procedures and vice versa. The historically, black universities
including Zululand, Mangosuthu, Walter Sisulu and Limpopo university were created in the
image of apartheid, their agendas mirrored the structural and political realities. These
institutions were established to absorb large numbers of black African students who were
rejected in former white universities. Black universities lack a culture of research hence the
number of professors is also few in black universities and these institutions mostly have good
equity but fail to maintain high-level knowledge. On lighter note, universities like Mangosuthu
university of technology support for staff pursuing higher degrees qualifications, a portion of
time is allocated for further studies for staff who registered for post-graduates programmes
MUT 2015 Annual report (2016).
2.5 Institutional barriers to the culture of inclusivity
Institutions of higher education have responded differently towards measures put in place to
erase the divisive legacy of colonialism and apartheid. Some institutions have embraced
transformation by conforming with the government’s policies and even went as far as changing
their institutional culture to respond with these legislations. However, other institutions are
claiming to have adopted transformation measures yet their institutional culture do not mirror
the goals of equity or diversity and democratization. Suransky and Van de Merwe (2014)
explained institutional culture as deeply embedded patterns of organization behavior and
shared deeply values, assumptions, beliefs or ideologies that members have about their
organization or its work. The institutional culture stimulates desired institutional standards and
demonstrates the intentions by the institution. The inclusive approaches in most of the
universities reflect decisions that were taken a while ago. Seepe (2017) said “We keep walking
on the path of the past and yet we expect to arrive at different destination” Furthermore,
According to the SAHRC report (2020) in Witz university, 70% of black staff members felt
that the climate of the university was alienating and compounded with racism, hampered
advancement. This signifies a miscorrelation between what the university claims it has done to
promote equity and the employee experiences. Moreover, its institutional 5year culture plan of
Witz university is failing to serve its purpose as other staff members feel alienated.
Mahlati (2020) contended that institutional culture that work in overtly and covertly racist and
sexist ways to maintain the staffing status quo in certain spaces is one of the significant barriers
that work against the recruitment, retention and progression of black and women academics.
Other institutions have not yet responded to the equity and democratization goals proposed by
the government because they are resistant to change and want to maintain the autonomic status
and limit government’s intervention in their institutions. Also, almost every institution has an
inclusive policy or an approach to promote equity but there is an absence time-bound staff
transformation plans that seek to achieve targets (Mahlati, 2020).
2.6The Recruitment and Promotion of black lectures in institutions of higher education
The legislation introduced after 1994 influenced recruitment and promotion strategies in higher
education and the sector have made progress over the years. However, the mission remains
unaccomplished, at the lecturer to senior lecturer level and amongst South Africans academics,
“White” and “Asian” lecturers respectively were quicker to promotion than “African”
colleagues. (Saliq, Barnes, Price, Gumedze & Morrell, 2019). These scholars reflected on the
analysis study conducted in 2017 which revealed that the percentage of black academics has
risen further to 38% reflecting an almost three-fold increases in numbers of black African
academic staff. However, in South Africa, the dominant ethnic group is black African, so it
becomes pointless to celebrate that the percentage has increased to 38%.
Saliq, Barnes and Morrell (2018) argued that that the problem is not so much about the
recruitment of black African academics but the promotion strategies and changes to the
promotion system under the guise of promoting fairness may benefit a particular group of staff,
new management regimes permit greater top-down initiatives which can include addressing
demographic staffing inequality; new managerialism often embraces the language of equality
yet it operates autocratically. Factors mostly considered before a lecturer is promoted involves
research output, experience and organizational behavior. Saliq, Barnes, Price, Gumedze and
Morrell (2019) highlighted that that affirmative action was advocating the appointment of black
African lecturers even if they are less qualified, experienced or less published. Perhaps the
issue is with the policy; legislation frameworks has been criticized for failing to outline clearly
the right procedure firms to use during the implementation processes. Institutions have
employed a lot of academics from the black African ethnic group, but still, they are less likely
to be promoted into higher position. Demographic inequality could be a result of a biased
promotion process, as stated some institutions wrongly interpreted affirmative action; it is not
about recruitment and retention only but also about promotion or transfer of power to black
Africans. The under-representation of women and staff of color in senior positions at
universities is an ongoing global concern (Van Den Brink &Benschop, 2012). Procedures and
criteria by which promotions are decided must be questioned, Winchester (2006) argued that
policies that do not take career interruption into account or which focus primarily on research
as a criterion for promotion would disadvantage women.
2.7 Conclusion
The study found that there are still disparities between white and black academics especially
in historically white institutions. Other institutions have not yet transformed because their
organizational structures, curriculum, staff profile, demographic positioning and power mirror
the conventional structures and systems. Moreover, found that some institutions narrowly
interpreted transformation as they have only increased the number of black African lecturers.
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the research methodology utilized and explain in detail the overall
research design of this study. Goundar (2012) defined research as a structured enquiry that
utilizes acceptable knowledge that is generally applicable. It starts off by providing a detailed
research design the study uses and then discuss the research methodology which is a
systematic way to resolve a problem; it is a science of studying how research is to be carried
out (Groundar,2012). The chapter demonstrates the strategy to be used in answering the
research questions and fulfilling objectives of the study. Moreover, discuss the research
nature and approach, provide the target population in conjunction with the sampling method
to be used, outline sources of data and discuss desktop research and data analysis tool most
suitable for the study.
3.2 Research Design
A research design is a framework for planning and conducting a research. Akhtar (2016) clearly
defined research design by stating that it is the arrangement in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research with economy and procedure. Research design is guided by whether
a study is qualitative or quantitative. Research design can be descriptive, explanatory,
exploratory, experimental, archival, longitudinal and correctional. The design of the study is
exploratory as it intends to explore the research objectives which are the research questions. It
aims to have a better understanding of transformation in higher education and gain an important
information that will certainly influence decision making processes within the institutions of
higher education and training. Buthelezi (2011) defined exploratory research method as the
study that is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. It is commonly used in
social sciences, educational, clinical or medical and business research (McCombes,2019)
because it allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of the complex issues in real-life settings
(Crowe and Sheikh, 2011). The dissertation investigate the relationship between recruitment
and promotion and race, gender and disabilities in higher education and the nature nature of
the study is qualitative.
3.3 Research Method
A research method is a systematic plan for conducting research. There are 3 basic methods a
research can choose from namely: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. To address the
key objectives, this research uses a qualitative secondary methodology. Qualitative research
method is used to understand people’s beliefs, experiences, interaction; it focuses in
understanding a research query as a humanistic or idealistic approach (Pathak, Jenu and Kalia,
2013). Moreover, it makes it possible to determine the validity, credibility or generalizability
of previous studies and it is easier to access rich descriptive data oh historical era or the context
in which the primary data was collected (Irwin & Winterton, 2011). Qualitative research
techniques include observations, surveys, secondary data and interviews. An interview is the
important tool of collecting data as it used to seek views on a focused topic, for background
information or an institutional perspective; ‘in-depth interviews’ and understand a condition,
experiences, from a a personal perspective (Hammarberg, Kirkman & S. de Lacey,
2016).Qualitative research is unlike the quantitative research which uses mathematical
instruments to derive results and quantify opinions, beliefs and problems.
3.4 Research Approach
A research approach can either be deductive or inductive. Creswell and Plano-Clark (2007)
stated that the deductive researcher “works from the ‘top down’, from a theory to hypotheses
to data to add to or contradict the theory. On the other hand, Azungah, and Kasmad (2020)
stated that inductive approach refers to approaches that to primarily use detailed readings of
raw data to derive concepts and themes. This dissertation follows an inductive approach which
is commonly known an a top-down approach. According to Gratton and Jones (2004) inductive
approach generates the explanation from the data collected; it is about moving from specific
observations to broader generalizations and theories. It is unlike deductive approach that begins
with a theory driven hypothesis which guide data collection and analysis (Russell,2016)
3.5Target population
The target population is the entire population for which any given study intends to examine or
sets that will be considered qualified for data analysis (Whaley,2020). It can be a group of
people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the study findings. The research
objectives inform the target populations of the study. It focuses focuses on transformation as
well it related to promotions of black lecturers who are employed in historically White
institutions namely Rhodes university, the University of Cape Town, Stellenbosch, University
of KwaZulu-Natal and Witwatersrand university.
3.6 Sources of data
There are two main sources of data that can be used in research, primary and secondary. A
primary data source is an original data source that is one in which the data are collected first
hand by the research for a specific purpose or project ( Salkind, 2010). On the other hand, a
secondary source is data that has already been collected through primary sources such as
observations, surveys and interviews.The study uses desktop research a type of secondary data.
Data will be derived from secondary research which will source from the internet. Desktop
research involves using existing data is summarized and collated to increase the overall
effectiveness of research (Lefang,2017). Unlike primary research, it is a quicker process and
less time consuming as the data is already available. This type of research allows the research
to use the existing literature and historical literature related to the study. Moreover, uses
information from the internet sources including education statistics, Department of higher
education websites, statistics SA and a lot more internet sites about higher education in South
Africa. And used articles, books, journals and UKZN library, books that are freely available
on the internet and dissertations that were conducted before; it uses sources that are freely
available to the public.
3.7 Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of examining data to draw conclusions; it is a critical step because
information is derived from the data. Thematic and content analysis are the two main methods
widely used in qualitative research.Data will be evaluated using content analysis which is the
research method for studying documents and communication artifacts that can be texts of
various formats, pictures, graphics, audio or video (Campbell,2018). It is used to analyze social
phenomena in a non-invasive way and studies material than people directly. Content analysis
is the most suitable analysis tool for this study as it relies on the secondary data. Pittsburgh
(2018) defined content analysis as the process of categorizing verbal or behavior data to
classify, summarize and tabulate the data. It is also used to analyze and quantify the presence,
meaning and relationships of such themes and concepts. The dissertation will investigate openended online survey questions and feedback, documents and interviews that have been
conducted on equity in higher education
3.8 Ethical Consideration
Ethical clearance for conducting the study was obtained from UKZN’s humanities and social
sciences research ethics committee. The study was a desktop research; it relied on data that has
already been collected. to. Data gathered from articles, journals and internal sites is kept safe
and private to prevent unauthorized access. The very same information was given to the
supervisor for verification and authenticity. And used are from sites that freely accessible to
the public.
3.9 Conclusion
The chapter proposed the appropriate research design and the direction the author is taking in
ensuring that the study serve its purpose. The nature of the study is explanatory to avoid
generalization and understand different research perspectives and thereby find the root cause
of the problem. And qualitative methods of research will be used in the process of collection
of data and quantitative tools when the author analyzes the outcome.
CHAPTER 4
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
The chapter presents the findings and analyzes and interprets the results and discussion of
findings that emerged from the data collected and analyzed. Data analysis involves breaking
up data into manageable themes, patterns, trends and patterns and relationships (Mouton,
2019). The overall aim of the study is to understand the South African Higher Education and
to determine the factors that influence the transformation of Higher Education Institutions .
After data has been conducted, broad categories were determined by the research questions and
the objective of the study. This chapter deals with key themes raised in the literature about the
transformation of South African higher education. The key themes including promotion
patterns, transformation in higher education and the challenges that impede the advancement
of black South African lecturers.
4.2 Presentation of results
The research findings are presented in the form of tables and descriptive statements. The study
focuses on the 3 key themes that are guided by the objectives and the research questions of the
study. The findings are presented in terms of the following themes :
1. Factors influencing the transformation agenda in South African Higher Education
2. Patterns of promotion at senior levels of academic hierarchies for black lecturers in
historically White universities.
3. Challenges that impede the advancement of black South Africans in historically White
institutions
Before delving into the findings of this study. The researcher will present a table representing
the historically white institutions that were used to retrieved information from . Historically
white universities were also called ‘ Historically advantaged’ due to their location ( based in
urban settings), their ability to secure resources from their wealthy alumni and to benefit from
well-established international networks( Pandor, 2018).
Table1. Historically white universities in South Africa
University
Abbreviation
University of KwaZulu-Natal
UKZN
University of Cape Town
UCT
University of Witwatersrand
WITZ
Rhodes University
Rhodes
Stellenbosch University
SU
4.2.1Factors influencing the transformation agenda in South African higher education
The findings from the data revealed that there were Four (4) factors that were highlighted to
have influenced the transformation agenda in South African higher education. These factors
are as follows: South African Legislation, political influences and stakeholder’s interest,
institutional culture within historically White institutions and globalization. These factors are
unpacked below:
4.2.1.1 South African Legislation
The data indicated that legislation introduced after 1994 including the Higher Education Act
101 of 1997 intended to redress the system of inequalities modified the sector, reduced barriers
to black progress and fought against racial segregation or the racial divide. However, the legacy
of apartheid is still visible. The apartheid policies shape the South African higher education
landscape and continues to influence the agenda of transformation. Pandor (2018) conducted a
study on the impact of legislation and one participant stated that the act was much better at
changing systems and structures and less able to affect change to complex issues such as
curriculum autonomy, institutional culture and staff representativity. The views expressed by
the participant reveals some complex issues that remain unaddressed and the that the sector’s
efforts to affect change have fully changed the S.A institutions.
4.2.1.2 Political influences and stakeholder’s interest
Democracy is fostering social inclusion. The study found that Political liberation is the key
engine for reconstruction and development. It has become mandatory for Universities to be
inclusive, participative and set a good example of democratic governance in their own
structures and decision-making processes because universities are part of the society.
Furthermore, politics have somehow influenced institutions to diversify their academic staff to
reflect South African population. Pandor ( 2018) asserted that the stakeholder participation in
higher education generated more debate on policy proposals. After new government elected in
1994, pupillary participation in political issues resulted in keen public interest.
4.2.1.3 Institutional culture within historically White institutions
Institutional culture is defined as the deeply embedded patterns of organization behavior and
shared values, assumptions, beliefs or ideologies that members have about their organization
or its work. Transformation cannot take place without changing the demographic status quo at
each university. An institutional culture is the engine of transformation. From the data
retrieved, a majority of institutions inherited institutional culture from the Higher education
under the previous government or from the historical context.
4.2.1.4 Globalization
The South African agenda of transformation has been included by the global integration: S.A
has experienced the influence of internal organizations and global higher education. The
findings from analysis of documents reveal that the country’s higher education benefits from
intense integration with other countries; opening up higher education to academics from all
over the world. However, neoliberalism and corporatism have destroyed the dialogue and
participation in an age of supposed democracy and transparency (Chetty& Merrett, 2014). The
organization for economic co-operation and development (2009) stated that through
globalization, academic research is likely to become increasingly international to be affected
by a tension between collaboration and competition. This view confirms the assertions of
Kivinen, Artukka and Hedman ( 2017) that visibility in global rankings has taken a role in the
branding of universities across the world. The focus has been on increasing publications and
play the ranking games.
4.2.2 Transformation in historically white Universities
Data was derived from reviewing written documents, policies, plans and interviews. The
following section, set out findings on transformation in historically White institutions. The
analysis of data drew the researchers’ attention, institutions interpreted transformation in
different ways; the meaning of transformation has been shaped by a number of factors as
mentioned earlier in the chapter. Transformation is a process of making amendments; it is about
bringing about radical changes i and advocating change to structural defects and dehumanizing
systems for the betterment of higher education whereby it is possible to build a culture of
mutual respect, trust, cooperation, tolerance and humanness (Transformation strategy group
and transformation management group 2015).
The findings of data indicated that demographic challenges still persist at Rhodes university
Belluigi and Thondhlana (2019) conducted an interview on diversity and transformation in
higher education at an historically white South African university (Rhodes University) and one
of their participants stated the following :
“ I am looking forward to a time when black people aren’t so treated as DESIGNATED, but they are seen
as scholars in their own right and who do not require to be designated into certain groups. I am also looking
for a time when everybody who sits in selection committees become acutely aware of the racial past which
has perpetually disadvantaged certain people. If this becomes the case, we will employ the previously
disadvantaged without the need for the whip of the law to force us into line.”
This is evident that some institutions regard transformation as compliance issue or as a response
to constitutional and legal requirement and they are reactive to the transformation agenda rather
than proactive. According to another participant from the same interview mentioned that
Rhodes university alienates ‘designated groups’ of people and it seems as if to them they are
forced to employ black people not as a genuine way to achieve equity goals.
The data also revealed that transformation at the University of Cape Town ( UCT) understood
as a process that requires them to be inclusive, to encourage belonging regardless of race,
politics, class , positions, rank, sexuality, gender or any other phenomenal identity that is
brought to the university (UCT transformation report, 2018,P 20). The UCT’s explanation of
transformation demonstrates that the intention of the institution to cause for change is in all
aspects.
Chetty and Merritt (2014) argued that most South African universities took
transformation seriously, but resisted direct government interference regarding this as an
affront to their autonomy. The data retrieved revealed that this because the historically Black
universities have shown an inability to exploit the investment that came their way as part f
transformation agenda.
Furthermore, the data revealed that the University of Stellenbosch US) Employment Equity
policy goes beyond simply defining equity and transformation. Whilst the others are nonspecific in relation to the subject matter, SU’s policy states its purpose which is “to promote
equal opportunity and fair treatment regarding employment by eliminating unfair
discrimination and implementing affirmative action measures to redress the disadvantages in
employment experienced by designated groups with a view to ensure that they are equitably
represented at all occupational levels in the workforce. The policy also focuses on utilizing and
managing diversityc(Gwebi, 2019). Stellenbosch university acknowledges the past injustices
and have implemented measures to correct those past injustices and other measures to enhance
diversity.
The university of Witwatersrand (Witz) is one of the historically white institutions and
according Witz’s employment equity plan (2018) reveals that the institution is committed to
developing and ensuring compliance with social justice policies such as disability and ensure
equal opportunity and fair treatment in all aspects of employment including recruitment,
promotion, training and advancement. The institution implemented affirmative action
measures for their academic staff to reflect the South African population. However white males
and females still hold top positions; their report indicated that the institution has the highest
number of white lecturers in senior positions.
From the data retrieved, University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN)’s records indicate that the
institution has embraced transformation, their transformation charter states that the
achievement of their bison is dependent on transformation and acknowledges that
transformation is deeper and broader than a narrow categorization based on race and gender
representation.
4.3 Patterns of promotion at senior levels of academic hierarchies for black lecturers in
historically White universities
This section presents the data on the factors that influence the academic promotion. Academic
promotion is the process in which facilities upward staff mobility within the institutional
hierarchy (Sadiq,2019) .It attempts to understand the promotion system in higher education
institutions and most importantly analyze the promotion of Black senior lecturers and this will
determine whether or not promotion system in HEIs is bias The promotion patterns are irregular
for black senior lecturers. Pandor (2018) asserted that transformation is sometimes used to refer
to inadequate progress in employing black academics to reach at senior level. From the data
gathered and analyzed, the demographic challenges still persist to the present day. Black
academics are a minority and largely in junior positions and they also find it difficult to access
senior academic positions and professorships
Table 2
The table below shows the demographic characteristics of staff that achieve ad hominem
promotion at the university of Cape Town (UCT) between 2005-2015. It helps to understand
the promotion patterns in South African higher education
Source: Higher Education (2019) 78:423–44
In the subset subset analysis of lecturers as UCT, the size of academics who declared their
ethnicity as “white” had a median of time to promotion about 1.7 years quicker than 29
colleagues who declared their ethnicity as “African” (Saqid, 2019). And At the lecturer to
senior lecturer level and amongst South African academics, “White” and “Asian” lecturers
respectively were quicker to promotion than “African” colleagues, in these subset analyses. It
is possible that this reflects a bias in the system in favour of “White” and “Asian” academics.
However, there is no evidence that the promotion system at UCT is bias in terms of gender
because the difference is roughly 1 %. The university has more international study that have
been promoted at the age of 25-35 years. This perhaps can be linked to the poor education
system in South Africa. According to Chetty and Merritt (2014) UCT ensured that it has
continued to enjoy a high international reputation and attract top overseas academics including
many from the rest of Africa. Research output, experience and performance. UCT has
historically emphasized the importance of research and publication, priding itself on its rank as
the highest ranked university in Africa (Sadiq, 2018). The study further reveals that black South
African lecturers were catered for in the promotion plan while one category of academics
(disability) was not catered for.
However, according to Breetzke and Hedding (2016) the racial profile of higher education
institutions South Africa by academic rank reveals a number of interesting findings. First, there
are more Black African junior lecturers in South Africa than junior lecturers of any other racial
grouping Moreover, they revealed that from the senior lecturer ranking upwards the percentage
of White academic staff is greater than any other racial grouping. The difference between the
percentage of black African and the percentage of white academic staff is greatest at the
professorial rank where 62 per cent of professors are White compared with 27 % for black
African lecturers.
4.4 Challenges that impede the advancement of black South African Lecturers
The study found social and economic inequalities being the factors that impede the
advancement of black South African lecturers within the sector. The social and economic
imbalances have resulted to black lecturers having limited opportunities or resources to purse
higher education.
The table below depicts the doctoral enrollments in 2012. It is significant in that shows all 3
academic levels and enrollment statistics in terms of race and gender. To become a lecturer,
there are several university lecturer qualifications needed to be obtained including PhD. A
doctorate qualification ensures career progression within the higher education sector. After
obtaining a PhD, academics can work towards becoming Senior lecturer, Associate Professor
and Professors.
Table 3 Doctoral Enrollment in all South African universities for 2012
Source: Loots, Ta’ephe and Walker
Table 3 depicts the doctoral enrollments, and a lot of black women were doing their bachelor’s
degree but a few enrolled for doctorate. Whereas White women and black men are the two
groups that mostly for Ph.D. This suggests that there are still gender and racial inequalities and
these inequalities are intensified by social and economic inequalities. Prozesky (2008) asserted
that in South Africa, women have been found to postpone enrolling for doctoral studies due to
family responsibilities. Family responsibilities may include taking care of the family (Married
women), supporting their partners to achieve their goals and nurturing their children. Magano
(2013) found that having a high workload, trying to balance family, work and studies, as well
as trying to enter into male dominated university spaces and institutional cultures as black
women, impacted most strongly on these women’s academic performance. Moreover, finding
sponsors to pursue with their studies is a struggle on its own. Several reasons have been
identified for the supposed slow transformation of HEIs in South Africa; these include a lack
of black African post-graduates (Price 2014a).
South African academics are inadequately remunerated relative to occupations in the public
sector and private sector that require similar level of qualification and expertise (Badat,
2010).This signifies that South African universities ignore the social and economic
inequalities; remuneration does not necessarily impede the advancement of black lecturers, but
in general, when employees are adequately remunerated, they become motivated and be willing
to stay longer or even work harder to get promotions. The documentary analysis indicated
unequal pay still persists: the equity act of 192 makes it illegal to pay men and women
differently for doing the equivalent work. Some institutions claimed to have adopted the policy
but the equilibrium has not been reached between different races and gender. Badat (2010) also
suggested the improvement of public subsidies to attract outstanding graduates to the academic
profession and more generally facilitate the recruitment and retention of academics through
adequate remuneration is vital for the future wellbeing and contribution of universities. This
will improve the academic remuneration, reduce the staff turnover and most certainly attract
more academics including black South African lecturers.
4.5 Conclusion
The section presented the findings of the study and data analysis. The study found that progress
has been made in employing black South African lecturers. However, there are still challenges
facing higher education institutions in managing equity. Chapter 5 concludes the study,
discusses the conclusions, make recommendations for practice and further research and provide
the limitations.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary of the findings, conclusions and make recommendations
based on the data analyzed in the previous chapter (Chapter 4). The conclusions are based on
the objectives and research questions of the study.
5.2 Conclusions from findings
This section provides the summary of the findings in line with research objectives. It analyzed
the implications of the implementation of legislation to transform higher education institutions.
5.2.1 Transformation in higher education
The study analyzed the measures and plans put in place by the higher education and learning
institutions and how these institutions have responded to the South African legislation that seek
to promote equity and diversity in higher education. The study findings revealed that some
institutions have narrowly interpreted legislation related to equity and transformation. Other
institutions have implemented these policies but their actual plans or measures do not
correspond with the equity plans by the higher education sector. Moreover other institutions
have completely disregarded or ignored the efforts made by the department of higher education
to transform higher education institutions.
5.2.2 Promotion patterns
The researcher investigated the promotion patterns in higher education institutions. The
research findings revealed that promotion strategies in other institutions are bias in terms of
race. However, there was no evidence that the promotion systems are bias in terms of gender.
The study also found the number of junior Black South African lecturers getting promoted is
far more greater than the number of senior Black South African lecturers who have been
promoted. This proves that the problem is not necessarily with the recruitment but with the
promotion strategies or systems; the number of Black South African lecturers in higher
education has grown significantly, but a few black academics hold higher positions within the
institutions of higher learning. The study found the the transfer of power being the major
problem, the findings suggest for previously disadvantaged group to be enjoy being in power
( those who qualify to hold top management positions within the department)
5.2.3 Challenges that impede the advancement of Black South African lecturers
The study found that social and economic inequalities significantly contribute to the
impediment of Black South African lecturers. The findings revealed that some institutions
especial Historically White Institutions do not acknowledge their academic staff members are
not equal socially and economically. For example, female academics outside the world of work,
they are mothers, wives and caregivers; family responsibilities affect their academic
performance. Moreover, there are financial constraints that prevent BlackSouth African
lecturers especially females from enrolling for doctorate degree and found that S.A lecturers
are inadequately remunerated. The intense promotion of international lecturers says a lot about
the quality of education in South Africa; institutions that mostly employ and promote foreign
lecturers claimed that foreign lecturers add in in-depth expertise towards the learning
experience and add international exposure and these academics are more experienced and have
more publications.
5.3 Recommendations
•
Promotion policy in higher education: there must be a promotion policy within higher
education that specifically deals or addresses the issues of bias promotion systems.
•
Decolonization of higher education: It would be easy to address the demographic
inequalities once the sector has been decolonized. Furthermore, For designated
lecturers not to be treated as designated. The restructuring of higher education would
certainly enhance equity and transformation. The higher education is progressively
influenced by upsurge of new managerialism rooted in neoliberalism and
neoconservatist ideologies (Phatlane, 2020). These ideologies affect the social justice
agendas and make it hard for institutions of learning to meet the equity and
democratization goals.
•
Continuous monitoring and evaluation: higher education sector must constantly
monitor and evaluate how these institutions operate, analyze their culture and
recruitment and promotion strategies and equity plans, this will determine whether or
not these institutions adhere to the plans to further transform higher education.
•
Social programs within the higher education sector: these programs will acknowledge
the social and economic inequalities within and outside the world or work and most
importantly support lecturers to be able to juggle work and family responsibilities.
These programs can also support Black lecturers with funding to go further with their
studies.
•
The transformation of programs of historically white institutions must be given
attention to and encompass the systematic and progressive transformation of
institutional cultures, in congruence with constitutional ideals and values ( Badat,2010)
5.4 Limitations
The nature of the study is exploratory, but due to limited data, it could not fully respond to
research questions. The existing literature does not deeply dig into promotion patterns and
challenges that delay or hamper the advancement of Black South African lecturers. In
future studies, researcher can include primary research so that the opinions and the daily
experiences of lecturers’ concerned are captured.
5.5 Conclusion
The study discussed conclusions and made recommendations that could change the reshape
or change the South African higher education. Progress has been made, there has been a
lot of advancements that have occurred. However, there is still a long way to go, policy
makers must work hand in hand with policy implementors for effectiveness. This will
ensure that policies are interpreted and implemented correctly.
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APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2