: States of
1
Matter
Chapter
-
solids
liquids & gazes
,
solids
.·
·
veda
ritha
...
·
C
~-
↑
-
--
E-
ice
water
i
water
&
kinetic theory
.
when substance is heated , particles absorb thermal
·
Fixed volume Fixed shape high density
.
doms vibrates in place
closely packed together regular pattern
·
,
,
·
·
&
~
Heating solid causes particles to vibrate more 3 as temperature increases
,
-
surface gain
these
-
·
Less dense than solids, more dense than
changes are shown on a heating curve & reverse is a cooling
curve , these
Fixed volume 3 take shape of container
·
liquid expands as well until particles at
enough energy to escape 3 the liquid boils when by reach
with more heating , the
:: ...
-
curves show how
gas
Pressure 8 temperature in
Particles move and slide past each other .
Gases ::
·
gases
the more
not fixed volume, take shape of container
·
Lowest
density
,
a lot of space betwee
particles
.
so gases are easily compressed
Random particles 3 Particles more quickly
.
Melting.
-
liquid
heat energy > kinectic
-
point.
increases. With increase in kinetic energy
->
gas at any temperature.
evaporation happens at the surface only
Decrease in volume
=
,
particles
frequently.
increase in pressure .
high energy particles escape surface at
·
.
·
Liquid to gas
liquid to escape from surface
occurs at
boiling point (b P)
.
.
condensation.
,
·
the larger the surface area , the more
quickly a liquid evaporates
heat needed to form
bubbles of gas below the
surface of liquid allowing
gas - liquid at range of temperatures.
.
Freezing.
when a
gas is cooled
,
particles lose energy
3 When they bump into each o they they don't
Liquid > Solid
at
reverse of melting
, occurs
-
have enough energy to bounce away instead
they group together and form a liquid
,
same temperature
requires lot of temp decrease
.
diffusion
extra notes :
T
diffusion is the movement of particles from area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration and
concentration of particles will be even
to occupy all the space. diffusion
as
eventually
they spread out
happens on its own 3 doesn't
require energy but it happens faster at higher temperatures
.
Diffusion occurs faster in gases compared to liquids
at same temperature, gases dont diffuse at same rate.
this is due to difference in molecular masses ,
lighter
particles travel faster therefore they diffuse faster
,
.
this can be demonstrated in the reaction between ammonia
(NH3) and hydrogen Chloride gas (HCI) inside glass tube.
where the two
gasses meet white smoke of ammonium
,
.
Chloride (NH (e) is formed
+
However , they don't meet in the middle of the tube instead
they Meet closer to the end where hydrogen Chloride (Mr 36 5)
is this is because ammonia (Mr 17)'s molecules are lighter
=
.
=
,
so
more faster and collide with walls more
any temperature
Boiling.
·
.
random motion
by gas hitting the walls of container.
An increase in kinetic energy increases if temperature
.
Evaporation
solid > Liquid
energy and melting only occurs at
specific temp known as melting
·
,
pressure that gas creates inside a closed container is produced
state changes
.
·
if you have gas stored in containera Squeezed the pressure
Gaseous particles are in constant
is created).
·
increases . and the density decreases if volume increases .
Gases 8 Kinetic theory
.
Particles Collide with each other 3 the
·
·
I
the temperature increases , the volume of gas also
increases as you decrease volume
.
sides of the container (this is how Pressure
·
changes in temperature effects
changes of state .
·
·
energy which is
converted to kinetic energy
.
they vibrate to the point solid's structure breaks 3 It melts.
.....
Liquids:...
A
pour
they travel faster than HCl
.
I
This chapter was written while travelling excuse the handwriting XD
.
·
,
:
2
Chapter Atoms Elements and compounds
,
cons conic bonds
Dot 3 Cross diagrams
.
-
charged atom or group of atoms formed by loss
by atom to stabilize.
ion is an electrically
of electrons-
gain
or
:
is done to gain full outer shell of electrons
loss/gain of electrons
electrons
more stable arrangement of
electrons
Metal all metals can lose
sodium atom sodium ion
and become positively charged
which is a
ions known as
XO
**
Ox
there is space
for 7 electrons so it
sodium lost an electron
is easier to lose the
instead of
existing electron
gaining 7
become
negatively charged ions
-
-
on compounhavagantlatticstructuredrepeatingfashionternating
Positive
3 negative cons.
therefore it is positively
.
charged
Properties of ionic compounds
-
-
compounds
made
are
gain
electricity
-good conductors of
this isbecausethepartie
.
within the lattice
positions
.
and covalent bonds
veda
ritha
Ef
compounds are formed when pairs of electrons are shared
Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding.
when two or more atoms
·
molecules .
*
.
Graphite
Diamond
.
between atoms
·
covalent structures , due +o
allotropes of carbon with giant
are
physically different
difference in bond arrangement they
·
bond covalently ,
they are described as
in diamonds ,
other carbons
carbon atoms bond with 4
a tetrahedron
Dot' Cross diagrams can be used to snow covalent bonds eg
H20
H2
:
in
⑧
⑧
carbon
graphite
,
forming
.
3 have
identical , strong
all bonds are
NH3-ammonia
⑳
oringred
.
structures
.
·
(
~g
covalent
in solution
.
charged b freely
state because they are
giant covalent
simple molecules
·
.
to break bonds
in molten or
a
opposite charges
ionic bond
the force of attraction is known as
.
usually solid at rep
electrostatic
points because of strong
high melting ? Boiling
forces , a lot of energy will be needed
.
.
which the non-metals atom
positive
3 negative ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of
metals lose their outer electrons
attraction between
.
.
metals react with non-metals , ionic
When
Ce-ion
of ionic compounds
Lattice structure
anions
.
-
>
**
Nation
.
-
·***
⑧
⑧
electrons from other atoms to
known as
is more protons
- there
now that
electrons
than
00
X
Na
cations
-
XX
·
Non-metal : non-metals can gain
XX
XX
t
·
:
t
covalent
eg Nab Cl-non-metal
metal
-this is done
the
-
or
compound or element.
&
·
in ionic
diagrams that show the arrangement of the outer-shell electrons
no
intermolecular forces
·
forming layers
atoms bond to 3 other
electron per carbon to become
of
hexagons leaving one free
,
*
· O
H
H
X
H
-
0
=
C
=
0
H
delocalized
H
-
0
-
CO2
↳ double bond
bonds within
layers
attract to each other with
weak
PROPERTIES OF :
H
bond
NEW
.
the covalent
H
H
Single
X
X
⑧
H
N
·
H
N2
-
N
-
H
Triple bond
insulator
-
-
hard
-
N
-
Graphite
delocalized electrons
conduct electricity
.
y
over each other so
smooth
a Slippery
bonds
graphite is
.
dense
-
used in jewellery i
cutting tos1s
·
intermolecular forces
So it can
-
XX
but the layers
Layersare connectedby slide
no free electrons
high mp3bD-strong
-
very strong
has free
-
diamond
·
it
·
are
-
-
.
high melting 3 boiling point
less dense than
.
diamond
used in pencils 3 lubricants
used to make inert electrodes
Silicon (IV) Oxide
.
properties of simple molecular compounds.
↳ macromolecular compound which occurs
small
As molecule size increases, so does melting 3 boiling point
small
·
there is weak intermolecular forces so
·
intermolecular forces are weak so
most small molecules are liquid/gas
as molecule increases in size the
intermolecular forces also increase
.
melting boiling point to increases
* Most molecular
.
compounds are poor conductors as there's no free ions to
Carry charge so most covalent compounds are insulators in solid state
tetrahedron is formed
-
molecules are poor electricity conductors.
this causes
.
4 Oxygen atoms
Silicon atom bonds with
·
·
each oxygen atom covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms
-
·
they have low melting boiling point
as
quartz
compound molecules are covalently bonded. they have low melting boiling
points so they are usually liquids or gases at room temperature.
·
naturally
.
sand b
3 each
.
.
comparing diamond3 Silicon water
·
&
side
is hard
3 has a high melting point insoluble in
doesn't conduct
,
electricity
.
available
Siz is cheap as it's naturally
used in
·
sandpaper and to line
.
of furnaces
the insides
making
•The steeper the curve, the faster the rate of
the reaction
•The curve is steepest initially so the rate is
quickest at the beginning of the reaction
•As the reaction progresses, the concentration
of the reactants decreases and the rate
decreases shown by the curve becoming less
steep
•When one of the reactants is used up, the
reaction stops, the rate becomes zero and the
curve levels off to a horizontal line
•The amount of product formed in a reaction is
determined by the limiting reactant:
◦If the amount of limiting reactant increases,
the amount of product formed increases
◦If the amount of the reactant in excess
increases, the amount of product remains the
same
•Drawing a tangent to the slope allows you to
show the gradient at any point on the curve
•The steeper the slope, the quicker the rate of
reaction