VIRTUAL CAMPUS, UNION TOWERS, 6TH FLOOR.
P.O. BOX13495-00100 GPO NAIROBI.
COURSE TITLE: INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
COURSE CODE: BECT2201
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE ................................................................................................................... 3
TEACHING/LEARNING METHODOLOGIES ......................................................................................... 3
COURSE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION ......................................................................................... 3
MODULE ORGANIZATION .................................................................................................................... 3
COURSE CONTENT ................................................................................................................................ 3
LECTURE ONE: THE INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM ....................................................................... 5
LECTURE TWO: WRITNG INSTRUCTION OBJECTIVES ...................................................................... 9
LECTURE THREE: TEACHING METHODS IN EDUCATION ............................................................... 14
LECTURE FOUR: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING .......................................................... 18
LECTURE FIVE: CLASS MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................ 25
LECTURE SIX: PROFESSIONAL DOCUMENTS ................................................................................... 44
LECTURE SEVEN: TESTS AND EVALUATION.................................................................................... 56
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 66
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PURPOSE OF THE COURSE
The purpose of this course is to develop student’s understanding of all the
techniques, strategies and methods of teaching.
TEACHING/LEARNING METHODOLOGIES
This course will be offered and/or undertaken through tutorials, group discussions,
group and individual assignments, presentations, interactive questions and answers,
micro-teaching lessons, peer teaching and e-learning interactive forums. The learner
will be required to go through this training module, make notes based on the
objectives of the course and attempt the questions given at the end of every lesson.
Further reading in this area of curriculum is encouraged. However all information
gathered should be within the course description and objectives.
COURSE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Learning will be assessed through sit in Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs), Take
Away Assignments and a Main Examination. The CATs will constitute 30% and the
Examination 70%
MODULE ORGANIZATION
This module is organized in form of lessons. This is followed by the lesson
objectives. Then, the learner is taken through the lesson content. The content may
be sub-divided into sub-topics depending on the nature of the topic in a lesson. At
the end of the lesson the learner is given activities. These activities are in form of
questions and practical. It is good to note that this is not a text book. The content is
therefore in form of lecture notes. Further reading from text books is recommended.
A list of books to refer to is given at end of the module.
COURSE CONTENT
This unit covers the following:
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 Nature and components of teaching methods
 Distinguish between general methods and specific methods
 Problems encountered in teaching methodology and their possible solutions
 Indicators of conducive class and learning process
 Strategies for effective teaching and learning
 Methods techniques and procedures of evaluation and measuring learning
outcomes
 Systems approach to teaching in a classroom and instructional objectives
 Methods of planning schemes of work and lesson plan
 Effective communication in the classroom
 Individual differences in teaching and learning
 Keeping students’ academic records and their importance
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LECTURE ONE: THE INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM
Lesson Objectives
 Define the term curriculum
 Discuss objectives of curriculum content in line with the vision
2030.
Relevance of the Curriculum
The National Goals of Education embodied in Vision 2030 focus on enlarging
learners’ knowledge, experiences and imaginative understanding as well as
developing an awareness of moral values and capacity for life-long learning. At the
heart of this vision is a curriculum which will provide knowledge, skills, competencies
and values to enable learners to move seamlessly from the education system into
the world of work, with further academic, technical and vocational education adding
value to what has been acquired through the education system.
Definition of curriculum
Curriculum is defined as ‘a plan for providing learning opportunities and experiences
to the learners in order to achieve the educational goals and specific objectives
required by Kenyan society’. It is the sum total of the learning opportunities
presented to the learner (Education Act, Cap 211).
The current primary and secondary school curriculum was reviewed in 2002,
followed in 2004 by a review of the primary teacher education curriculum and the
diploma teacher education curriculum in 2007. More recently in 2008, Kenya Vision
2030 established clear priorities for the curriculum, whilst the Constitution of Kenya
(2010) and on-going changes in the broader economic environment following the
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signing of the East African protocol impact directly on the shape and priorities of the
curriculum,.
Vision 2030 calls for a curriculum which accommodates individual and corporate
social responsibility, and moral and ethical values. It also calls for the development
of technical and entrepreneurial skills and competencies. The content of basic and
higher education, therefore, shall need to be designed to equip all learners with
relevant knowledge, skills, competencies and values, enabling learners to develop to
their full capacity, enhance the quality of their lives, able to make informed decisions
and predisposed to engage in lifelong learning. Aligning the curriculum to address
the aspirations of Vision 2030, the Constitution and the East African Community
protocol is a national priority.
Curriculum content
In addressing the need to construct a balanced education curriculum aligned to
delivering the aspirations of Vision 2030, the Government focuses on core
educational outcomes, independent of the subject being taught, and on developing a
repertoire of skills and competencies required by all learners and teachers. These
include:
 Literacy, numeracy, and enquiry skills i.e. the ability to read, write, compute,
research and process information.
 Thinking skills i.e. the ability to comprehend, synthesise, evaluate and apply
Information.
 Communication skills i.e. the ability to communicate verbally, in sign
language, and in writing; to talk, listen and act on directions
 Observation and investigative skills i.e. the ability to find and record
information, observe, review and assess
 Application and transferable skills i.e. the ability to make and create things,
demonstrate and use skills and competencies in more than one context,
 Social and ethical skills i.e. the ability to understand, empathise, respond
appropriately and to make wise ethical decisions.
 Entrepreneurial skills i.e. the ability to take independent and productive action
based on an ability to review and evaluate that action.
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The school curriculum should therefore ensure that these skills and competencies
are developed in an incremental way across all subjects, irrespective of how the
curriculum is constructed and what subjects are being taught, but taking into
consideration the age of the learner. Further, in any scheme of work and series of
lessons, teachers should be able to assess the extent to which activities included
develop skills of reading, listening, comprehending, problem-solving, writing,
communicating, speaking, investigating (discovering), making, doing and practising.
Teacher competencies
Core teacher competencies should be in line with delivering the above, and all
teachers should be able to demonstrate the following skills and competencies:
 Practical competencies in teaching learners to acquire literacy, numeracy
and enquiry skills.
 Practical competencies in planning teaching and learning.
 Practical competencies in teaching and managing a class, especially with
large numbers of pupils in difficult environments and those with special
needs and disabilities.
 Practical competencies in using print and electronic media as a creative
learning resource and in making and using other teaching and learning
materials.
 Practical competencies in monitoring, assessing, recording and reporting
children’s progress and using this information to inform further planning.
 Curriculum subject knowledge and understanding.
Assessment and Examinations
The current curriculum advocates summative assessment at the end of primary cycle
(KCPE) and at the end of secondary cycle (KCSE) as the determinant of a well
understood curriculum in the Kenyan context.
All school based examinations conducted at the end of the term and /or year are
never considered at the end of the school cycle and are only valid for promotion to
the next class or education level.
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Lesson Activity
 Discuss teacher competencies significant to delivery of the
curriculum.
 Explain various educational outcomes that the curriculum is
supposed to develop in learners in line with the 2030 vision.
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LECTURE TWO: WRITNG INSTRUCTION OBJECTIVES
Lesson objectives
 Define the term instructional objectives
 Write the importance of instructional objectives
Course Description, Goals and Objectives
It is important to be able to differentiate the course description from the course
objectives.
A course description simply tells what the course is about. You might consider the
goals of the course to be linked to the course description; they are broad educational
statements fitting the mission and description of the course.
Specific measurable objectives, however, tell what the learner will be able to do upon
successful completion of the course. Instructional objectives result from meaningful
conversations around the following three questions:
As a result of completing your topic or lesson:
What do you want your students to know by the time they finish your topic?
What do you want students to be able to do with what they know?
What do you want students to care about?
Instructional Objectives
Definition -- Instructional objectives describe the skills, knowledge, abilities or
attitudes students should possess or demonstrate after they complete the training.
The starting point for designing a course of study should include these instructional
objectives; the objectives determine the intended outcomes of the training. Good
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instructional objectives describe an observable performance, one that can be
observed and measured by an instructor or manager. In a nutshell, instructional
objectives:

Describe a skill that students are expected to possess after instruction

Describe a measurable performance

Describe the performance conditions
Importance of instructional objectives
 Instructional objectives clarify faculty expectations for what students should
know, understand, be able to do, and value by the time they complete the
course.
 They help shift discussions about the curriculum away from "coverage of
topics" to improvement of student learning.
 Instructional objectives at the course level can act as a guide for class
activities, assignments, and exams.
 Assessment of instructional objectives can provide information to students on
their strengths and weaknesses in relationship to learning outcomes.
 Assessment of instructional objectives can provide information for the
improvement
of
educational
programs
and
for
demonstrating
their
effectiveness.
Learning Objectives -- Instructional Objectives are not just brief descriptions of
lesson content or descriptions of student activities. Each question on a quiz should
link to a specific learning objective in the course. One or more learning objectives are
written for each module or lesson in the training.
Learning Outcomes -- Well-written learning objectives describe what the student will
be able to do after the training, programme or lesson; these objectives represent the
intended learning outcomes from the training. It is a good practice to write Instructional
Objectives before or while writing the course outline or Storyboard. That way, the
course can "teach to the objectives." Then when the Instructional Designer writes the
test, they will be able to test how well the course taught the objectives and how well
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the students learned them. In this way, Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes
are directly related.
Measurable Performance -- A good learning objective describes a measurable
performance. Instructional objectives should ask students to perform a task that is
observable
and
measurable.
Thus,
objectives
should:
· Include a verb that describes a student performance that can be observed
· Include a list of criteria to be used to measure student performance
The verb in a learning objective plays a key role in determining whether the objective
is measurable or observable. Verbs like "know" and "understand" should be avoided
because whether or not a student "knows" or "understands" something cannot be
measured.
Writing Instructional Objectives
To describe what students will do, student learning outcomes use active verbs such
as demonstrate, apply, analyze and compare. Typically, student learning outcomes
are written using one of the following methods:
1. Formula:
Time Frame + Student focus +Action Verb + Product/process/outcome =
Instructional Objective
1. ABCDs of writing objectives.
Method #1:
Learning
Outcome
=
Time
Frame
+
Student
focus
+Action
Verb
+
Product/process/outcome
Example:
Instructional Objective “By the end of the library lesson the student should be able
to identify a relevant database for their term paper research.”
Formula:
.
Time frame: “By the end of the library session…” Student focus: “…students
should be able to…”
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.
Action verb (Bloom’s taxonomy): “…identify…”
.
Product/process: “…a relevant database for their term paper research.”
.
Examples
of
Action
Verbs demonstrate illustrate
participate
specify
analyze
apply
describe
interpret
perform
summarize
classify
design
judge
predict
support
communicate
distinguish
justify
produce
translate
construct
evaluate
modify
recognize
volunteer
create
explain
order
review
write
define
identify
organize
Common Ambiguous Terms Not Measurable
Know
Understand
Appreciate
Grasp the significance of
Become familiar with
Become aware of
Learn
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solve
An instructional objective is one sentence that indicates what students should
represent, demonstrate or produce as a result of what they learn. It describes an
intended result of instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself.
An instructional objective should be
S- specific
M-measurable
A-achievable
R-realistic
T- time bound
Lesson Activity
Discuss the significance of instructional objectives
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LECTURE THREE: TEACHING METHODS IN EDUCATION
Lesson objectives
 Discuss the various approaches that can be used in
teaching
 Apply the teaching methods appropriately in curriculum
delivery
To achieve the goal of teaching, the teacher must adopt effective teaching
methods in education. The teacher has many options to choose from different
teaching techniques designed specifically for teaching and learning.
Writing lesson plans is a foremost thing that a teacher must do before
executing any teaching strategy in the class. The teaching method should be
adopted on the basis of certain criteria like the knowledge of the students, the
environment and the set of learning goals decided in the academic curriculum.
Students respond differently to different methods of teaching. Also, the
students have their unique way of demonstrating the knowledge acquired and
absorbing the information that is imparted. So, to aid this process of
demonstrating the knowledge, the teacher has to adopt a technique that
assists the students in retaining the information and increasing their
understanding. There are many techniques to teach students like questioning,
modeling, demonstrating, collaborating, and explaining that have been
discussed
here.
Questioning
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Testing and questioning are always known to be effective methods due to its
interactive nature. The questions are asked by the teacher with an intention to
know what the student has learned from earlier discussions and what it helps
in
deciding
what
should
be
taught
further.
This can be even vice-verse, students questioning the teachers to clarify the
doubts that would enhance their understanding of the subject. The inquisitive
instinct of the students evoke them to ask questions and satiate their query.
The teacher should encourage this in a positive way so that the student's
critical thinking is developed. Testing differs in one aspect from questioning.
Test is done in order to know about the previous knowledge and already
taught
things
to
the
student.
Explaining
Sometimes the experiences can also be shared as a part of knowledge that
would work as a source of inspiration for the students. While adopting this
method the teacher should give an introduction and a proper summary. Make
sure
that
the
information
is
specific
to
the
audience.
The explanation should be accompanied with suitable examples for the better
understanding of the students. It is like a discourse on a particular subject or
topic that is for the entire class or public. Explaining can be clubbed with the
modelling process to be more effective and to have a long-lasting effect on
the
pupils.
Modeling
Modeling is a type of visual aid for teaching as well as learning. It is a known
fact that human brain absorbs more and understands better when visual aid
facilitates explanation. This method works on three criteria - observing,
retaining and replicating. The students learn more by observing the things and
acquire
it
by
imitating
it
time
and
again.
This is also known as reinforced behaviour. This type of learning has very
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important role to play in the learning process especially during the childhood,
though it can happen in any stage of life. This helps the students to visualize
the
things
and,
then
hypothesize
the
solution.
Demonstrating
With the help of demonstrative teaching, students get an opportunity to
explore the various aspects and understand the theory from a different
perspective. Demonstration is a step-by-step explanation along with their
reasons and significance for the better understanding of the student. It
enhances the student's understanding by practically applying the knowledge
and sharpens their skills and hence, they become capable of identifying and
organizing
the
subject
matter
in
a
more
efficient
way.
Practical
experimentation is a very good method used for demonstrating the subject.
Collaborating
Teamwork is a contemporary form of collaboration. The students are taught to
work in a group that makes the instructing easier for the teacher. This method
of teaching promotes a sense of mutual responsibility among the students.
They learn to put in more effort to research for the topic and apply effective
techniques
to
get
the
result.
This inculcates patience and develops an ability to critically analyze a subject.
It gives an opportunity to the students to solve the problem by a healthy
discussion and co-operation. This is what we call 'group discussions' which
motivates the students to perform in a team, show leadership skills and
enhances the presentation capabilities as well. This is one of the best direct
instructional
methods.
These techniques for special education are a little different from the methods
and theories for others. The education is imparted to these students based on
their strengths and weaknesses. The teachers cater to the special needs of
the students like modification in the regular teaching program, use of
supplementary aids that allows students to participate in the learning process.
Different effective teaching strategies are adopted on the basis of the
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disabilities. Four kinds of provisions are adopted in special education and they
are
inclusion,
mainstream,
segregation
and
exclusion.
Apart from these defined methods, many other methods are being adopted to
give quality education. The methods are
 Role-play
 story
 games
 presentations
 Brainstorming
 case study
 educational trips
 audio-visual aids like documentary films,
 Computers & internet, etc. have been introduced in education.
These new methods have increased the pace of learning and understanding. This
also enhances the capability of the students to research and logically think for a
given problem.
Lesson activity
 Discuss various teaching approaches
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method
listed above
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LECTURE FOUR: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING
Lesson Objectives
 Highlight different type of learners found in the classroom
 Discuss different type of learning disabilities
Understanding more about the internal dynamics of the students and how to manage
different learners will make class management easy and also enable the teacher
choose appropriate instruction methods to fit the type of students.
Below is a list of types of challenging learners expected in some classes handled by
teachers.
Challenging learners

The dominant learner

The arrogant learner – the know-it-all

The learner who wants to be the centre of
attention at all times

The aggressive or argumentative learner

The offensive and rude learner

The politically incorrect learner

The flirtatious learner

The joke-a-minute learner

The garrulous learner
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
The disengaged learner

The bored learner

The learner who relies on everyone
else to do the work

The lazy learner

The shy learner

The delicate, tearful learner

The over-dependent learner

The constantly late learner

The frequently ill learner

The mentally disturbed learner
Below are some methods a teacher can use to manage different type of learners in
the classroom:
The persistent talker

For Monopolizing group discussions – a teacher can summarize their main points
and divert the discussion to others; interrupt with a yes/no question and ask
someone else to comment; give them a specific task (e.g. taking notes, writing on a
flipchart) so that they have to listen to others; divide the group into sub-groups for
specific tasks and ask them to chair or act as scribe so their focus is on others’
contributions.

For Rambling and diverting the discussion – a teacher may break in and bring the
discussion back to the point; be direct; indicate pressure of time and the need to get
on with the task; ask questions of other people in the group.

For students who always try to answer every question –a teacher can acknowledge
their help but suggest you seek out several ideas/answers; direct questions to other
people in the group.

For students who keep talking to others nearby and not joining in with the whole
group – a teacher may directly address them and ask them to contribute to the
whole group; stop talking until they realize others are listening.
Quiet people

For Shy and timid students– they may speak quietly or cannot find the words to say
what they mean. You can help them by allowing time for them to respond; asking
‘easy’ questions of them; asking the same question of different trainees with them
safely in the middle; protecting them from mockery or teasing; acknowledging their
contribution; putting the group into pairs on a task to increase confidence.

For Reticent – often has a valid contribution but is unwilling to participate. You can
draw them into the discussion by name; invite them to comment about something
you know they have experience of; motivate by focusing on something they find
interesting; positively reinforce any contribution.
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Negative attitude
These people may like to talk but have a negative attitude that can affect others.

For Superior students who appear to know everything. –appreciate them by
indicating how others can learn from their experience; ask for specific examples, ask
the group to comment, then ask the person to summarize the rest of the group’s
points; indicate to the group that they will learn more if everyone shares experience
and knowledge.

For the Complainer who blames others and finds fault. -Get them to be specific
about the problem and invite the group to think of positive solutions; be direct and
say that the group has to get on with the task.

For the Clown who ridicules discussion by joking or making irritating remarks. -Ask
them for a serious contribution; acknowledge any valid contribution; be direct and
say that although this was amusing, the group must move on to complete its task.

For the Arguer who is often aggressive, hostile and antagonistic. -Rephrase the
point in milder terms; acknowledge that they feel strongly about the issue and invite
the group for their comments; avoid lengthy debates by saying you can discuss this
after the session; defuse the ‘heat’ and then move on; as a last resort, ask them to
leave the group.
Types of Learning Disabilities
Auditory Perception. (Also called Receptive Language) The individual might
have difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in sound (called phonemes) or
might have difficulty distinguishing individual phonemes as quickly as normal.
Either problem can result in difficulty processing and understanding what is said.
Individuals might have difficulty with what is called auditory figure-ground. They
have difficulty identifying what sound(s) to listen to when there is more than one
sound.
Visual Perception. One might have difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in
shapes (called graphemes). They might rotate or reverse letters or numbers (d, b,
p, q, 6, 9); thus misreading the symbol. Some might have a figure-ground
problem, confusing what figure(s) to focus on from the page covered with many
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words and lines. They might skip words, skip lines, or read the same line twice.
Others might have difficulty blending information from both eyes to have depth
perception. They might misjudge depth or distance, bumping into things or having
difficulty with tasks where this information is needed to tell the hands or body what
to do. If there is difficulty with visual perception, there could be problems with
tasks that require eye-hand coordination (visual motor skills) such as catching a
ball, doing a puzzle, or picking up a glass.
INTEGRATION
Once information is recorded in the brain (input), three tasks must be carried out
in order to make sense or integrate this information. First, the information must be
placed in the right order or sequenced. Then, the information must be understood
beyond the literal meaning, abstraction. Finally, each unit of information must be
integrated into complete thoughts or concepts, organization.
Sequencing. The individual might have difficulty learning information in the
proper sequence. Thus, he might get math sequences wrong, have difficulty
remembering sequences such as the months of the year, the alphabet, or the
times table. Or, she might write a report with all of the important facts but not in
the proper order.
Abstraction. A person might have difficulty inferring the meaning of individual
words or concepts. Jokes, idioms, or puns are often not understood. He might
have problems with words that might have different meanings depending on how
they are used. For example, “the dog” refers to a pet. “You dog” is an insult.
Organization. An individual might have difficulty organizing materials, losing,
forgetting, or misplacing papers, notebooks, or homework assignments. She
might have difficulty organizing her environment, such as her bedroom. Some
might have problems organizing time. They have difficulty with projects due at a
certain time or with being on time. (Organization over time is referred to as
Executive Function.)
MEMORY
Three types of memory are important to learning. “Working memory” refers to the
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ability to hold on to pieces of information until the pieces blend into a full thought
or concept. For example, reading each word until the end of a sentence or
paragraph and then understanding the full content. “Short-term memory” is the
active process of storing and retaining information for a limited period of time. The
information is temporarily available but not yet stored for long-term retention.
“Long-term memory” refers to information that has been stored and that is
available over a long period of time. Individuals might have difficulty with auditory
memory or visual memory.
One reads a sentence and hold on to it. Then the next and the next. By the end of
the paragraph, he pulls together the meaning of the full paragraph. This is working
memory. He continues to read the full chapter and study it. Information is retained
long enough to take a test and do well. This is short-term memory. But, unless the
information is reviewed and studied over a longer period of time, it is not retained.
With more effort over time, the information might become part of a general body of
knowledge. It is long-term memory.
OUTPUT
Information is communicated by means of words (language output) or though
muscle activity such as writing, drawing, gesturing (motor output). An individual
might have a language disability (also called expressive language disability) or a
motor
disability.
Language Disability. It is possible to think of language output as being
spontaneous or on demand. Spontaneous means that the person initiates the
conversation. Thoughts have been organized and words found before speaking.
Demand language means that one is asked a question or asked to explain
something. Now, she must organize his thoughts, find the right words, and speak
at the same time. Most people with a language disability have little difficulty with
spontaneous language. However, in a demand situation, the same person might
struggle to organize her thoughts or to find the right words.
Motor Disability. One might have difficulty coordinating teams of small muscles,
called a fine motor disability. He might have problems with colouring, cutting,
22
writing, buttoning, or tying shoes. Others might have difficulty coordinating teams
of large muscles, called a gross motor disability. She is awkward when running or
jumping.
Each individual will have his or her unique pattern of LD. This pattern might
cluster around specific common difficulties. For example, the pattern might
primarily reflect a problem with language processing: auditory perception, auditory
sequencing/abstraction/organization, auditory memory, and a language disability.
Or the problem might be more in the visual input to motor output areas. Some
people with LD will have a mixture of both.
These more specified types of learning disabilities are categorized as follows:
Dyslexia – A reading disability where the student has trouble reading written words
fluently, out loud.
Dysgraphia – A writing disability where the student has difficulty with forming letters
and legibility.
Dyscalculia – A math disability where the student struggles with math problems and
concepts.
Dyspraxia – A motor coordination disability which is also known as Sensory
Integration Disorder.
Dysphasia – A language disability where the student has difficulty with reading
comprehension.
Aphasia – A language disability where the student has difficulty understanding
spoken language.
Central Auditory Processing Disorder – A sensory disability related to processing
sounds.
Visual Processing Disorder – A sensory disability related to processing images.
Non-Verbal Learning Disorder – A visual-spatial disability related to body control.
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Lesson Activity
 Discuss various learning disabilities found in some
learners
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LECTURE FIVE: CLASS MANAGEMENT
Lesson Objectives
 Discuss various roles of the teacher in class
management
Roles of Teachers
Teachers play many different roles and present many different images. Some of these roles and
images are:
1. Representatives of society.

Teachers reflect and develop values, moral attitudes, and thinking patterns typical of
the community.
2. Judges.

Teachers judge students' behaviour, character, work, and progress.
3. Source of knowledge.

Teachers are the primary source of knowledge, a resource from which to obtain
information.
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4. Helpers in learning.

Teacher’s help students learn by giving directions, furnishing information, requiring
that work be done, removing obstacles to learning, and facilitating problem solving.
5. Referees.

Teachers arbitrate and make decisions when disputes arise.
6. Detectives.

Teachers maintain security in the classroom, discover wrongdoing, and hand-out
consequences.
7. Models.

Teachers model customs, manners, values, and beliefs that students are to imitate.
8. Caretakers.

Teachers reduce anxiety by maintaining standards of behaviour, consistent
environments, regular schedules, and freedom from danger or threat.
9. Ego supporters.

Teachers support student ego by building student self-confidence and bettering selfimages.
10. Group leaders.

Teachers facilitate harmonious and efficient group functioning.
11. Surrogate parents.

Teachers are a source of protection, approval, affection, and advice.
12. Targets for hostility.

When student hostility cannot be appropriately expressed to other adults, it may be
displaced onto teachers.
13. Friends and confidants.

Teachers can be talked with and confided in.
14. Objects of affection.

Teachers are often objects of affection and esteem, as well as crushes and hero
worship.
Below are key major roles that teachers play in curriculum instruction and delivery.
26
Teacher Roles - Planning
Introduction
Effective teaching, learning and classroom management depend on effective planning. A great
deal of this planning takes place outside the confines of the classroom prior to classroom
interaction. However, the relationship between planning and implementation is a dynamic one, and
planning for immediate future activities may well take place in the classroom virtually as
implementation occurs. An example is as the lesson is implemented the teacher receives feedback
concerning the efficacy of the decisions that were made during the planning process, and modifies
and adjusts those decisions as required.
While planning for effective classroom management tends to focus on teaching and learning
activities, it also includes planning related to the organisation and management of students,
resources, time and space. Planning decisions by teachers reflect their beliefs and perceptions.
Planning is a value-based activity, thus it is important for teachers to be aware how their own
values may inform their decision making.
Aims of planning

Establish the goals and purposes of the class agenda within the wider agenda of the school,
and the general strategies for attaining them.

Set specific objectives for particular classroom programs and devise coordinated ways of
accomplishing them.

Anticipate possible problems so that these can be avoided or overcome.

Optimize the use of such resources such as time, space, personnel and finance to achieve
the objectives and purposes of the class goals.

Develop guidelines for decision making and decision taking with students so that policies
and programs can be implemented.

Provide opportunities for students to participate in decisions related to the planning and
implementation of activities and programs so that they not only achieve better
understanding and acceptance of these but also enhance their own learning and growth.

Establish a basis for determining whether class and school goals are being achieved.

Ensure coordination of long-range and short-term plans so that the activities of the
classroom are coherent and consistent and move in agreed-upon directions.
Strategies for implementing a plan
27
Effective planning relies on (a) input from stakeholders, and (b) key principles involved for
providing an effective framework. These key principles may relate to style of classroom
management, and include student involvement, flexibility and review. Other principles relate to the
characteristics of the emergent plan. These include stability, continuity and simplicity. When
formulating an effective plan, it is suggested the following seven key principles be involved.
1. Staff Involvement
In the process of planning, the teacher must ensure that persons concerned with, and affected by,
the purposes of the plans have an opportunity to participate in their formulation. Such persons
might include students, other teachers, parents, and possibly members of the school community.
The advantages of participation include better understanding and acceptance of plans and
programs developed, and greater commitment to participate in them.
2. Flexibility
The plans that are eventually formulated should not be regarded as set in concrete. Their
implementation will doubtless necessitate fine tuning and modification as unforeseen problems
and circumstances arise. A number of alternate plans may be devised to facilitate flexibility.
3. Stability
While a plan must be flexible, it must also have stability; it should not have to be abandoned or
modified extensively. If plans change too often, the stakeholders will become confused and
resentful, and goal attainment will be impossible.
4. Continuity
Planning should have continuity so that when one plan is completed or has outlived its usefulness,
it is replaced by another so that the guiding action provided by planning is continuous.
5. Simplicity
Often plans are more complex than they need to be. The more complex a plan, the more difficult it
is to communicate, follow and implement. It is essential that classroom plans are simply expressed
if students are to participate fully in their development and implementation.
6. Review
Teachers must periodically and/or continuously monitor and evaluate the progress of their plans to
determine whether they are on course or whether encountering difficulties. These reviews may
28
make it necessary to redraw the plans to meet desired goals or to change the goal themselves
Teacher Roles - Organizing
The organizing role involves teachers in making arrangements and developing an orderly
structure, which will unify all elements in the classroom into a coherent and functioning whole. It is
through the organizing tasks of developing and modifying structures and routines, orienting
participants, assigning tasks, coordinating and sustaining contributions, that teachers arrange
classroom space, time and resources and coordinate the efforts of individuals towards the
achievement of the educational objective of the class, and the broader goals of the school.
Sound organizing is closely linked with systematic planning. Whereas planning is concerned with
the identification of appropriate activities, organizing is concerned with making arrangements and
structuring the classroom to implement planned activities. In fact the organizing role of the teacher
links planning with all the other roles of communicating, motivating and controlling.
Each person in a classroom affects every other person, and some, most frequently 'leaders' and
‘deviants’; influence the behaviour of members of the group more than others (Johnson &
Johnson, 1984). In most cases a number of sub-groups and cliques are found, and it is an
important task for the teacher to organize the classroom to overcome differences and problems,
and to develop a feeling of group cohesion among all individuals and groups.
Aims
The major aims of the organizing role are to establish within a classroom a structure which will:

Facilitate the achievement of the classroom mission within the constraints imposed by the
school and classroom settings.

Implement the policies, goals, and plans formulated by the school.

Realise specific objectives of school programmes through planned and effective courses of
action.

Carry out agreed-upon tasks within the classroom in as efficient a manner as possible.

Foster positive classroom climate through a sense of achievement resulting from success in
the cooperative implementation of plans of action.

Achieve efficiency and optimal student learning through sound management of time,
personnel and material resources.

Ensure all pupils understand their roles and accept tasks properly assigned to them.

Coordinate individual and group efforts within the classroom in an appropriate way.
29
Teacher Roles - Motivating
Motivation is a vital factor in the teacher's management of learning and behaviour in the
classroom. Motivation signifies the causes or 'why' of behaviour; it is concerned with questions of
the energising of behaviour and the direction given to behaviour. In the classroom, motivation is
observed as students show interest and enthusiasm, and give attention and concentration to
learning tasks. Conversely, low levels of motivation are observed in student apathy and
misbehaviour.
Motivation is closely related to self-concept and to personal needs. Maslow described a hierarchy
of needs extending in pyramid fashion from basic physiological and safety needs to needs for
belongingness and love, to self-esteem needs, and to the highest level need for self-actualisation.
Self-actualisation involves striving for the full realisation of a person's potential.
The motivating role of teachers encompasses attempts to create conditions within a classroom
which will energise, direct and sustain students' performance. This role is important for promoting
morale and climate, and involves the sustaining of enthusiasm and positive attitudes towards
school goals and learning tasks, both those assigned and those self-generated by the students.
Aims
As mentioned previously, the motivating role is primarily concerned with energising behaviour by
tapping internal forces which will initiate and sustain the work of students for whom classroom
teachers are responsible. Classroom teachers will seek to achieve the following:

Ensure commitment of all students to the school's mission.

Create conditions which will energise and direct the efforts of students towards achieving
learning goals.

Sustain levels of motivation which will keep the students persevering with their assigned
tasks.

Provide an appropriate model of enthusiasm and diligence, displaying warmth and a high
level of effective interpersonal relationships and communication.

Foster classroom climate through a proper sense of student achievement which comes from
felt success in achieving school and personal goals.
Categories of Motivation
30
There are two broad categories of motivation - intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation is a response to needs within the student, such as curiosity, the need to know,
or feelings of competence and growth. Internal satisfaction a student feels about a particular task
is another aspect of intrinsic motivation. For example, some students might find activities involving
movement to be intrinsically satisfying.
Extrinsic motivation is motivation from outside the learner and has to do with external rewards for
completion of a task. Words of praise from the teacher, a higher grade, or a privilege are
examples. The reinforcement of extrinsic motivation can be effective; but be aware that excessive
use of rewards may be decreasingly successful in new situations, foster dependence on the
teacher, and undermine intrinsic motivation.
Six strategies for motivating students to learn:
1. Capture Student Interest in the Subject Matter.

Take student interest into account

Capitalise on the arousal value of suspense, discovery, curiosity, exploration, and fantasy.

Try to make study of the subject matter as active, investigative, adventurous, and social as
possible.

Use questions and activities to capture student interest in the subject matter.

Use games, simulations, or other fun features.
2. Highlight the Relevance of the Subject Matter.

Select meaningful learning objectives and activities.

Relate the subject matter to students' everyday experiences and backgrounds.

Call attention to the usefulness of the subject matter.

Have students use what they previously learned.
3. Help Students Maintain Expectations for Success.

Have students set short-term goals.

Help students assess their progress toward their goals.

Allow students a degree of control over their learning.
31

Draw attention to the successes students have achieved.
4. Design the Lesson to Maintain Interest and Promote Student Success

State learning objectives and expectations, and provide advance organisers.

Vary instructional approaches and present the subject matter in interesting, novel ways.

Plan active student involvement.

Select stimulating, appropriate tasks.

Occasionally do the unexpected.

Use familiar material for initial examples, but provide unique and unexpected contexts when
applying concepts and principles.

Design activities that lead to student success.

Provide an appropriate level of challenge and support.

Plan for individual, cooperative, and competitive activities.

Adapt tasks to match motivational needs.

Promote feelings of control by giving students a voice in decision making.

Communicate desirable expectations and attributes.

Minimise performance anxiety.

Establish a supportive environment.
5. Express Interest in the Content and Project Enthusiasm.

Model interest in learning and motivation to learn.

Model task-related thinking and problem solving.

Project enthusiasm.
6. Provide Feedback and Rewards for Performance.

Provide frequent opportunities for students to respond and to receive feedback about their
academic work.

Offer rewards as incentives.

Give some rewards early in the learning experiences.

Help students attribute achievement to effort.

Help students recognise that knowledge and skill development are incremental.

Provide remedial socialisation for discouraged students.
32
The six strategies for motivating students to learn were adapted from 'Burden. P. R., 1995,
Classroom Management and Discipline, Longman, New York'.
Roles of the Teacher - Communicating
Learning and teaching in the classroom predominately take place through interpersonal
communication between teachers and students. The context in which this communication occurs
and the relationships between teachers and students are neither fixed nor predetermined. Rather
they are constructed by the teacher and students, and negotiated by them as they act and react
through verbal and non-verbal behaviour. The management of communication is one of the central
tasks of the classroom teacher.
Effective student learning depends largely upon the strong and positive management of classroom
communication in all its forms and situations. In turn, effective classroom management and the
roles of planning, organizing, controlling and motivating depend upon the management of effective
communication. Communication is at the heart of classroom processes
Aims
The major aims of the communicating role in the classroom are to:

Initiate and sustain effective communication systems and techniques so as to establish and
maintain group cohesion and on-task behaviour.

Develop communication skills of teacher and students to facilitate the management of
classroom activities, both behavioural and instructional.

Maximize the exchange of information within the classroom and with other sections of the
school and its community, so as to develop common understandings

Devise effective communication strategies for overcoming classroom management issues.
.
33
Types of Communication
There are numerous types of communications that relate to interactions within the classroom,
these include written, verbal and nonverbal, and direct and indirect. Conran (1989) discussed three
types of communication that may be found in a typical classroom environment, each type having a
different purpose and effect.
The first form is called Proactive Communication.
This type of communication is a closed and direct form, mainly used by the teacher. Its purpose is
ordering or directing. It is characteristic of structuring a task and producing instructions.
The second form is Defensive Communication.
This type is employed when someone feels threatened. It is not an open form of communication
and is neither constructive nor effective. It has the result of closing off communication.
The third form is Interactive Communication.
This type is indirect and an open form of interaction used to describe and explore. It is
characteristic of many teaching/learning situations.
While each of these forms of communication has a place in the classroom, the open and
interactive form is probably most effective in facilitating successful learning by students, fostering
positive classroom climate, and enhancing relationships between teacher and students. Interactive
communication is based on trust and respect and is important in achieving goals of the class
agenda. Interactive communication is characterized by the use of humour, which has been found
to be an important feature of successful classroom teachers.
Research has shown that teachers are responsible for 60% or more of classroom interactions, and
that 60% or more of these interactions are directive and proactive. A more effective management
of communication would move towards reducing the directive dominance of classroom
communication and emphasize more interactive and open communication.
Face-to-face, which is the common form of communication, is richest because it provides
immediate feedback through verbal and visual cues. Comprehension is generally higher when
material is presented in written form, while changes of opinion and belief occur through face-toface interactions
The appropriate medium depends on the purpose of the message. Generally the most effective
34
communication uses a combination of oral and written media. In addition it employs the principle of
redundancy (repetition of the message in different forms). Thus a teacher might convey the same
message verbally while using the blackboard or the overhead projector. These are different media
and are supported by a third, body and facial expressions. Usually, within reason, the more media
used to convey a message, the more likely it is that the message will be transmitted effectively.
At least as important as verbal, graphic, and numeric media are non-verbal signals and
paralanguage such as stress, inflection and speed of speech as well as grunts and laughter.
This emphasizes the importance of nonverbal gestures and the body positions of teachers and
students in classroom communication. Tone of voice, however, carries a much greater proportion
of verbal messages than words, while sight is a more important receptor of information than ears
or body.
There have been many studies that have investigated teacher's communicating behaviour. In
summary, the following findings can be noted:

Student achievement is maximized when teachers actively present material, structure it by
providing overviews of the task and advance organizers, outline content and signal
transitions between lesson parts, Summarise sub-parts during the lesson and review main
ideas at the end.

Student achievement appears to be higher when information is presented clearly, with
enthusiasm, and with a degree of redundancy or repetition through various channels.

Teacher questioning is most effective when questions are pitched at the appropriate
conceptual level, are asked clearly, and are followed by a pause to allow students to think
before responding.

Student responses should be acknowledged by providing verbal and constructive feedback,
and assisting partially correct respondents to greater success through prompting and
rephrasing of questions. * Teachers should encourage student initiations, directing them to
other class members for comment and response, and including them within the talk about
the topic.
Apart from the importance of managing effective classroom communication, teachers must also
coordinate communication with parents and members of the school community. Parents generally
wish to be involved in their children's education (Lindle, 1989), and have a right to be informed
about their own children's progress and achievement. Generally, findings from research into
35
teacher/parent communication suggests that it is insufficient, irregular, infrequent and based too
heavily on symbolic and numeric forms. In addition, it tends to occur when there is a problem
rather than emphasizing student success and achievement (Mellor & Hayden, 1981).
Roles of the Teacher - Controlling
Controlling is the process by which teachers ensure that the learning activities and behaviour of
children in the classroom are consistent with the objectives, expectations and plans of both
teachers and school. Controlling is closely related to planning. Planning involves the establishment
of instructional objectives and the development of strategies, while controlling establishes
standards of performance, influences, monitors and measures performance, compares
performance with standards, and takes corrective action if needed. Indeed the initial step of the
controlling process itself is actually a planning step establishing standards or, more narrowly,
rules.
It must be emphasized that the controlling process is essentially a positive one, its basic purpose is
to facilitate and ensure attainment of instructional objectives. In the past, however, the terms
control and controlling have generally conveyed the negative connotations of discipline and
punishment which constrict student freedom and introduce teacher dominance, order and
inflexibility in classrooms. A section dealing with discipline as a separate issue is included in this
program. Today controlling is being recognized as a process through which teachers stimulate and
guide productive learning behaviours rather than one through which they typically command and
coerce students. Through controlling, teachers establish and maintain those conditions in which
instruction can take place effectively and efficiently and in which their students feel comfortable
and unthreatened.
Aims
The general aims of the controlling role is to ensure that instructional objectives and plans are
attained by influencing the pace and direction of classroom activities and engagement in them, and
by detecting actual or potential deviations and disruptions and by taking action to correct or
prevent them. Subsidiary to this aim are four other aims. Controlling seeks to:

Establish standards of performance and expectations of students consistent with
instructional goals and plans.

Influence and monitor student performance in the learning activities towards the attainment
of standards, goals and plans.
36

Locate through evaluation, instances where performance does not meet standards so that
corrective action can be taken or planned.

Motivate individuals and build the morale of groups by providing feedback, recognition,
advice and encouragement on their performance and progress towards instructional goals.
Principles of Controlling
The following six principles are important in the implementation of the controlling role in
classrooms. The initial three are basic and the latter three are highly desirable:
1. Controls should be clear and acceptable:
Students often resent controls, especially those considered to be vague or excessive. They should
be able to grasp clearly what is expected of them as well as the purpose and process of the
controls. If controls are excessive they signal that students are not able or trusted to act on their
own.
2. Controls should encourage participation:
If students are to accept controls they should participate in the controlling process that is, in
establishing standards and rules, providing feedback, in locating deviations, and in determining
correct action. To an appropriate degree, moreover, students may be delegated responsibility for
controlling their own learning and significant parts of the class's activities.
3. Over control should be avoided:
Over control, where teachers view control as an end and not a means, or where they use it to
coerce children to meet unreasonable demands should be avoided. Over control may lead to
resentment and even rebellion, and is a barrier to motivation and learning.
4. Controls should be flexible:
Controls should be sufficiently flexible to be adapted to the styles of teachers and the needs of
individual students.
5. Controls should be economical:
The less time and effort devoted to controlling the better. The fewer controls needed the more
effective they will be.
6. Controls should be operational:
37
Controls must lead to action that corrects differences between standards and performance.
While careful pro-active planning is essential to the success of the various roles of classroom
management, it is especially pertinent to the task of establishing standards in the controlling role. It
is now recognized that a crucial factor in pre-empting misbehaviour and promoting student selfdiscipline lies in establishing clear guidelines and expectations regarding classroom behaviour.
The role of the teacher in class Discipline
Glasser (1978) firmly believes that teachers hold the key to good discipline. He concludes that
both teachers and students have important roles to play in maintaining effective discipline, but
today he puts much greater responsibility on the shoulders of teachers than he formerly did. He
has always maintained that the following actions are the teacher's responsibility, they are:
1. Stress student responsibility.
Since good behaviour comes from good choices and since students ultimately must live with the
choices they make, their responsibility for their own behaviour is always kept in the forefront.
Discussions in which this responsibility is explored and clarified occur in classroom meetings.
These meetings occur as regular parts of the curriculum. Students sit in a tight circle with the
teacher and discuss matters that concern the class.
2. Establish rules that lead to success.
Glasser considers class rules to be essential. He has given many examples of programs and
classes that have attempted to operate without rules, in the mistaken belief that rules stifle
initiative, responsibility, and self-direction. He stresses that rules are essential, especially for
students who have done poorly in school. Permissiveness for those students tends to be
destructive.
It fosters antagonism, ridicule, and lack of respect for teachers and others. Rules should be
established by teachers and students together, and should facilitate personal and group
achievement. Rules should be adapted to the age, ability, and other realities of the students. One
thing is essential: Rules must reinforce the basic idea that students are in school to study and
learn.
38
Furthermore, rules should constantly be evaluated to see whether they are useful. When no longer
useful, they should be discarded or changed. So long as they are retained, however, they must be
enforced.
3. Accept no excuses.
For discipline to be successful, teachers must accept no excuses. Glasser uses this "no excuse"
dictum in two areas. The first has to do with conditions outside the school. What goes on there
does not excuse bad behaviour in school. Those conditions may, indeed, cause bad behaviour.
but that does not make it acceptable.
The teacher must never say "we can excuse Bill's behaviour. Today because he has trouble at
home. It is okay if he yells and hits." The second area in which Glasser says teachers should
accept no excuses concerns student commitment. Once a student has decided on a course of
good behaviour and has made a commitment to it, the teacher must never accept excuses for the
student's failing to live up to that commitment.
A teacher who accepts an excuse says, in effect, that it is alright to break a commitment that it is
alright for students to harm themselves. Teachers who care, Glasser says, accept no excuses.
4. Call for value judgment.
When students exhibit inappropriate behaviour, teachers should have them make value judgments
about it. Glasser (1977) suggests the following procedure when a student is misbehaving:
Teacher: "What are you doing?" (Asked in unthreatening tone of voice.)
Student: (Will usually give an honest answer if not threatened.)
Teacher: "Is that helping you or the class?" Student: "No."
Teacher: "What could you do that would help?"
Student: (Names better behaviour. if can think of none, teacher suggests appropriate alternatives
and lets student choose.)
Sometimes the student does not respond in an acceptable way, but instead replies hostilely or
39
caustically. For that eventuality, Glasser presents the following scenarios:
i) Student misbehaving. Teacher: "What are you doing? Is it against the rules? What should you be
doing?" Student: (Responds negatively, unacceptably.) Teacher: I would like to talk with you
privately at (specifies time).
ii) Private conference between teacher and student.
Teacher: “What were you doing? Was it against the rules? What should you have been doing?"
Student: (Agrees to proper course of behaviour.).
iii) Student later repeats the misbehaviour. Teacher calls for another private conference.
Teacher: "We have to work this out. What kind of plan can you make so you can follow the rules?
Student: "I'll stop doing it".
Teacher: “No, we need a plan that says exactly what you will do. Let's make a simple plan that you
can follow. I'll help you."
Teacher assigns "time out". This is isolation from the group. Student is not allowed to participate
with the group again until making a commitment to the teacher to adhere to the plan. If the student
disrupts during time out, he is excluded from the classroom. (A contingency plan should be set up
in advance with the principal.)
v) Student, after returning to the group, disrupts again.
Teacher: "Things are not working out here for you and me. We have tried hard. You must leave the
class. As soon as you have a plan you are sure will allow you to follow the rules of the class, let me
know. We can try again, but for now, please report to the principal's office." (Principal was informed
in advance of this possibility.)
vi) If a student is out of control, principal notifies parents and asks them to pick up the student at
school immediately.
vii) Students who are repeatedly sent home are referred to a special school or class, or to a
different community agency. By following this procedure consistently, teachers can cause students
40
to doubt the value of their misbehaviour. make responsible and better choices, and thus gradually
make a commitment to choosing behaviours that bring personal success instead of failure.
5. Suggest suitable alternatives.
First grader Nathan has been having trouble lining up promptly when the bell rings. Mrs Smith
offered him two choices: either (i) get in line immediately when the bell rings, or (ii) be last to go for
recess. Nathan chose number one. He understands that he is expected to live by his choice, and
Mrs Smith helps him remember that. Misbehaving students will sometimes be unable to think of
appropriate behaviours they might select. The teacher should then suggest two or three
acceptable alternatives.
6. Invoke reasonable consequences.
Glasser stresses that reasonable consequences must follow whatever behaviour the student
chooses. These consequences will be desirable if good behaviour is chosen and undesirable if
poor behaviour is chosen. Never should teachers manipulate events so that these consequences
do not occur. The knowledge that behaviour always brings consequences, and that individuals can
largely choose behaviour that brings pleasant as opposed to unpleasant consequences, builds the
sense that people are in charge of their own lives and in control of their own behaviour
7. Be persistent
Caring teachers work toward one goal - getting students to commit themselves to desirable
courses of behaviour Commitment means constancy, doing something repeatedly, intentionally,
while making sure that it is right. To convey this idea and help implant it in students, teachers
themselves must be constant. They must always help students make choices and have them make
value judgments about their bad choices.
8. Carry out continual review.
For Glasser, the classroom meeting is central to implementation of a good system of discipline.
Glasser advocates three types of classroom meetings:
(i) Social problem solving,
(ii) educational diagnostic, and
41
(iii) open ended.
Discussions in classroom meetings focus on two things:
(i) Identifying the problem, and
(ii) seeking solutions to the problem.
Students are never allowed to find fault with others, place blame on them, or seek to punish them.
The teacher remains in the background during the discussion, giving opinions sparingly and
participating in a way that reflects student attitudes back to the group for examination.
Glasser stresses that the meetings require practice before they are successful, and that unless
they are focused on finding solutions, they will not produce the desired effect.
It is reasonable to conclude that Glasser would have teachers begin with organizing their classes
so as to meet students' needs to the extent possible. But he concedes that probably about 25% of
the secondary students will be unproductive. And of course even productive students often present
discipline problems.
Once the class is better organised to meet students' needs, then Glasser's earlier suggestions on
how to deal with misbehaving students are still appropriate. Simple improvement in meeting
student needs, while tremendously important, does not do away with all misbehaviour Students
therefore should still be helped to see that good behaviour choices lead to better results.
They should still be urged to show responsibility for their actions and to be considerate of others.
Thus, Glasser's model of discipline can now be seen in this expanded form - first organize the
class to meet needs as well as possible, then continue to use intervention strategies for controlling
and improving behaviour
42
Lesson Activity
 Discuss various roles played by the teacher in the classroom
43
LECTURE SIX: PROFESSIONAL DOCUMENTS:
Lesson Objectives
Discuss various professional documents kept by the teacher
Planning a Lesson
As you plan a lesson, also plan for motivation, and plan that each time phase of the learning
sequence includes positive motivational influences. There are three critical periods in a learning
event. These are:
1. Beginning a lesson - when the student enters and begins the learning process.
2. During a lesson - when the student is involved in the body or main content of the learning
process.
3. Ending a lesson - when the student is completing the learning process.
Beginning a Lesson
At the beginning of a learning activity, you need to consider two motivational factors when
selecting motivational strategies: attitude and needs. Attitude deals with the student's view of the
subject matter, the general learning environment, and other factors. Needs deal with the students'
basic needs at the time of learning. As you plan for the beginning of a learning event, ask yourself
two questions:

What can I do to establish a positive learning attitude for this learning sequence?

How do I best meet the needs of my learners through this learning sequence?
Attitude is the student's stance toward the learning environment, teacher, subject matter, and self.
When planning to incorporate motivational factors at the beginning of a lesson, you need to select
strategies that positively affect the student's attitude about themselves, yourself as the teacher, the
44
subject, and the learning situation, while also establishing learner expectations for success. To
positively affect attitude about yourself as a teacher, you might plan to establish a relationship with
the students by sharing something of value with them. Listening to them with empathy, treating
them with warmth and acceptance, and using class or individual meetings to establish
relationships. To positively affect attitude toward the subject and learning situation, plan to make
conditions surrounding the subject positive, model enthusiasm for the subject, associate the
student with other students who are enthusiastic about the subject, positively confront the student
about erroneous beliefs, and make the first experience with the subject matter as positive as
possible.
You can positively affect the students' attitude toward themselves by promoting success, giving
encouragement, emphasizing students' personal causation in their learning, and using group
process methods to enhance a positive self-concept. Finally, when trying to establish learner
expectancy for success, you could interview students and help them set goals or contracts for their
learning.
A need is a condition experienced by the individual as a force that leads the person to move in the
direction of a goal. Maslow's hierarchy of needs provides a framework to examine strategies that
teachers could select in addressing students' needs at the beginning of a lesson. When planning
for meeting psychological needs, you could select content, examples, and projects that relate to
students' psychological needs, and could be alert to restlessness so you can relieve the causes
producing it. For example, students may not be physically comfortable after sitting for long periods
of time, or after being asked to do one task for a long time. Instead, have a change of activities or
break the tasks up into shorter segments.
During a Lesson
During a learning activity, two motivational factors need to be considered stimulation and affect.
Stimulation deals with attention and involvement during the learning process. Affect deals with the
affective or emotional experience of the student while learning. As you plan for this part of the
learning activity, ask yourself two questions:

What about this learning sequence will continuously stimulate my learners?

In what way is the affective experience and emotional climate for this sequence positive for
learners?
45
Stimulation has to do with holding attention and building involvement. When you introduce or
connect learning activities, draw attention to the new learning activity or topic. Use movement,
voice, body language, and props to vitalize and accentuate classroom presentations. To promote
interest and involvement, relate learning to student interest, and use humour, examples, analogies,
stories, and questions. When asking questions, limit informational questions and selectively
increase questions that require comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
To create disequilibrium, introduce contrasting information, play the devil's advocate, and be
unpredictable to the degree that students enjoy the spontaneity. To be unpredictable, for example,
you could alter your conduct of each review session before a test.
Affect pertains to the feelings, concerns, values, and passions of the students while learning.
When planning lessons, try to encourage and integrate learner emotions, and maintain an optimal
climate within the learning group. Feelings are the emotions that accompany the how and what a
student is learning. Awareness and communication allow feelings to become a vital influential
aspect of motivation. Integrate what is being taught with how the student feels now about the
content and then establish a relationship between this content and the student's life. You can also
take steps to establish a climate that promotes positive interrelationships among class members.
Ending a Lesson
At the end of a learning activity, two motivational factors are considered: competence and
reinforcement. Competence deals with the degree of progress the students feel they have made.
Reinforcement deals with feedback on their progress. When you plan for the ending of a learning
activity, ask yourself two questions; 'How does this learning sequence increase or affirm the
learner's feelings of competence?' and 'What reinforcement does this learning sequence provide?'
Competence refers to the sense of growth and content mastery that a person recognizes. As you
plan for the end of a learning activity, take into account at least two aspects of competence. First,
make sure students have opportunities to become aware of their progress and mastery. You can
do this by providing feedback on mastery of learning, offering constructive criticism, and facilitating
successful completion of the learning task. Second, students need to be aware at the end of the
activity that theory 'personally caused' their own learning. This can be done by acknowledging and
affirming the student's responsibility in completing the task, using a competence checklist for
students self-rating, and acknowledging the risk taking and challenge involved in the learning
accomplishment.
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Reinforcement is an event of a state of affairs that changes subsequent behaviour. For example, a
student who is given praise for efforts made in studying for a test will tend to continue these efforts
after the praise is given. Reinforcement can be in the form of artificial rein forcers such as tangible
or concrete materials, or extrinsic symbols for learning behaviour.
Gold stars, prizes, trinkets, certificates, and points are examples. When natural consequences
(e.g., reading can produce new insights and expand awareness) of student learning are evident,
emphasis the result of the learning behaviour and highlight it as a part of the learning process. You
can take steps to enhance the intrinsic value of traditional grading and limit its negative intrinsic
value. Provide alternative forms of feedback to students about their performance, clearly
explaining the grading policy to students, and perhaps using student self-evaluation as part of the
grading decision.
REASONS FOR PLANNING LESSONS
1. To anticipate the teaching resources, the sitting arrangements and the timing necessary for
teaching given concepts and skills
2. Because the head of the school will need to make timely decisions for the running of the
school, such as on the use of finances and other resources as well as the implementation of
the national curriculum.
3. To ensure that all of the stakeholders, such as members of the community support teaching
and learning in the school.
4. There is need to provide a guide on what the students will learn during the year. One should
know what to present to the students, when and how to enhance their learning.
5. The knowledge, skills and expected levels of competencies should be established so that
the pupils’ performances can be measured. This should be in the following areas:
-
Concepts and skills to be taught;
-
Activities and methods to use;
-
When they should be taught;
-
Duration of lesson
-
Teaching and learning resources to be used.
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Teachers’ Professional Documents
Teachers should use the syllabus in planning in order to enable their learners to compete favorably
with other learners country wide. KIE produces other useful teaching and learning guides. Though
approved textbooks may act as a guide in planning, teachers should have more confidence in their
capacity to understand and interpret the syllabus which is the basic planning tool. Textbooks and
guides simply provide additional information.
Let us now look at the teacher’s professional records
Schemes of Work
Purpose Of Schemes Of Work
The scheme of work helps the teacher to:

Break the syllabus into units easy to teach

Rearrange the content so that closely related topics are put together and in a logical order

Shows in advance what will be taught, and when it can be taught

Helps the teacher to anticipate and prepare the necessary teaching and learning
resources.

Helps the teacher to anticipate and provide for possible learning difficulties

Is the road map guiding the teacher towards effective coverage of the syllabus

Helps the school administration to budget for and provide relevant support
The schemes of work has the following columns:
Time
The time Indicates when you hope to teach the lesson e.g. week and lesson when the topic will be
taught.
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Topic and sub topic
Topic covers the broad content while sub topic covers the specific content;
For example in a form 1 Mathematics lesson, the teacher might indicate:
The Topic as: Numbers
The sub topic as: Pre numbers
Objectives
Objectives State the behavioural change the teacher expects in the learner by the end of the
lesson... They should address the three domains of development: “By the end of the lesson, pupils
in form one should be able to:o “State the parts of the digestive system.” (Cognitive Domain)

“Develop and demonstrate attitudes of co-operation, as they work together in groups.”
(Affective Domain)

”Develop and demonstrate observation and recording skills as they complete the floating
and sinking experiments.” (Psycho-motor Domain)
Teacher’s activity
These are activities which the teacher hopes to use to stimulate, encourage and challenge the
learners. The type of teacher activity will depend on the teaching approach he/she prefers which in
effect affects the classroom processes. While most teachers have established traditions of
teaching it is important to reflect on the effectiveness of the preferred teaching approach for the
current content. In filling the teacher activity column one should reflect on the extent to which the
planned activities will assist in achieving the set objectives. A teacher may ask the following
questions

How do I facilitate my pupils to engage, grapple with and understand this concept?

What do my pupils need to see, hear, feel, talk about, and experience in order to
understand this concept?

What advise will they need?
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
What classroom management challenges could I anticipate

What precautions might be necessary?

What should I not do?
The last question is necessary because it allows the teacher to avoid falling back on tradition and
limiting the pupils learning opportunity.
Learning activities
Detail the activities you propose to engage the learner in during the lesson. A lot of careful thought
should be given to this column. The teacher should ask these questions

What should the learner do within the given time frame to master the intended knowledge
and skill?

Should the learner perform the tasks alone, in pairs, in a group or as a class?

What resources will they need?

What learning challenges/disabilities may limit the full participation of some/all learners in
the designated activity?

Are there alternative activities
Active learning seeks to prevent learners from becoming mere passive listeners to the teacher’s
oratory skills
An example of schemes of work
Week
LESSON
TOPIC
SUBTOPIC
OBJECTIVES
TEACHING/LEARNING
REFERENCES
ACTIVITIES
3
1
Listening
speaking
and
PRONUNCIATION
By the end of the lesson
-pronunciation
-NIE BK 3 pg.
Homophones,
the learners should be
-Reading
135-136
homonyms, and
able to:
-Writing
-Teachers
silent
- Use homophones,
-
book pg69-72
consonants
Homonyms and silent
consonants correctly in
sentence construction.
-Identify homophones,
homonyms and silent
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REMARKS
consonants in a passage.
2
Reading
Dreams and
By the end of the lesson
Reading the passage
NIE Bk 3 pg.
Comprehension
Mood
the learner should be
Answering questions
138-140
able to:
-Read fluently
Answer the passage
questions correctly
3
Grammar
Conditional
Underline conditional
Writing
NIE Bk 3 pg.
Clauses
clauses in given passage
Reading
144-145
-construct simple
sentences using
conditional clauses
4
Lesson Plans
A Lesson plan may be defined as “a set of learning/teaching activities for pupils to be carried out
within a defined time frame”. A lesson plan usually covers a single or double lesson and the
learning activities are arranged in a chronological pattern with clearly defined steps.
Importance of lesson plans:

Remind the teacher of the lesson’s objectives and the learning materials required

Identify what the children should learn during the lesson.

Help the teacher to address the learning needs of the individual pupils in a more systematic
way.

To guide the teacher on how to introduce the lesson

To remind the teacher of the sequence of stages of the lesson thereby providing for the
efficient management of class time

To assist the teacher to plan in advance for such things as the most effective methods for
engaging pupils in the lesson, most suitable location for the class, most appropriate sitting plan
and grouping of pupils as well as pre-lesson assignments for pupils.

To guide the teacher on how best to conclude the lesson.
Structure of a Lesson Plan
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A lesson plan should show the following
1. Administrative information (date, class, subject, time, and roll
2. Topic
3. Sub-topic
4. Objectives
5. References and resources
6. Lesson development (duration, teacher’s activities, and learners activities)
7. lesson evaluation
8. Take away
9. Conclusion
(i) Lesson objectives
Without clearly stated lesson objectives, it is difficult to measure the level of achievement of the
learners. Lesson objectives are derived from the scheme of work you prepared earlier. They
reflect what should be achieved by the end of the lesson e.g.
‘By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to recognize the numerals the parts of a
dissected insect’
In preparing the lesson objectives the teacher focuses on the anticipated behavioral change of
individual learners, hence the need to state the objectives in the singular form of the noun- learner.
(ii) Teaching and learning resources/ materials
These are activities that actually make the lesson and are drawn from the scheme of work
prepared earlier. They are influenced by the lesson objectives, the teaching aid/materials available
and the teaching method you choose.
The test of whether a lesson is learner centred or not lies in the way the teacher proposes
responsibilities and activities under this section. In learner centred lesson plans the teacher will
aim at assigning responsibility and activities to learners either individually, in pairs or groups. The
teacher will also pay attention to the materials required in order to involve the learner in the
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designed learning tasks. The teacher should consider the improvisation necessary if the materials
cannot be easily found within the immediate vicinity of the classroom.
Agree with the participant that most lesson plans follow these steps:
Introduction
presentation
Consolidation
summary
1. Introduction – to find out what the learners know, remind them of what they have learned
or set the scene for the whole lesson
2. Presentation – steps where the main teaching and learning activities occur.
3. Consolidation – section where concepts or skills being learned during the
Presentation are tied together or strengthened.
4. Summary/Recapitulation – an important step in which the main points of the lesson are
re-enforced through revision and question and answer.
5. Conclusion – giving assignments to link the lesson with others to follow it. Even in a
thematic lesson, we use these steps, but we blend them together so as to blur any
distinction between them.
6. A take away activity is one that helps the pupils to link what they have learnt in the lesson to
their everyday life.
Lesson Evaluation
It is important to determine whether the lesson objectives were achieved and the materials used
were appropriate. The evaluation also helps you to establish whether the content was appropriate
for this level of learners and whether remedial classes will be necessary and which pupils will need
them. Finally, it helps you to seek solutions to any difficulties faced during the lesson by either you
or your pupils.
The evaluation need not be done only after the lesson. As the lesson goes on, you will determine
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the level of engagement of the majority of learners and the possible inhibitions to their full
participation. These will help you to evaluate your lesson and make suitable adjustments to future
classroom management procedures.
CLASS TIME TABLE
A time table is a schedule showing the type of experiences that children are supposed to be
involved in every day. It is both a planning as well as an organizing tool in a school. Planning
involves specification of events that are set ahead of time. Organization on the other hand
involves placing both human and material resources in an orderly way for the smooth running of
events.
The timetable should be well displayed for all to see
Purpose of a time table
A time table has the following uses:
 It indicates who should perform a certain task in order to accomplish the objectives set.
 It determines when teaching is to be done.
 As an organizing tool, it enables division of labour, that is, a clear distribution of the tasks
to be undertaken.
 It ensures allocation of the teaching load fairly to each member of staff according to
qualification, competence and areas of interest.
 It coordinates the teaching in each subject in a given class to avoid any clash or
Overloading in timing of various activities of a particular class.
RECORD OF WORK
It should be written weekly to show the work that the teacher has taught during that week
DATE
TOPIC
SUBTOPIC
CONTENT COVERED
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REFERENCES REMARKS
Other documents include:
 Syllabus
 Lesson notes
 Class register
 Students’ progress records
Lesson Activity
 Define all the professional documents listed above
 Prepare a one week scheme of work in a subject of our
choice
 Discuss the importance of all the professional documents
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LECTURE SEVEN: TESTS AND EVALUATION
Educational Evaluation
Educational evaluation involves the systematic assessment of educational activities. Objects of
evaluation include instructional programs, school initiatives and education goals.
Everything related to school activities and education can be evaluated. e.g.
 objectives
 the scope of the content
 the quality of personnel in schools
 student performance
 the relative importance of various school subjects
 the equipment and materials for instruction
Function
Educational evaluation strives to assess the merits and the impacts of educational programs and
initiatives.
Methods
Educational evaluation uses many of the research methods employed by education and social
science researchers. Evaluation involves data collection and analysis, using quantitative and
qualitative methods.
Benefits
Evaluation can help educators determine the success of their programs and pinpoint efforts to
improve student achievement. It also can help school systems identify the characteristics of
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successful programs.
Assessment
The purpose of assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework of the
practitioners and teachers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind, the
origin of knowledge and the process of learning.
There are three levels of assessment. These include:
i) Testing the knowledge acquired,
ii) Application of the skills learnt,
iii) Ability to use the same information effectively over time
Assessment helps teachers to:
o Know or find out how much of what learners are supposed to learn have actually been learnt,
o Identify learning weakness of individual pupils;
o Maintain education standards,
o Keep track of their own teaching,
o Measure specific abilities and identifying children’s different abilities,
o Classify pupils for learning organizations, and
o Enables pupils of one class move to the next at the end of the year.
Importance of evaluation:

Determine whether the lesson objectives were achieved

Determine whether the syllabus objectives have been met

Determine whether the content was appropriate

Determine whether there is a need for remedial lessons.
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 Determine whether resources used were appropriate.
 Determine the effectiveness of the teaching approaches employed
Formative and Summative Assessments
In a balanced assessment system, both summative and formative assessments are an integral
part of information gathering..
Summative Assessments are given periodically to determine at a particular point in time what
students know and do not know. Many associate summative assessments only with standardized
tests such as state assessments, but they are also used at and are an important part of district and
classroom programs. Summative assessment at the district/classroom level is an accountability
measure that is generally used as part of the grading process. The list is long, but here are some
examples of summative assessments:

District benchmark assessments

End-of-unit or chapter tests

End-of-term or semester exams

Scores that are used for accountability for schools and students (report card grades).
The key is to think of summative assessment as a means to gauge, at a particular point in time,
student learning relative to content standards. Although the information that is gleaned from this
type of assessment is important, it can only help in evaluating certain aspects of the learning
process. Because they are spread out and occur after instruction every few weeks, months, or
once a year, summative assessments are tools to help evaluate the effectiveness of programs,
school improvement goals, alignment of curriculum, or student placement in specific programs.
Summative assessments happen too far down the learning path to provide information at the
classroom level and to make instructional adjustments and interventions during the learning
process. It takes formative assessment to accomplish this.
Formative Assessment is part of the instructional process. When incorporated into classroom
practice, it provides the information needed to adjust teaching and learning while they are
happening. In this sense, formative assessment informs both teachers and students about student
understanding at a point when timely adjustments can be made. These adjustments help to ensure
students achieve, targeted standards-based learning goals within a set time frame. Although
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formative assessment strategies appear in a variety of formats, there are some distinct ways to
distinguish them from summative assessments.
One distinction is to think of formative assessment as "practice." We do not hold students
accountable in "grade book fashion" for skills and concepts they have just been introduced to or
are learning. We must allow for practice. Formative assessment helps teachers determine next
steps during the learning process as the instruction approaches the summative assessment of
student learning. A good analogy for this is the road test that is required to receive a driver's
license. What if, before getting your driver's license, you received a grade every time you sat
behind the wheel to practice driving? What if your final grade for the driving test was the average
of all of the grades you received while practicing? Because of the initial low grades you received
during the process of learning to drive, your final grade would not accurately reflect your ability to
drive a car. In the beginning of learning to drive, how confident or motivated to learn would you
feel? Would any of the grades you received provide you with guidance on what you needed to do
next to improve your driving skills? Your final driving test, or summative assessment, would be the
accountability measure that establishes whether or not you have the driving skills necessary for a
driver's license—not a reflection of all the driving practice that leads to it. The same holds true for
classroom instruction, learning, and assessment.
Another distinction that underpins formative assessment is student involvement. If students are not
involved in the assessment process, formative assessment is not practiced or implemented to its
full effectiveness. Students need to be involved both as assessors of their own learning and as
resources to other students. There are numerous strategies teachers can implement to engage
students. In fact, research shows that the involvement in and ownership of their work increases
students' motivation to learn. This does not mean the absence of teacher involvement. To the
contrary, teachers are critical in identifying learning goals, setting clear criteria for success, and
designing assessment tasks that provide evidence of student learning.
One of the key components of engaging students in the assessment of their own learning is
providing them with descriptive feedback as they learn. In fact, research shows descriptive
feedback to be the most significant instructional strategy to move students forward in their learning.
Descriptive feedback provides students with an understanding of what they are doing well, links to
classroom learning, and gives specific input on how to reach the next step in the learning
progression. In other words, descriptive feedback is not a grade, a sticker, or "good job!" A
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significant body of research indicates that such limited feedback does not lead to improved student
learning.
There are many classroom instructional strategies that are part of the repertoire of good teaching.
When teachers use sound instructional practice for the purpose of gathering information on
student learning, they are applying this information in a formative way. In this sense, formative
assessment is pedagogy and clearly cannot be separated from instruction. It is what good
teachers do. The distinction lies in what teachers actually do with the information they gather. How
is it being used to inform instruction? How is it being shared with and engaging students? It's not
teachers just collecting information/data on student learning; it's what they do with the information
they collect.
Some of the instructional strategies that can be used formatively include the following:

Criteria and goal setting with students engages them in instruction and the learning
process by creating clear expectations. In order to be successful, students need to
understand and know the learning target/goal and the criteria for reaching it. Establishing
and defining quality work together, asking students to participate in establishing norm
behaviors for classroom culture, and determining what should be included in criteria for
success are all examples of this strategy. Using student work, classroom tests, or
exemplars of what is expected helps students understand where they are, where they need
to be, and an effective process for getting there.

Observations go beyond walking around the room to see if students are on task or need
clarification. Observations assist teachers in gathering evidence of student learning to
inform instructional planning. This evidence can be recorded and used as feedback for
students about their learning or as anecdotal data shared with them during conferences.

Questioning strategies should be embedded in lesson/unit planning. Asking better
questions allows an opportunity for deeper thinking and provides teachers with significant
insight into the degree and depth of understanding. Questions of this nature engage
students in classroom dialogue that both uncovers and expands learning. An "exit slip" at
the end of a class period to determine students' understanding of the day's lesson or quick
checks during instruction such as "thumbs up/down" or "red/green" (stop/go) cards are also
examples of questioning strategies that elicit immediate information about student learning.
Helping students ask better questions is another aspect of this formative assessment
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strategy.

Self and peer assessment helps to create a learning community within a classroom.
Students who can reflect while engaged in metacognitive thinking are involved in their
learning. When students have been involved in criteria and goal setting, self-evaluation is a
logical step in the learning process. With peer evaluation, students see each other as
resources for understanding and checking for quality work against previously established
criteria.

Student record keeping helps students better understand their own learning as evidenced
by their classroom work. This process of students keeping ongoing records of their work not
only engages students, it also helps them, beyond a "grade," to see where they started and
the progress they are making toward the learning goal.
All of these strategies are integral to the formative assessment process, and they have been
suggested by models of effective middle school instruction.
Balancing
Assessment
As teachers gather information/data about student learning, several categories may be included. In
order to better understand student learning, teachers need to consider information about the
products (paper or otherwise) students create and tests they take, observational notes, and
reflections on the communication that occurs between teacher and student or among students.
When a comprehensive assessment program at the classroom level balances formative and
summative student learning/achievement information, a clear picture emerges of where a student
is relative to learning targets and standards. Students should be able to articulate this shared
information about their own learning. When this happens, student-led conferences, a formative
assessment strategy, are valid. The more we know about individual students as they engage in the
learning process, the better we can adjust instruction to ensure that all students continue to
achieve by moving forward in their learning.
Student Tests - Bloom's Taxonomy
Bloom's Taxonomy -- In 1956, Benjamin Bloom wrote that over 95 % of the test questions
61
students encounter require them to think only at the lowest possible level ... the recall of
information. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recollection of
facts, knowledge -- the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels
to the highest order, classified as evaluation.
Hierarchy -- Bloom and his co-workers established a hierarchy
of educational objectives, generally referred to as Bloom's
Taxonomy, an attempt to divide cognitive objectives into
subdivisions. The taxonomy provides a useful structure in
which to categorize test questions, since professors will
characteristically
ask
questions
within
particular
levels.
Verbs -- Like writing instruction objectives, writing test questions involves verb selection.
Listed below are examples of verbs often used in test questions.
Using Bloom's Taxonomy as a guide, the verbs below have been categorized according to
the intellectual activity they represent, ranked here from the highest to the lowest level.
evaluation
appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose, compare, defend,
estimate, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate
[Do you agree ...]
synthesis
arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create,
develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, set up,
write
[What might happen if ...]
analysis
calculate,
categorize,
compare,
contrast,
criticize,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, question,
test
[Classify ... according to ...]
application
apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate,
interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use,
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write
[How is ..., Why is ...]
comprehension
classify,
describe,
discuss,
explain,
express,
identify,
indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select,
translate
[Which picture depicts ...]
knowledge
arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order,
recognize,
relate,
recall,
repeat,
reproduce,
state
[Name the ...]
Test Question Examples -- The sample questions below demonstrate the use of these verbs,
from the most simple to the highest knowledge level:

Knowledge: Who fought in the War of 1812?

Comprehension: Name the states in the Confederacy.

Application: Why was the Boston Tea Party a significant act for the settlers?

Analysis: How does the American Civil War compare with the French Civil War?

Synthesis: If you can only take 10 cultural items to a new world, what will you take?

Evaluation: Do you agree with the main precepts of the Green Party? Why or why not?
The ADDIE Model
Definition - Traditionally, the ADDIE model is used by instructional designers and training
developers. ADDIE is an acronym for the five phases of the training building process—Analysis,
Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. The ADDIE Model represents a
flexible guideline for building effective training.
ADDIE Model Steps and Procedures
ANALYSIS

analyze student characteristics

define learning goals and objectives

set realistic expectations for the course
63
DESIGN
DEVELOPMENT

decide on the main instructional method(s)

design an assessment plan

create detailed course outline

construct a detailed syllabus

develop PowerPoint, PDF, Flash, and other course
documents
IMPLEMENTATION

develop assessment items

launch the course using in a Learning Management
System or an online system like Blackboard or
WebCT
EVALUATION

adjust instructional strategies according to students'
interaction with the content and feedback from the
instructor

Collect course feedback through course surveys,
email, etc.

validate
content
accuracy
and
completeness,
teaching methods and communication approach

revise as necessary
Variations of the ADDIE Model - Most of the current instructional design models are
variations of the ADDIE model. One commonly accepted improvement to this model is
the use of rapid prototyping: that is, receiving feedback while instructional materials are
being created. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while
they are still easy to fix. For example, the ADDIE model was used in the framework for
64
helping create new research topics in learning technology.
Lesson Activity
Differentiate between summative and formative evaluation
65
REFERENCES
Ayot H.O and Patel M.M. (1992) : Instructional Methods (General Methods) ;Nairobi EREP
Bennars G.A. Otiende J.E and Boisvent R (1994) Theory and practice of education; Nairobi EREP
Jowi O and Mukwa C.W. (1988) General Mehtod :Nairobi African Urban Quartely
Gill Nicholas (2004) introduction to teaching: A handbook for primary and secondary school
teachers: Routlage/ Falmer
Glasser, W., 1985, Control theory in the classroom, Perennial Library, New York.
Glasser, W., 1990, The quality school: Managing students without coercion, Harper and Row, New
York.
www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/types.asp
www.learningrx.com/some-types-of-learning-disabilities.htm
www.washington.edu/doit/Careers/articles?70
www.efc.dccd.edu/core/SLO-MVC.PDF
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
67
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