e / carbohydrates. 8: ... ↑ v noa , to 17 *a Soon B I E ⑳ 2 Notes for xX CoordinatedSciences YY 100??... s ... exchange repesduction 02 &e createdby:Emma Le Save My Exams many graphics: Table Contents of B1. Characteristics B2. Cells 4 B3. Biological molecules 6 B4. Enzymes 8 BS. Plantnutrition 9 B6. Animal 12 B7. Transport of Living Organisms nutrition 38. Gas 19. Coordination 3 17 exchange a a Respiration Response 21 24 B10. Reproduction 30 B11. Inheritance 37 B12. Organisms B13. Human influences & their Environment on Ecosystems 41 42 - ↳ 2 E · I O · & ⑳ T ~ + : o - I & Forthe E Fansin . # 1 IE - I . ~ · I ⑥ E i - s ! .. E If we treo i got E = . - # - ni c & .- ↑ 1 - getsforo re E ↑ E go t Es - A st E -i - ↓ - - 3 -- - E ↳ ~ - - I - -i e gi B1. Cells B2. 1. Cell structure Living organisms are made up of cells * Animal cell W e ll cell wall cell cellulose X V ~ ~ ~ v ~ membrane cytoplasm nucleus chloroplast &+chlorophyll vacuoles large;contains starch shape X cell small sap glycogen granules (sometimes) grains regular irregular Magnification Specializedcells · · · · · ciliatedcells:movementof roothair mucus cells:absorption palisade mesophyll cells:photosynthesis red bloodcells:transport O2 sperm in egg cells:reproduction and trachea+ bronchi B2. 2. Movement in out of cells and diffusion: · - · net movement of -from a particles concentration lower concentration -> - down a concentration -as a net movement of - region of higher (diffusion, butfor water) osmosis -from a region ofhigher water cone (dilute solution) lower water cone (concentratedsolution) -> gradient molecules water -through a partially permeable ↳ result of random movement membrane e.g.:cell membrane investigating osmosis * -substances the factors * cell move in/outofcell through membrane affecting diffusion 1. to 2. concentration gradient 3. diffusion distance 4. surface area turgor pressure:outwards * cytoplasm pressure of on the cell wall eventually, cell membrane tears -> away from cell wall kills the cell B3. 1. Biological molecules Carbohydrates (C, H,0) simple sugars (monosaccharides) Test for Testfor starch:iodine reducing [disaccharides) S polysaccharides e.g.:starch, glycogen from glucose I solution Benedict's sugars: complex sugars solution green, yellow blue, S - orange -> brick red precipitate 2. Fats/ lipids (C, H, 0) Testfor fats oils:ethanol emulsion 1. Chop/grindfood 2. Addpure 3. Prepare andtube of water 4. Pour 3 into test testtube - ethand liquidpartof shake -> a milky appearance fats * = Ctriglyceride) acids glycerol fatty 3. Proteins ↑ from (C,H, 0, N) amino fats - > oils + Testfor proteins:Biurettest acids Biuretsolution:KOH * V 1. food a + 2. testtube -> little Biuretsolution + -> purple * 4. Water is important as a solvent water shake gently protein : CuSOG + t.E-T.in?Ey.y:E-n-mE ↳ Factors :$ : - . proteins that are " biological caᵗᵈY> ↑ rate of and € " "" " " """" c > ᵗgg§ not unchain ° enzyme ( created . substrate """ " " " site ) to active temporary bonds ) products " ◦ to combine with other substrates • = lock and key mechanism Enzymes maltose 0 + maltose can 1- speed up a reaction / guilds bg star-lord starch 0 ☐ active ☐ protein P% amino I amino denatured until reaches beyond the looses shape → energy optimum most ↑ to , acid (37°C in enzyme permanently no stop working enzymes longer fits 7 60°C tease ( in stomach ) most enzymes £ o e * ¥ ° humans ) active site substrate → ( NOT denatured ) to to deforms → enzyme ↑ rate of collisions = optimum denatured * low slow at acid + site Gfs - = B) pH molecules enzyme A shape permanently enzymes work kinetic to ↑ → "" "" red to/ % Fo • free i slow reaction . www..am , , , with [ iÉ changed in the process to optimum normal enzyme / enzyme remains is reaction " ⇔.si . affecting enzymes """ " I \ i 1 I 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 pH B5. 6C0, Plant nutrition 6H28 + Investigate the A) chlorophyll need for fightCHO, O, Photosynthesis: ·plants create carbohydrates from raw using energy materials from ↳ light a light @ chloroplast: -> chemical a 3 2 4 B) light 1 ↑> old no destarching:place leaf -> place w/ -> 6 test as back a in leaf (A) in cupboarda this - new made starch starch up used sunlight starch? partially covered(Al foil) 2 1 # ↑ 5 starch? C) CO2 Investigating the rate of photosynthesis A) lightintensity NV independentvariable = DV= dependentvariable CV= control -place lamp @ dif distances -measure bubbles producedin glass * - B) + o 38 - 38 pondweed or VO, 1 min absorbs tank heat - Leaf structure a function Photosynthesis · palisade mesophyll ~ I - Gas · tightly-packedw/ chloroplasts photosynthesis maximize -> · adumn-shaped exchange stomata:where gas exchange 1 underside:H20 loss ·guardcell:absorbs / loses H2C · place takes 0:closed Joe:open · -> closes / opens -> O2 out, stomata SOC in mesophyll ·spongy -internal air spaces SA.V = for gas ratio ↑ diffusion Transport · -> support I to into xylem:moves +photosynthesis -> @ transpiration @ phloem:transports leaves mesophyll cells stomata sucrose amino acids plants around Importance MgandNOS of atmosphere -> air spaces leaf mesophyll cells -> spongy mesophyll around -> chloroplast 136 Animal . 136.1 • . Diet balanced diet - - Nutrition consists in energy proteins growth bread source , rice , potatoes , fish eggs : all food correct carbohydrates groups meat repair + , proportions fats / Lipids - vit c → ↳ ca - Fe - skin hair, strong needed - small in quantities fruits + vegetables bones small in strong teeth blood clotting makes ↳ scurvy , , teeth - - dairy products made milk . → , eggs , rickets liver soft by body in sunlight , cheese red meat haemoglobin r.be thinning green veg , , ( - roughage ) water provides to - bulk reactions in hair bones : deformed anaemia , leafy green veg transport Oz for intestines push food through needed for + rbc , eggs not → fibre ↓ : quantities bones , citrus fruits gums body absorb Ca helps minerals nuts , collagen protein ↳ Vit D , insulation needed vitamins butter oils storage energy - - vegetables whole grain chemical water, juice cells fruits - + veg , milk , : enough ↓ 02 to r . b. c. tissues gum disease When do need we energy more and why ? Malnutrition : caused by not eating a balanced diet adulthood age Effect cause ? - starvation ° protein eaten e 4 used body - ↳ growth - • levels pregnancy • • breastfeeding active ↑ muscles respire ↑ growth of + e. . • e = + Ca , ↑ foetus + constipation = = ↑ food Fe ↑ coronary too much quality heart disease saturated fat ( CHD ) + obesity e muscles can't ↑ risk = eaten 77 used extra = - Energy Kwashiorkor : e system cancer up @ coronary arteries ↓ 02 = → death stored as fat weight ↑ ↑ risk of heart disease , diabetes Malnutrition lack of protein ( poverty ) underweight 42 yrs old Marasmus build attack other push food through alimentary canal blood flow heart € immune to damage bowel of deposits ↓ heart → → fat cholesterol loss bulk = energy stores tissue lacks = Protein muscle → fibre e↑ ↑ Ca lack of down fat weight → activity breaks lack of protein swollen abdomen - + energy - ( carb severely underweight look emaciated - heavy diet) → diseases 136.2 . Alimentary canal stages of food breakdown 2A mechanical ° 1 - mouth 2. - ? ✗3 digestion food broken NO chemical down smaller pieces to food molecules food broken down : large insoluble molecules → → change 3. 2b 4. chemical • - 5. digestion ? small , soluble Organ & Functions ( ( ) I f- IiÉ-↑É_ #tTFpFFiod → bloodstream B 6. 3 . Digestion Mechanical ◦ ↑ SA → > digestion by teeth - of food - exposed to food broken saliva down + digestive juices more pointed tearing holding , biting quickly - - shaped biting cutting chisel - - , - tooth , decay To keep - your : don't eat too much sugar ( ✗ 1- 2 / day - healthy teeth use → to flour ide with meals ) , toothpaste makes teeth decay more resistant larger , chewing flat surfaces , w/ ridges grinding up food Chemical - digestion • EEE food broken down : large insoluble molecules → small , soluble - molecules - be enzymes secreted @ : - mouth amylase , pancreas starch → simpler sugars - • protease pancreas protein lipase pancreas fats → → amino acid food ( denature singular : vill ) activity fatty acid secreted by liver stored in gall bladder @ duodenum I • finger - I - - - like - projections ≈ 1mm long ↑ internal SA of small intestine → absorb * microvilli walls : nutrients faster 1- cell thick lacteal absorb : capillaries food ↳ glycerol + : = short digested sugars diffusion distance fats , a. a . + neutralizes acidic mixture gastric juices ( from stomach ) : suitable pH for enzyme action emulsifies fats to ( enzymes lmc.it ) of - Villi in optimum pH for protease bite - • kills bacteria absorbed • • gastric juices @ stomach in " can - HCl ↑ SA → ( mechanical d.) prepare for chemical d. B7. Roothairs Transport roof G -> B7.1. hair:↑SA I rate Transport in plants of absorption of: H20 - of cells via osmosis -mineral ions H2Cmovement via active pathway OSMOSiS * roofhair -> ~ · xylem: ⑳ -transportH20+ minerals - · roots stem -> phloem: transport -leaves poi food materials roots -> - non p - stem + ↑ of water Investigate leaves - sucrose amino movement celery with: acids stain ↳> shows xylem? or phloem? cell xylem -> -> root cortexcells leaf mesophyll cells transport • H2O - - Factors transported is roots through affecting transpiration leaves → _ vessels - lift lower + Transpiration - - - of loss from H2O vapor diffusion of H2O vapor cold leaves @ surface by evaporation of H2O → plant of through mesophyll cells • 1- ° : to of room warm humidity : → ↳ predictions ? spray water - - transpiration H2O Translocation stream ' pulls held molecules by cohesion → pulled as ' on H2O in xylem together - - - a continuous water column movement of sucrose + a. a . vessels in from to source sink ( regions of production ) ( regions of -1 storage ) respiration / growth in plastic bag wraparound plant ↑ to = _ ↑ hum transpiration room stomata • * room = _ rate rate B7.2. Transport Circulatory · · system -> pumps ensure of Heart The system a + mammals in · bloodvessels · arteries:pumps bloodAWAYfrom I Veins:bloodRETURNS ↑ $ to 7 values bloodflows in 1 direction (mammals) double circulation * lungs 1. t o 2. body to (pulmonary 1 - circulation) circulation) (systemic tissues < Advantages: -@lung capillaries:bloodloses pressure [from 7's -> - this -> -> blood slowly labelledlike its to back travels pumpedagain body travels pumping) * in your chest ↑ = pressure cells: gets faster O2 glucose + more + · frequently atrium ~ - (pl. atrial cardiac muscles receives bloodfrom supplies to contract body lungs + ventricles push -> inside heart - · ventricles - - restof pump bloodto body thicker, more muscular walls atria leftvs. right? pressure? atrioventricular values between -stops when atrium flowing blood v. contracts ventricle from relax bloodflows # - of the heart out + * · blood v. -> a in Coronary heart (CHD) disease vessels lood B - (oxygenated) away from 4 coronary artery supplies blood to heart < blood high-pressure artery: carry speed: flow fast O2+ nutrients · - CHD: - when -> enough not blocked O to respire I stops beating of - - heart attack / vein: - -> blood vessels -> I pressure diet: nicotine - hypertension = -> salt saturated fats plants (animals) + stress - = · plasma - fish OK - -> learn avoid/manage stress to · genetic predisposition Investigating physical activity - A activity (deoxygenated) of contains: values flow speed: slow transports ions, soluble nutrients, CO2 hormones (Khuynh huong di chngen) blood - no Hb white cells: nucleus haemoglobin before = + on pulse + heart rate blood infections after activity ↑& rate · why? Hb protein cells: the body from by pathogens phagocytosis (main benh) (this ba antibody production (s.x. Khang the blood platelets clotting · · oxyhaemoglobin O2 -defends pulse low-pressure blood cells -carries take carry blood -> blood red - · - speed: slow ↑ CDH risk genes: - of components - -obesity de.oxy flow prevention? cholesterol oils from + narrow high in * (oxy tissues towards - smoking cigarettes: pressure blood contract Factors: - low cardiac muscles cardiac arrest · carry within withstand pressure -> - t -> is blood clot e.g.: -> coronary artery capillary: -> 138 Gas exchange * . 138.1 . Gas Respiration exchange ( voice box ) Gas ( windpipe ) ◦ • control → rib movement inhalation • protects internal organs walls • exchange • → Inspired air 0, diffusion short : across surface £-100m distance 21% good supply of Oz good lung 0.04% variable diffusion gradient of thorax inhale / exhale Protecting the Respiratory Expired air 02 absorbed 161 across , cells : CO2 4% 9- ex - s di.ch → • nhaiy respiration diffuse always high g. ex s - → moisture inhaled exhaled air air ↳ ? must produced by goblet cells traps bacteria dust particles across be kept moist ( living ) g. ex .S into air . , , the system is cilia beat away from out evaporates mucus ↳ - product of respiration = → vapour a ! • coz maintain supply blood connective tissue + muscle AV → water alveoli . faster gas diffusion : alveoli 250 mil ≈ per ↳ gas large SA thin (g. ex .s ) surfaces / exhalation • - exchange : pushes lungs → mucus throat → removed ≥ Effects of exercise Tobacco breathing on ↑ - frequency depth muscles - ↳ ↑ respire Oc -> need [C02] blood ↑ = anaerobic + respiration lactic -> remove CO2 chronic COPD - -lung for more e lowerscell pH acid smoking causes: pulmonary heartdisease denature enzymes -> ~ 82 to getridof -> need repaying oxygen debt = 20 - before after investigate? exercise #breaths / min average - chest expansion combines -> -> bloodpressure hypertension cas - narrow ↑ hugetap = (S breaths) v. badfor predictions? bloodvessels w/ haemoglobin less Oc carried * -> disease cancer coronary - obstructive ~ babies S far is a - carcinogen A behavior -> cells can cause w.b.c. secrete remove to ↳ smoke chemicals particles alvediwalls also breaks cancer of cells divide uncontrollably tumor land benign · tink malignantas tink ↳ = cancer 138.2 . Respiration Aerobic - - Uses - - - - of energy ? muscle contraction protein synthesis - - - respiration chemical a uses reaction in cells glucose 02 to break to release & down nutrient molecules + oxygen dioxide carbon → → + water + + energy cell division growth maintain constant body 1- ° Anaerobic - - - in chemical reaction WITHOUT 02 a - respiration to break to release down in muscles : cells vigorous glucose exercise lactic acid → ↳ oxygen debt nutrient molecules energy in yeast ( fermentation ) : glucose → alcohol flour + yeast ' + carbon dioxide + water = bread i ; starch maltose↓+glucose_ amylase → coz yeast ana trapped in ( gluten ) - other products ? . resp . dough 139 Coordination } . Response ° nerve - 139.1 . Nervous control in humans - ◦ 4 :/ impulse an 4 = electrical / signal passes along neuroses ( nerve cells ) Involuntary response ( reflex ) ∅ brain in decision making - → connect not - to others - ↳ ◦ coordinates + phoi no:p Types of regulates body functions dieiihoa Ku in actions until it's that to rapid automatic + basic minimize coordinate ↳ action essential → - of aware usually ◦ - phair ✗ a. stimuli carried out - → response starts you w/ make carry your a out brain conscious decision action survival to body response of effectors ( muscles Reflex Voluntary - are damage + • + glands ) Arc neurone connector effector BETA H T 139.2 Sense . The organs eye light some ( bends ) "° " "° " enters the "" focuses The - Pupil m"" us from not Antagonistic pupil µ retina light onto blind spot - - bright light seeing objects ↳ muscle action in dim light I radial pupil constricts pupil dilates muscles circular muscles work together cones - detect light intensity - detect color colors carries impulses retina meets no brain to optic nerve light receptors brain ' ' fills in Viewing * rods 9ᵗʰ - from , light to " Reflex retina - sensitive of different protects - light receptors contains refracts = fine - black the near distant and focusing hole = objects accommodation d-iéutiéi - → 1 contracts , 1 diameter ↓ relaxes - diameter ↑ tuyényén 139.3 . Hormones tuyéngiép Hormones - - - - a : chemical substance produced carried alters a gland the blood by by µ tuyén thu.ongtho.in tuye-inti.ly - activity of ≥ 1 specific organs - secreted effect ◦ * part of the endocrine ' system in .no?itie-I ↑ ↑ up of neuron es , : type of message transmission brain , length of effect spinal vs cord very fast speed short - until nerve ' situations breathing rate = ↑ Oz dilate / widen [ blood glucose ] 4 impulse : flight = to muscles taken coz ↑ respiration in away muscle cells examples ? Nervous made + pupils • - or ! : • hé fight body is in danger the impulse stops . Hormonal control glands chemical hormone slower longer - until hormone is broken down blood Control of B. 9.4 ?i bating coin of maintenance - - work a to internal conditions kept ↳ cells can , blood pressure , [ H2O ] , by - - - pancreas side by insulin → you live can blood glucose too feedback level glycogen → . ' . blood high @ . glucose too level low glucagon - Feedback jkiiosé ↓ ' . . . - ← glycogen I - . rise or fall ' _ 37C i r / switched / on Ft -8 * continuous a bringing stay → cycle levels in a up , narrow then down range normal Mhmr ' - - - - - - - called ' normal ' liver . ' function negative - : glucose if not ? controlled Negative side [ glucose ] limits set within * - insE secreted by internal environment constant - levels Homeostasis . no ↳ glucose + muscle Temperature ◦ hypothalamus the ↳ control detects to of ≈ blood blood to thermostat receptors running through cold when - shivering ↳ • if → 1- ° 7 pan, or µ 4 37°C way → µ, send mg , ,g, 4 impulses , along nerves - , creates body , : muscles produce + saves contract heat → + heat relax warms blood vasoconstriction ya , , gang, up vñngduoiotcii - ÷:*:::::÷::⇔⇔ sweating : droplets of sweat evaporate → The skin → - sensory neuron es hair lies flat cools lose body heat . turning B9.3. Tropic responses Investigating tropic responses plant growth hormone Phototropism a · response where parts of a plant grows · towards/away from light source light is coming from (the direction Gravitropism · · a response where parts of a plant grows towards/away from gravity 19 with shoots, gravitropism phototropism + =chemical control plant growth of -Auxin = 1 auxin synthesized in shoot 2. a 3. tip only spreads through plant -> due to a is gravity unevenly 4. a stimulates light, + distributed cell elongation & shaded side 1310 Reproduction - . 1310.1 Asexual . & - - - 1 g. : f- bulbs tubers separate plant > food f- storage > budding - identical offspring parent ( no sex cells e. plants in : ( side shoots ) : production of genetically from g. : sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction - e. runners bacteria or via fertilisation) . - binary fission Advantages suitable in - + + more - Disadvantages : environment exploit conditions population ↑ rapidly time + - faster Sexual reproduction form to - offspring - a : energy than no efficient strep lhi.eu quoi ) genetic identical variation + maybe suited to only + vulnerable t disease to 1 may affect entire population . nucleus 2 gametes (sex cells ) genetically different each other : hQp tu Advantages - ↑ + genetic variation = + Disadvantages : can adapt - better to environment - takes : time isolated + energy members → ↑ survival disease affect is parents A- conditions zygote from to habitat : of nuclei of fusion - - : offspring : less likely to population > discuss : ? crop plants to find mates hard to reproduce 1310.2 Sexual reproduction . in plants sepal 2 protects unopened flower : 1 4 petal 2 3 brightly : 3 → - ( insect colored attract - pollinated plants ) insects 4 stamen anther : produces + male releases sex cell filament carpel 1- stigma style ovary Pollination - - : n ; collects cell ( ovum ) top of female part produces female sex wind pollinated tacnhan : transfer of anthers : ( pollen grains ) → Agents pollen grains stigma insect ( or - other of pollinated animals pollination - ) Pollen • 0*1 grains ? Fertilisation Investigating germination nay main ther -pollen nucleus orum nucleus fuses with -hop what - H2O: Or: seeds respiration up, enzymes -> in embryo release at optimalt for conditions? predictions? -warmth: - swell enzymes start working B10.3. Sexual reproduction in The male humans reproductive system · prostrate glands: sperm to sperm swim penis: · the female to sperm carries urine and transfers semen to during testis ): semen in ducts:transfer urethra: · secrete fluids for urethra out of semen body ragina sexual intercourse (p1. testes): production of male gametes (sperm) that holds tastes scrotum: sac ovaries: release of female outside the body reproductive system · ·oviducts:transfer egg site · · · uterus: of where to ring vagina: receives uterus (eggs) and fertilisation the fetus of muscle & cervix: gametes penis develops opening of uterus during sexual intercourse Fertilisation: -fusion - - -occurs of a the nuclei o male from " gamete = f female gamete a in the oriducts 7 size very structure - - small. "Sum acrosome (head flagellum (tail) large region) mobility capable of locomotion covered - few - (move) produced every day huge numbers quantity round cell - - structural adaptations -many 0.15 mm NOT - jelly coating in structural adaptations capable of thousands of -1/ month locomotion immature eggs in ovaries released =100mi)/day Adaptations ~ flagellum -enzymes -> to swim to in jelly digest of egg mitochondria - cell cytoplasm -> acrosome cell - eggs coat membrane - contains energy stores the zygote after fertilisation energy for jelly-like coating - A after fertilisation impenetrable = i? -> no other barrier sperm nuclei can enter egg cell thi day thi Pregnancy Menstrual cycle adolescent girls starts early 28 days cycle length The in: - = 124.0. = - In 1 I - @day ↑ I 7 I 14: ⑰ -> 7 failed/no (release of ovulation oviduct to I menstruation X > i i & =3-7 days egg) new -> lining starts -> cycle m · T · prepare for maybe a next to thicken phoi fluid protects fetus: cushions it umbilical cord joins mother's waste: diffusion * fetus's blood CO2, plasmal bumps supply to placenta urea nhan doesn't build up the placenta across -large SA thin wall - · from blood -> dangerous day ro a placenta - wall supplies nutrients: glucose, amino acids, fats, Hc0, O2 ↳ will be implanted... (mom's the uterus blood absorbs again ball of cells implants into - amniotic sac cycle fertilised egg a - contains amniotic - -uterus = uterus (period) - run' -> -> hop this · I fertilisation an early development, zygote embryo bloods 2 never mix, just runs opposite -barrier to - some toxins still pass smoking each other pathogens + through: -> nicotine in the amniotic tri di ~ sac that sexually ~ transmitted infections L STIs a -HIV may human lead AIDS - HIV/AIDS can immunodeficiency to acquired immune blood controlling spread of - needles w/ infected transfusion mother - - deficiency syndrome spread by: -sharing - - virus - fetus via baby via -> STIs of sexual partners limit # have protected sex get tested! -education If (use a condom) you didn't do the other 2 programs -> raise awareness person blood placenta breastfeeding B11Inheritance B11.2. · B111. · Chromosomes genes - ~ · produces:genetically identical (chromosomes generation generation from nuclear division of genetic material transmission ④ Mitosis: - inheritance: - to am Cell division cells duplicatedexactly!) ban = sac roles: growth + ⑥ genetic info carries form of genes the in repair + + replacement of cells asexual + damagedtissues of reproduction daughter cell · N Meiosis - n <- sperm # 2n n C - n <- allele:a version of a gene chromosomes of xX x+ ⑰ ⑦ Half ⑥ X gametes /1 egg sperm M + n 2n = - nucleus 2 contains of chromosomes sets arrangedin - - - nucleus contains I unpairedchromosomes setof pairs e.g.: humans:23 - pairs e.g.: chromosomes of diploid egg -> is role:production halved haploid -produces:genetically - 23rd pair reduction division' of different cells gamete cells Monohybridinheritance B11.3. · · of alleles terms homozygous:having 2 Punnett Squares present) identical alleles certain ·heterozygous:having a gene ⑨ differentalleles & 1/ * identical I homozygous parents together breed -> pure - · a features of an organism phenotype:observable of a · diagrams genotype:genetic make-up of an organism (in · Genetic breeding dominant:a n allele that recessive:a n is expressedwhen present allele;only expressedwhen NO dominant allele gene) (of is present 31. 4. · Variation selection a variation:differences between of species the genetic same e.g... individuals continuous variation - phenotypic / - a between 7 - by · factors 2 extremes height e.g.: discontinuous caused genetic range of phenotypes environmental factors limited #ofphenotypes - no · · intermediates e.g.:tongue rolling;bloodgroups mostly by genes alone caused Cotitbien) · in mutation:1 most - gene -> new alleles phenotype;protein still works fine small effecton organism -> survival advantage harmful changes + + - chromosome effect on cases:n o rarely: or exposure ↑ mutation: to tionising some + radiation: gamma rays, chemicals:tar X-rays, UV (in tobaccol Natural selection survival ofthe fittest' Darwin's Charles variation · selective within production of many struggle - -> offspring · e.g.: ? - envir adaptedto better a crossing -> for survival individuals that - we desirable features individuals by humans these individuals selected population competition for resources · ~ by artificial selection breeding produce nextgeneration offsprings thatshow desirable features -> breed pure getselected reproduce -> pass on alleles 4. ed it generation to - to breedmore likely pass to on many generations improve: - -more over out genes - crop plants domesticatedanimals Natural naturally occurs features of developedpopulations ⑥ time taken Artificial selection selection environment, adaptedto useful - natural selection over - - A of time -> in: results adaptive features of a population adaptation: * - -> a process, resulting populations become over from natural selection more many generations suitedto their envir to intervene humans (notnecessarily for individual'ssurvival) survival usually long less time desirable ↳ Evolution: humans when (only traits individuals wh allowedto reproduce Organisms theirEnvironment B12. · the Sun:principal in source org organism · ecosystem:a input of energy - biological systems - - · foodchain:shows another organism to starts w: 1 producer · * foodweb:a - of network foodchains producer:org. - connected in a from level: position ofan organism in a foodchain together to its ↑ organic nutrients own I foodweb sunlight on a trophic level 5 4 E org. that gets feeding or usually less than S trophic levels 6th) (notenough I support consumer: from environment (e.g.:lake given area photosynthesis via - · Thatmakes energy their + # (interconnected) · orgs interacting together trophic - · all transfer of I from contains unit leating other orgs. 3 primary 20: secondary 2 30: tertiary 1 · herbivore - ↳ · animal; gets I from carnivoreanimal; 1/ eating plants other ·I transfer animals =10% E passedon - · decomposer:org.; - - gets E from e.g.:fungus 90 = · dead/waste organic (mushrooms) levels: trophic between matter lostto environment heat energy long eats ·when foodmolecules ·notall -> E - > lost in eats 180 rarely digestedabsorbed another, are faeces it of it 2 Human influences B13. The Carbon ecosystems on cycle · of atmosphere by taken out I · onto animals passed returnedto · (plants, -> animals, decomposing over fossil fossil · millions fuels no but years of are burnt deforestation:less · microorganisms) decomposition enough + pressure (fossilization) fuels = (CO2) by respiration atm. feeding decomposers by plants/animals die, · photosynthesis (combustion) producers who take up CO24/0.↓ (024/02t -> -> CO2 Deforestation of land:? Uses building - grazing for cattle planting of monocultures replanting (sustainable) · * e.g.: clearing of trees (large scale) = Effects · habitat destruction = extinction species/loss of foresthabitats · habitat destroyed biodiversity of (rainforest) have loss many - (thatcan · soil roots > - extinction -> only be foundthere) soil help stabilize take minerals up nutrients, prevents - withouttrees nutrients minerals -> = erosion by rain unused washedinto rivers lakes + by rain permanent loss ofnutrients very -> hardfor forests regrow to flooding: - without trees, topsoil is -> loose, unstable easily washed ↑ -> · species erosion: tree · greatbiodiversity of CO2 - - - in risk of away atmosphere trees photosynthesize less trees trees are ↓02;CO2 = often burnt by rain flash floods, insteadof cut down I NOT - landslides palm oil sustainable Water - (rivers, lakes, the sea) pollution sources: - chemical waste -discardedrubbish sewage untreated · - fertilisers ↓ Eutrophication - run-off of nutrientsfor = =↑ Cleaching plants) (e.g.:algae, NOx andother ions nitrate contains - fertilizers, animal waste.... producers reen growth producers @ watersurface death - =I ↓ = water -> surface (by bacterial decomposition ↑ aerobic - below sunlight block of ↑ respiration dissolvedO2 in water fish otheraquatic organisms don't have enough O2 die. I -> - algae green plants grow well -> cover -> die i NO, - surface enough sunlightfor other plants not -> water with underneath
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