BACKGROUND
The Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA),
formerly named as Manila International Airport
(MIA) is the primary international gateway for
travelers going to the Philippines. Located at
Andrews Avenue, Pasay, 1300 Metro Manila,
Philippines; the airport is situated along the border
of Parañaque City and Pasay City, which is also 7
kilometers south of Metro Manila and southwest
of Makati City’s Central Business District. It is the
only airport located on the National Capital Region
thus, serving both the demands of domestic and
international flights in the Manila Area.
Location of NAIA . Google Maps. 2016
The country’s primary airport was originally a base for the US Air Force up until 1948
when it was finally turned over to the Philippine Government. The facilities of the newly acquired
airport was no more than the current domestic runway and a small building used as the only
passenger terminal. For the first thirteen years since the acquisition, the Philippine Government
made improvements and build several infrastructure dedicated for international flights. The
international runway and associated taxiway was built in 1953, and in 1961 saw the completion of
a control tower and a terminal building for the exclusive use of international passengers. These
system of advancements on the airport came to be officially known as the Manila International
Airport. The impact of the newly established international airport on the country’s economy
proved to be significant and possessed such magnitude that on the coming years, the county
witnessed an upsurge in the country’s manpower export and tourism. In 1972, President Ferdinand
Marcos promulgated Executive Order No. 381, authorizing the development of the Manila
International Airport to meet the increasing demands of the premier airport of the Philippines for
the coming decades1.
1
Executive Order No. 381 otherwise known as ‘Creating the Manila International Airport Rehabilitation and
Improvement Committee’.
INTRODUCTION
Since its establishment in 1948, the now called Ninoy Aquino International Airport has
been catering to an increasing demand for airline travel in the Philippines, particularly in its capital,
Manila making it the busiest airport in the Philippines. With the surge in air travel, NAIA’s total
capacity of 31 million passengers annually have been breached in 2012, totaling 31, 558, 002
passengers. This mean that the airport may not be able to provide optimal services if no measures
will be made to improve its capacity. Several proposals have been presented to the government by
several parties, two of the most viable ones are the proposal to build a third runway in the current
NAIA; and the second one is to construct a new international airport in the National Capital
Region. Both the proposal aims to solve the problem of worsening conditions on traffic congestion
in the area, pollution but most importantly, the problem with air traffic in the area. The latter is the
proposal being considered by the government.
The new Manila airport is a proposed development to construct an adjacent second airport
in the capital area which is expected to complement air traffic operations at the existing and
congested NAIA. The proposal include choosing the optimal location for the airport, in which of
the proposed sites, Sangley Point in Cavite City and the Manila Bay area are being eyed by the
Philippine Government for the construction of the new airport. Two notable proposals are from
the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and San Miguel Corporation. The JICA was
the entity tasked by the government to conduct feasibility studies on the current airport while also
expected to submit its own proposal and recommendation on the government’s plan to build an
airport. According to a study conducted by JICA, NAIA would reach overcapacity this year
handling an expected 37.38 million passengers. By 2040, passenger traffic would be at 101.49
million, well above the design capacity of the NAIA at 31 million.
The San Miguel Corporation, proposed to construct the new airport at a reclaimed area
along the Manila Bay for $10 billion. The proposed airport would have a passenger handling
capacity of 75 million annually for both international and domestic flights. The proposal will have
a Build – Operate – Transfer (BOT) agreement between the government.
STATEMENT OF FACTS
Data from MIAA showed that Terminal 1 is designed to handle 6.5 million passengers
yearly; Terminal 2 with 7.5 million; Terminal 3 with 13 million; and Terminal 4 with 3 million.
NAIA accommodated 36.68 million passengers in 2015, exceeding the 30 million yearly optimal
capacity of the terminal. Its maximum handling capacity stands at 35 million passengers a year.
The congestion in aircraft movements at NAIA has resulted in inefficiencies and inconveniences
such as flight delays and cancellations.
Volume of Passengers in NAIA
Calendar
Year
2003
Passenger Movement
% Change
12, 955, 809
--
2004
15, 186, 521
17.2 %
2005
16, 216, 031
2006
Calendar
Year
2010
Passenger Movement
% Change
27, 119, 899
12.5 %
2011
29, 552, 264
9.0 %
6.8 %
2012
31, 878, 935
7.9 %
17, 660, 697
8.9 %
2013
32, 865, 000
3.1 %
2007
20, 467, 627
15.9 %
2014
34, 015, 169
3.5 %
2008
22, 253, 158
8.7 %
2015
36, 681, 601
2009
24, 108, 825
8.3 %
2016
--
7.84 %
--
This table of passenger movement at NAIA is based on the data released by Airport Council International (ACI).
It is estimated that the number of passengers travelling through the capital region is expected to
reach 106.7 million by 2040. Even with improvements made to the existing terminals at NAIA,
the design of the current complex is not suited for growth. Although NAIA has two runways, the
fact that they cross makes it impossible to use both runways simultaneously to better facilitate the
arrival and departure of aircraft efficiently. At present, the airport can only handle approximately
40 take offs or landings per hour. The government is planning to construct another parallel runway
that would increase capacity at the airport up to 60 takes offs or landings per hour.
TERMINAL BUILDINGS
Total
Area
205, 500 square meters
Handling Capacity
28 million passengers
Jet Bridges
64 aerobridge, 20 contact
Terminal 1 or NAIA-1
Terminal 2 or NAIA-2 (Centennial Terminal)
Completion
1981
Completion
December 22, 1988
Opened
April 2, 1982
Opened
May 1, 1999
Area
67, 000 square meters
Area
75, 000 square meters
Handling Capacity
6 million passengers
Handling Capacity
9 million passengers
Jet Bridges
18 aerobridge
Jet Bridges
12 aerobridge
Terminal 3 or NAIA-3
Terminal 4 (Manila Domestic Passenger Terminal)
Opened (partial)
July 22, 2008
Built
1948
Opened (full)
August 1, 2014
Handling Capacity
1000 passengers
Area
189,000 square meters
Jet Bridges
0
Handling Capacity
13 million passengers
Recently, the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC) tapped British
firm NATS to increase runway utilization at NAIA. The DOTC said the P66-million contract with
NATS would increase hourly air traffic movement from the current 40 to 60, an increase of 50
percent. NATS would do this by determining the optimal configuration for the airport’s
intersecting runways. However, even with another runway, NAIA will still be ill-equipped to
handle the growth and passenger traffic that is expected by 2040. Regardless of any efforts that
government might make to improve the existing aesthetic conditions at the country's main
international gateway, it does not change the fact that NAIA as an airport is inadequate to serve
the needs of our country moving forward, necessitating the need for a new modern airport.
Although government wants to increase tourism growth, it has already been forced to turn
away foreign international carriers that want to fly to Manila because the slot requirements of the
carriers cannot be met at NAIA. And because of the congestion problems that NAIA is
experiencing for the past several years, the Philippine government asked JICA to draw up the
feasibility study for a new airport. Over the years, a number of options have been proposed that
include a combination of expanding facilities at NAIA, developing Clark International Airport
(CIA) as the main airport or a new airport altogether. For the medium and long-term action agenda,
a “new NAIA” must be constructed to replace the existing main gateway, the study said. The
DOTC is looking at putting into operation a new international airport by 2027 with the joint
development of NAIA in Manila and the Clark International Airport in Pampanga, as a study by
the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) showed that the number of passengers in the
Greater Capital Region would hit 106.7 million by 2040 from 31.88 million in 2012. Lately,
discussions have focused on the following 3 scenarios:
1. A single airport system wherein the government would shut down and sell the
NAIA and develop the Clark International Airport in Pampanga.
2. A twin or dual system wherein the government would develop Clark and at the
same time maximize the operations of NAIA until 2025 but at the same time
look for an alternative site for a new airport that would be 25 kilometers or 30
minutes away from the existing gateway.
3. A twin or dual system wherein the government would jointly develop Clark and
NAIA and then decide whether or not to put up an alternative airport
The study conducted by JICA in 2011 identified 8 sites best suited for a new airport. The
8 sites considered were:
The central part of Manila Bay is one of the potential sites recommended by Jica for a new
international gateway, which is designed to replace the congested Ninoy Aquino International
Airport in Pasay City and Parañaque City. San Miguel Corp., which used to operate Philippine
Airlines, earlier proposed to build a new international airport at a reclaimed area along the ManilaCavite Coastal Road for $10 billion. But, JICA had decided to drop central Manila Bay as one of
the potential locations for the new international airport because of the objection made by Philippine
Ports Authority(PPA). PPA argued that an international airport could obstruct the shipping flow
in the area.
Abaya,
a
former
congressman representing Cavite,
said JICA was now looking at
Sangley Point in Cavite and
Laguna de Bay as potential
locations for the new international
airport. Sangley Point topped the
list
based
on
criteria
like
catchment area, navigation risk, natural hazard risk, and accessibility. The Philippines needs P436
billion
to
construct
a
new
international airport at Sangley
Point in Cavite.
The JICA -
proposed new aviation hub will have
four runways that can handle
700,000
aircraft
landings
and
takeoffs per year, and will have an
annual capacity of 130 million
passengers by 2050. Initially, at
least P359.35 billion is needed to put up an independent
parallel runway with a capacity of 400,000 aircraft
movements per year. The amount will include the
establishment of a main terminal and a low cost carrier
passenger terminal with a combined capacity of 50 million
passengers per year by 2025. Another P76.57 billion is
needed over the medium term to add three more runways with a capacity of 500,000 aircraft
movements per year, and expand the main and passenger terminals to further increase passenger
capacity by 80 million passengers annually. The roadmap also suggests supplemental
infrastructure projects that will lead to the international airport, such as new expressways and
bridges, and railway expansion. DOTC wants to put into operation a new international airport by
2027 while developing Ninoy Aquino International Airport and Clark International Airport.
Currently, The Philippines is also building a new passenger terminal at Clark International Airport,
about 95 kilometers (60 miles) north of Manila, to boost capacity fourfold to 8 million a year.
References:
 Google. (n.d.). [Google Maps location for Ninoy Aquino International Airport]. Retrieved
March 26, 2016, from https://www.google.com.ph/maps/place/Ninoy+Aquino+International+
Airport/@14.5130522,121.0028812,13.75z/data=!4m2!3m1!1s0x3397cec5d2bb4d77:0x8a24f
a628a114411
 Manila Airport. (n.d.). [Guide to Manila Airport (MNL)]. Retrieved March 24, 2016, from
http://www.manila-airport.net/
 MIAA. (n.d.). [A website for the agency that handles the NAIA airport]. Retrieved March 24,
2016, from http://125.60.203.88/miaa/
 MIAA. (n.d.). A Brief History of the Agency. Retrieved March 25, 2016, from
http://125.60.203.88/miaa/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11&Itemid=39
 Order No. 381 – Executive Order No. 381 of March 3, 1972. Creating the Manila International
Airport Rehabilitation and Improvement Committee
The transportation sector has long been a cornerstone of global
development, underpinning mobility, trade, and international cooperation. Among
its various modes, aviation holds a distinctive position in enabling the efficient and
large-scale movement of people and goods across long distances. As economies
become increasingly interconnected, the demand for reliable and high-capacity air
travel infrastructure has grown steadily, positioning airports as critical nodes in the
global logistics and mobility network. More than mere transit points, airports today
are powerful economic catalysts, driving commerce, facilitating tourism, and
shaping urban and regional development. Their ability to attract investment,
stimulate job creation, and foster innovation underscores their strategic value to
national growth.
In modern economies, airports increasingly reflect broader state priorities,
including public service delivery, environmental responsibility, and technological
advancement. As global air traffic continues to grow—ICAO reported that in 2023,
the total number of passengers carried on scheduled services increased to 4.3
billion, marking a 32.4% rise from the previous year—the role of international
airports becomes even more critical in managing this surge efficiently while
minimizing environmental and social costs. Many nations now view airport
infrastructure not only as a matter of transportation planning but also as an
essential element of national branding and competitiveness. For instance,
innovations in airport operations—ranging from automation and AI integration to
sustainability initiatives—are now regarded as benchmarks for global readiness
(ACI World, 2022). As the International Air Transport Association (IATA) projects
passenger demand to double by 2040, the role of international airports becomes
even more critical in managing this surge efficiently while minimizing
environmental and social costs.
In the Philippine context, the demand for air connectivity has surged in
recent years, spurred by economic growth, increased domestic and international
tourism, and enhanced regional integration within Southeast Asia (Department of
Transportation [DOTr], 2023). The Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA),
serving as the country's main international gateway, currently accommodates
about 80% of international air traffic, despite operating significantly beyond its
design capacity of 30 million passengers annually; it handled over 45 million
passengers in 2019 alone (Japan International Cooperation Agency [JICA], 2020).
This chronic congestion has resulted in operational inefficiencies, flight delays, and
a compromised passenger experience (ADB, 2021).
In response to these challenges, the Philippine government has prioritized
major aviation infrastructure projects, most notably the New Manila International
Airport (NMIA) in Bulacan. As part of the "Build Better More" program, the NMIA is
envisioned to accommodate up to 200 million passengers per year, thus alleviating
the pressure on NAIA and establishing a world-class aviation hub (San Miguel
Corporation, 2023). This megaproject incorporates sustainable design principles
and cutting-edge operational technologies, aiming to position the Philippines more
competitively in the Asia-Pacific aviation market (DOTr, 2023).
Strategically located in Bulacan, NMIA is expected to improve accessibility for
residents of northern and central Luzon, thereby supporting the decentralization of
development from Metro Manila. Moreover, the project aligns with national goals
of inclusive growth and regional equity by dispersing economic activity through
enhanced transportation networks (National Economic and Development Authority
[NEDA], 2022). Investments in airport infrastructure such as NMIA are thus critical
not only for meeting current capacity demands but also for ensuring long-term
economic resilience and global integration.
According Gulf News (2024) the establishment of NMIA is a core response to
the growing demand for air travel in the country. The airport's scale and
technological ambitions are expected to redefine national air transport standards,
support job creation, and introduce cutting-edge services that cater to both
domestic and international travelers. This long-term vision positions NMIA not just
as an alternative airport, but as a transformative node for sustainable growth and
innovation in the Philippine aviation sector.
However, despite these efforts, deeper concerns remain regarding how well
future airports will adapt to evolving demands in efficiency, sustainability, and usercentered design. While new projects aim to expand physical capacity, questions
persist about how airports can be made more intelligent, responsive, and inclusive
especially in the face of rapid technological change, environmental concerns, and
rising passenger expectations. Traditional approaches to airport planning may fall
short in addressing the complex, dynamic needs of modern air travel. Notably,
existing literature often focuses on the technical and financial aspects of airport
development but overlooks innovative design solutions informed by advanced
technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI). There is limited exploration into
how AI can be integrated into airport architecture to improve operations, optimize
passenger flow, and support long-term adaptability. Furthermore, stakeholder
voices especially those of travelers, airport staff, and local communities are rarely
included in the planning and design process.
This study aims to design an airport by exploring how AI technologies can be
embedded in the design of future international airports in the Philippines to
enhance operational efficiency, safety, and user experience. It will draw insights
from global best practices while grounding its approach in the local context. The
study seeks to design airports that are not only functional and scalable but also
inclusive, human-centered, and prepared for future challenges. By aligning
infrastructure design with both technological innovation and stakeholder needs,
this research contributes to a broader vision of national development. It aspires to
influence future airport planning and policy, support sustainable economic growth,
and improve the travel experience for both Filipino citizens and international
visitors.
Airport Site Selection: Case-Specific Policy Analysis
OECD/ITF (2017). International Transport Forum.
2.2.3.1 Synopsis
This comprehensive policy analysis by the OECD/ITF delves into international best practices for
selecting new airport sites, emphasizing transparency, adaptability, and stakeholder engagement.
The report is based on case studies from Korea’s Youngnam region and benchmarked against
experiences in the UK, Japan, Australia, and Portugal. The study highlights the importance of
evaluating not just technical feasibility and cost, but also socio-environmental impacts, long-term
demand forecasts, and political and community acceptance.
Key elements of the site selection process discussed include: a clear assessment of need for
additional airport capacity; comparison of multiple feasible site options; comprehensive
evaluation criteria (economic, environmental, and social); scenario-based demand forecasting to
account for future uncertainty; and transparent multi-stakeholder decision-making.
For example, in Korea's Youngnam region, ADPI (Aéroports de Paris Ingénierie) developed a
methodology balancing noise impact, airspace restrictions, proximity to population centers, and
surface transport accessibility. Lessons from other countries reinforce the need for both costbenefit analyses and multi-criteria assessments to evaluate trade-offs, such as proximity to cities
versus environmental impact.
This methodical approach ensures that decisions are robust, inclusive, and adaptable, particularly
critical when projects—such as airport developments—face potential NIMBY (Not In My
Backyard) or PIMBY (Please In My Backyard) sentiments. The report underscores the necessity
of using flexible planning (e.g., phased expansions) and continuous stakeholder dialogue to
maintain legitimacy and ensure deliverability.
2.2.3.2 Review
The insights offered by this OECD/ITF study are particularly valuable for regions like Metro
Manila, where airport congestion has led to proposals for new sites including Sangley Point in
Cavite City—one of the JICA-endorsed locations. The framework advocated in the report
directly supports the approach needed for assessing and justifying such developments.
First, the recommendation to begin with a system-wide assessment of need mirrors the growing
realization in the Philippines that expansion at NAIA alone is insufficient. The application of
scenario-based planning and transparent evaluation can strengthen the credibility of Sangley’s
viability, especially when juxtaposed with other options like Bulacan.
Second, the report promotes integrating both qualitative (multi-criteria) and quantitative (costbenefit) analyses, a balanced approach that can help Philippine planners navigate difficult tradeoffs. For instance, Sangley’s proximity to Manila offers economic and accessibility advantages,
but its coastal location raises environmental and engineering concerns—making multidimensional assessment crucial.
Third, the lessons on governance and stakeholder engagement are highly applicable. The
Philippines has witnessed both opposition and support for proposed airport sites. As shown in
Japan and the UK, public consultation, scenario-testing, and compensation or mitigation
measures are vital to gaining consensus. JICA's technical justifications for sites like Sangley can
be reinforced by this report’s emphasis on transparent processes and strategic communication.
Finally, the study’s call for deliverability assessments and phasing strategies aligns with ongoing
Philippine debates on funding models, private sector involvement, and long-term sustainability.
Just as Sydney employed land banking for future expansion, so too can Sangley benefit from
modular planning that reduces initial cost while enabling future scaling.
Overall, this literature provides a strategic, evidence-based lens through which the Philippines
can design its future airport network, supporting both regional development and international
connectivity in a coherent, publicly accountable way.