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S.NO
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.2
1.2.1
1.3
1.3.1
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
.1
3.1.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4.1
4.1.1
4.2
4.3
CONTENTS
TOPIC
UNIT I-A BASICS OF MECHANISMS
Introduction
Kinematic Chains and Inversions
Mechanisms
Terminology and Definitions-Degree of Freedom, Mobility
Key concepts
Types of Kinematic Pairs
Degrees of Freedom
Kinematic Chain
Kutzbach criterion, Grashoff's law
Grashoff's law
Kinematic Inversions of 4-bar chain and slider crank
chains
Whitworth quick return motion mechanism
Mechanical Advantage, Transmission angle
Description of common mechanisms-Single,Double and
offset slider mechanisms - Quick return mechanisms
Straight line generators, Design of Crank-rocker
Mechanisms
UNIT I-B KINEMATICS OF
LINKAGE MECHANISMS
Displacement, velocity and acceleration analysis in simple
mechanisms
Important Concepts in Velocity Analysis
Graphical Method, Velocity and Acceleration polygons
Velocity and Acceleration analysis of mechanisms
Graphical Methods
Coincident points, Coriol is Acceleration
Linkage Synthesis Problem
UNIT I-C KINEMATICS OF CAMMECHANISMS 3
Introduction
Types of cams
Types of follower motion
Displacement diagrams
Draw the cam profile for following conditions
Layout of plate cam profiles
Derivatives of Follower motion
Circular arc and Tangent cams
Pressure angle and undercutting
UNIT II GEARS AND TRAINS
Introduction
Fundamental LawofGear-Tooth
Spur Gear Terminology
Worm, Rack and Pinion Gears
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4.4
4.5
5.1
5.1.1
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.4
5.4.1
5.5
5.5.1
5.6
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Parallel axis gear trains:
Epicyclic gear trains
UNIT III FRICTIONIN THE MACHINE ELEMENTS
Surface contacts
Types orfriction
Friction drives
Friction in screw threads
Screwjack
Clutch
Friction
clutches
Belt
Types of belt
Friction aspects inBrakes
QUESTION BANK
PREVIOUS YEAR UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
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ABOUT THE SUBJECT
This subject mainly deals with mechanisms of various machines which include position
displacement velocity and acceleration that we come across in our day today life without giving
much importance to FORCE or MASS. The subject also deals with graphical and analytical
interpretation. The other chapters of interest are Velocity and Acceleration of mechanisms by
Complex Numbers, gears, gear trains ,and analysis of Cam profiles.
Special emphasis is given to velocity and acceleration followed by Cams as these
problems are solve on drawing sheets in the University Exams.
UNIT I-A BASICS OF MECHANISMS
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1.1 Introduction:
Definitions : Link or Element, Pairing of Elements with degrees of freedom, Grubler’s criterion
without derivation), Kinematic chain, Mechanism, Mobility of Mechanism, Inversions,
Machine.
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1.1.1 Kinematic Chains and Inversions:
Kinematic chain with three lower pairs, Four bar chain, Single slider crank chain and Double
slider crank chain and
their inversions.
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1.1.2Mechanisms:
i Quick return motion mechanisms – Drag link mechanism, Whitworth mechanism and Crank
and slotted lever mechanism
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ii Straight li ne motion mechanisms – Peacelier’s mechanism and Robert’s mechanism.
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iii Intermittent motion mechanisms – Geneva mechanism and Ratchet & Pawl mechanism.
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iv) Toggle mechanism, Pantograph, Hooke’s joint and Ackerman Steering gear mechanism.
1.1.3Terminology and Definitions-Degree of Freedom, Mobility
 Kinematics: The study of motion position, velocity, acceleration). A major goal of
understanding kinematics is to develop the ability to design a system that will satisfy
specified motion requirements. This will be the emphasis of this class.
 Kinetics: The effect of forces on moving bodies. Good kinematic design should produce
good kinetics.
 Mechanism: A system design to transmit motion. (low forces
 Machine: A system designed to transmit motion and energy. forces involved)
 Basic Mechanisms: Includes geared systems, cam-follower systems and linkages rigid links
connected by sliding or rotating joints. A mechanism has multiple moving parts for
example, a simple hinged door does not qualify as a mechanism.
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
Examples of mechanisms: Tin snips, vise grips, car suspension, backhoe, piston engine,
folding chair, windshield wiper drive system, etc.
1.1.4 Key concepts:



Degrees of freedom: The number of inputs required to completely control a system.
Examples: A simple rotating link. A two link system. A four-bar linkage. A five-bar
linkage.
Types of motion: Mechanisms may produce motions that are pure rotation, pure translation,
or a combination of the two. We reduce the degrees of freedom of a mechanism by
restraining the ability of the mechanism to move in translation x -y directions for a 2D
mechanism or in rotation (about the z -axis for a 2-D mechanism.
Link: A rigid body with two or more nodes joints that are used to connect to other ri gid
bodies. (WM examples: binary link, ternary link 3 join ts, quaternary link (4 joints
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

Joint: A connection between two links that allows motion between the links. The motion
allowed may be rotational revolute joint, translational sliding or prismatic joint, or a
combination of the two (roll-slide joint.
Kinematic chain: An assembly of links and joints used to coordinate an output motion with
an input motion.
Link or element:
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A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies outof which some may have motions relative
to the others. Aresistant body or a group of resistant bodies with rigidconnections preventing their
relative movement is known as alink.
A link may also be defined as a member or a combination ofmembers of a mechanism, connecting
other members and havingmotion relative to them, thus a link may consist of one or moreresistant
bodies. A link is also known as Kinematic link or anelement.
Links can be classified into 1) Binary, 2 Ternary, 3) Quarternary, etc.
 Kinematic Pair:
A Kinematic Pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between them.
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Example:
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In the above given Slider crank mechanism, link 2 rotates relative to link 1 and constitutes a revolute
or turning pair. Similarly, links 2, 3 and 3, 4 constitute turning pairs. Link 4 Slider reciprocates
relative to link 1 and its a sliding pair.
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1.1.5 Types of Kinematic Pairs:
Kinematic pairs can be classified according to
i Nature of contact.
ii Nature of mechanical constraint.
iii Nature of relative motion.
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i Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact:
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a Lower Pair: A pair of links having surface or area contact between the members is known as a
lower pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are similar.
Examples: Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, all pairs of a slider-crank mechanism,
universal joint.
b) Higher Pair: When a pair has a point or line contact between the links, it is known as a higher pair.
The contact surfaces of the two links are dissimilar.
Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and roller bearings,
etc.
ii Kinematic pairs according to nature of mechanical constraint.
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a Closed pair: When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically, it is known as a closed
pair. The contact between the two can only be broken only by the destruction of at least one of the
members. All the lower pairs and some of the higher pairs are closed pairs.
b) Unclosed pair: When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity or some
spring action, they constitute an unclosed pair. In this the links are not held together mechanically.
Ex.: Cam and follower pair.
iii Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion.
a Sliding pair: If two links have a sliding motion relative to each other, they form a sliding pair. A
rectangular rod in a rectangular hole in a prism is an example of a sliding pair.
b) Turning Pair: When on link has a turning or revolving motion relative to the other, they constitute
a turning pair or revolving pair.
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c Rolling pair: When the links of a pair have a rolling motion relative to each other, they form a
rolling pair. A rolling wheel on a flat surface, ball ad roller bearings, etc. are some of the examples
for a Rolling pair.
d) Screw pair Helical Pair: if two mating links have a turning as well as sliding motion between
them, they form a screw pair. This is achieved by cutting matching threads on the two links.
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The lead screw and the nut of a lathe is a screw Pair
e Spherical pair: When one link in the form of a sphere turns inside a fixed link, it is a spherical
pair. The ball and socket joint is a spherical pair.
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1.2 Degrees of Freedom:
An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe the following independent
motions.
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1. Translational Motions along any three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z,
2. Rotational motions along these axes.
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Thus a rigid body possesses six degrees of freedom. The connection of a link with another imposes
certain constraints on their relative motion. The number of restraints can never be zero joint is
disconnected) or six (joint becomes solid).
Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of independent relative motions, both
translational and rotational, a pair can have.
Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints.
To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism we have an equation known as
Grubler’s equation and is given by F = 3 ( n – 1 ) – 2 j1 – j2
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F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom
n = Number of links including frame.
j1 = Joints with single (one degree of freedom.
J2 = Joints with two degrees of freedom.
If F > 0, results in a mechanism with ‘F’ degrees of freedom.
F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure.
F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.
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1.2.1Kinematic Chain:
A Kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative motions of the links is
possible and the motion of each relative to the others is definite (fig. a, b, and c.)
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In case, the motion of a link results in indefinite motions of other links, it is a non-kinematic chain.
However, some authors prefer to call all chains having relative motions of the links as kinematic
chains.
1.2.2Linkage, Mechanism and structure:
A linkage is obtained if one of the links of kinematic chain is fixed to the ground. If motion
of each link results in definite motion of the others, the linkage is known as mechanism. If one of the
links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure.
To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of a linkage, it is necessary to know
how many inputs are needed. In some mechanisms, only one input is necessary that determines the
motion of other links and are said to have one degree of freedom. In other mechanisms, two inputs
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may be necessary to get a constrained motion of the other links and are said to have two degrees of
freedom and so on.
The degree of freedom of a structure is zero or less. A structure with negative degrees of freedom is
known as a Superstructure.

Motionand itstypes:
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The threemain typesof constrainedmotion in kinematic pairare,
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1.Completely constrained motion : If the motion between a pair of links is limited to a definite
direction, then it is completely constrained motion. E.g.: Motion of a shaft or rod with collars at each
end in a hole as shown in fig.
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2. Incompletely Constrained motion : If the motion between a pair of links is not confined to a
definite direction, then it is incompletely constrained motion. E.g.: A spherical ball or circular shaft
in a circular hole may either rotate or slide in the hole as shown in fig.
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3. Successfully constrained motion or Partially constrained motion:If the motion in a definite
direction is not brought about by itself but by some other means, then it is known as successfully
constrained motion. E.g.: Foot step Bearing
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 Machine:
It is a combination of resistant bodies with successfully constrained motion which is used to transmit
or transform motion to do some useful work. E.g.: Lathe, Shaper, Steam Engine, etc.
 Kinematic chain with three lower pairs
It is impossible to have a kinematic chain consisting of three turning pairs only. But it is possible to
have a chain which consists of three sliding pairs or which consists of a turning, sliding and a screw
pair.
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The figure shows a kinematic chain with three sliding pairs. It consists of a frame B, wedge C and a
sliding rod A. So the three sliding pairs are, one between the wedge C and the frame B, second
between wedge C and sliding rod A and the frame B.
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This figure shows the mechanism of a fly press. The element B forms a sliding with A and turning
pair with screw rod C which in turn forms a screw pair with A. When link A is fixed, the required fly
press mechanism is obtained.
1.3.Kutzbach criterion, Grashoff's law
Kutzbach criterion:
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Fundamental Equation for 2-D Mechanisms: M = 3(L – 1) – 2J1 – J2
Can we intuitively derive Kutzbach’s modification of Grubler’s equation? Consider a
rigid link constrained to move in a plane. How many degrees of freedom does the link have?
3: translation in x and y directions, rotation about z -axis


If you pin one end of the link to the plane, how many degrees of freedom does it now have?
Add a second link to the picture so that you have one link pinned to the plane and one free to
move in the plane. How many degrees of freedom exist between the two links? 4 is the
correct answer
Pin the second link to the free end of the first link. How many degrees of freedom do you
now have?

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
How many degrees of freedom do you have each time you introduce a moving link? How
many degrees of freedom do you take away when you add a simple joint? How many
degrees of freedom would you take away by adding a half joint? Do the different terms in
equation make sense in light of this knowledge?
1.3.1 Grashoff's law:

Grashoff 4-bar linkage: A linkage that contains one or more links capable of undergoing a
full rotation. A linkage is Grashoff if: S + L < P + Q where: S = shortest link length, L =
longest, P, Q = intermediate length links. Both joints of the shortest link are capable of 3 60
degrees of rotation in a Grashoff linkages. This gives us 4 possible linkages: crank-rocker
input rotates 360), rocker -crank-rocker coupler rotates 360), rocker -crank follower;
double crank all links rotate 360). Note that these mechanisms are si mply the possible
inversions (section 2.11, Figure 2-16 of a Grashoff mechanism.
Non Grashoff 4 bar: No link can rotate 360 if: S + L > P + Q
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Let’s examine why the Grashoff condition works:


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Consider a linkage with the shortest and longest sides joined together. Examine the linkage
when the shortest side is parallel to the longest side 2 positions possible, folded over on the
long side and extended away from the long side. How long do P and Q have to be to allow
the linkage to achieve these positions?
Consider a linkage where the long and short sides are not joined. Can you figure out the
required lengths for P and Q in this type of mechanism
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1.4 Kinematic Inversions of 4-bar chain and slider crank chains:
 Types of Kinematic Chain: 1) Four bar chain 2) Single slider chain 3) Double Slider chain
 Four bar Chain:
The chain has four links and it looks like a cycle frame and hence it is also called quadric cycle
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chain. It is shown in the figure. In this type of chain all four pairs will be turning pairs.
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 Inversions:
By fixing each link at a time we get as many mechanisms as the number of links, then each
mechanism is called ‘Inversion’ of the original Kinematic Chain.
Inversions of four bar chain mechanism:
There are three inversions: 1) Beam Engine or Crank and lever mechanism. 2) Coupling rod of
locomotive or double crank mechanism. 3) Watt’s straight line mechanism or double lever
mechanism.
 Beam Engine:
When the crank AB rotates about A, the link CE pivoted at D makes vertical reciprocating motion at
end E. This is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating motion and vice versa. It is also known
as Crank and lever mechanism. This mechanism is shown in the figure below.
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2. Coupling rod of locomotive: In this mechanism the length of link AD = length of link C. Also
length of link AB = length of link CD. When AB rotates about A, the crank DC rotates about D. this
mechanism is used for coupling locomotive wheels. Since links AB and CD work as cranks, this
mechanism is also known as double crank mechanism. This is shown in the figure below.
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3. Watt’s straight line mechanism or Double lever mechanism: In this mechanism, the links AB
& DE act as levers at the ends A & E of these levers are fixed. The AB & DE are parallel in the
mean position of the mechanism and coupling rod BD is perpendicular to the levers AB & DE. On
any small displacement of the mechanism the tracing point ‘C’ traces the shape of number ‘8’, a
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portion of which will be approximately straight. Hence this is also an example for the approximate
straight line mechanism. This mechanism is shown below.
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 2. Slider crank Chain:
It is a four bar chain having one sliding pair and three turning pairs. It is shown in the figure below
the purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion to reciprocating motion and vice versa.
Inversions of a Slider crank chain:
There are four inversions in a single slider chain mechanism. They are:
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1) Reciprocating engine mechanism (1 inversion)
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2) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism (2 inversion)
nd
3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism (2 inversion)
rd
4) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism (3 inversion)
rd
5) Rotary engine mechanism (3 inversion)
th
6) Bull engine mechanism (4 inversion)
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7) Hand Pump (4 inversion)
 1. Reciprocating engine mechanism :
In the first inversion, the link 1 i.e., the cylinder and the frame is kept fixed. The fig below shows a
reciprocating engine.
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A slotted link 1 is fixed. When the crank 2 rotates about O, the sliding piston 4 reciprocates in the
slotted link 1. This mechanism is used in steam engine, pumps, compressors, I.C. engines, etc.
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 2. Crank and slotted lever mechanism:
It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure
below.
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In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever link 4)
and crank link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram link 6). The ram with the cutting tool
reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion
when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the
crank through angle α and the return stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or
360 – α. Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get
Time to cutting = α =
α
Time of return β 360 – α
This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary engines.
1.4 . 1 Whitworth quick return motion mechanism:
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Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2. Whitworth quick return mechanism is an
application of third inversion. This mechanism is shown in the figure below. The crank OC is fixed
and OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted link and generates a circle of radius CP. Link
5 connects the extension OQ provided on the opposite side of the link 1 to the ram link 6). The
rotary motion of P is taken to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is
used in shapers and slotting machines. The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in
counter clockwise direction is α or 360 -2θ. During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2θ or β.
Therefore,
Time to cutting = 360 -2θ = 180 – θ
Time of return 2θθ = α = α . β 360 – α
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1. Rotary engine mechanism or Gnome Engine:
Rotary engine mechanism or gnome engine is another application of third inversion. It is a rotary
cylinder V – type internal combustion engine used as an aero – engine. But now Gnome engine has
been replaced by Gas turbines. The Gnome engine has generally seven cylinders in one plane. The
crank OA is fixed and all the connecting rods from the pistons are connected to A. In this mechanism
when the pistons reciprocate in the cylinders, the whole assembly of cylinders, pistons and
connecting rods rotate about the axis O, where the entire mechanical power developed, is obtained in
the form of rotation of the crank shaft. This mechanism is shown in the figure below.
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2 Double Slider Crank Chain:
A four bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs such that two pairs of the same kind are
adjacent is known as double slider crank chain.
3 Inversions of Double slider Crank chain:
It consists of two sliding pairs and two turning pairs. They are three important inversions of double
slider crank chain. 1) Elliptical trammel. 2) Scotch yoke mechanism. 3) Oldham’s Coupling.
4 1. Elliptical Trammel:
This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted link is fixed. The sliding block P and Q in
vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R generates an ellipse with the displacement of
sliders P and Q.
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The co-ordinates of the point R are x and y. From the fig. cos θ = x.PR
and Sin θ = y. QR
Squaring and adding (i and (ii we get
x2 + y2= cos2 θ + sin2 θ
PR
x2 + y2= 1
2
2
QR
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PR
QR
The equation is that of an ellipse, Hence the instrument traces an ellipse. Path traced by mid-point of
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PQ is a circle. In this case, PR = PQ and so x +y =1 (PR QR
It is an equation of circle with PR = QR = radius of a circle.
5. Scotch yoke mechanism: This mechanism, the slider P is fixed. When PQ rotates above P, the
slider Q reciprocates in the vertical slot. The mechanism is used to convert rotary to reciprocating
mechanism.
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5.Oldham’s coupling: The third inversion of obtained by fixing the link connecting the 2 blocks
P & Q. If one block is turning through an angle, the frame and the other block will also turn
through the same angle. It is shown in the figure below.
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An application of the third inversion of the double slider crank mechanism is Oldham’s coupling
shown in the figure. This coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts when the distance
between the shafts is small. The two shafts to be connected have flanges at their ends, secured by
forging. Slots are cut in the flanges. These flanges form 1 and 3. An intermediate disc having
tongues at right angles and opposite sides is fitted in between the flanges. The intermediate piece
forms the link 4 which slides or reciprocates in flanges 1 & 3. The link two is fixed as shown. When
flange 1 turns, the intermediate disc 4 must turn through the same angle and whatever angle 4 turns,
the flange 3 must turn through the same angle. Hence 1, 4 & 3 must have the same angular velocity
at every instant. If the distance between the axis of the shaft is x, it will be the diameter if the circle
traced by the centre of the intermediate piece. The maximum sliding speed of each tongue along its
slot is given by
v=xω where, ω = angular velocity of each shaft in rad/sec v = linear velocity in m/sec
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1.6 Mechanical Advantage, Transmission angle:
1The mechanical advantage MA is defined as the ratio of output torque to the input torque. or
ratio
of load to output.
2 Transmission angle.
3 The extreme values of the transmission angle occur when the crank lies along the line of frame.
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1.7Description of common mechanisms-Single, Double and offset slider mechanisms - Quick
return mechanisms:
1.Quick Return Motion Mechanisms:
Many a times mechanisms are designed to perform repetitive operations. During these operations
for a certain period the mechanisms will be under load known as working stroke and the remaining
period is known as the return stroke, the mechanism returns to repeat the operation without load. The
ratio of time of working stroke to that of the return stroke is known a time ratio. Quick return
mechanisms are used in machine tools to give a slow cutting stroke and a quick return stroke. The
various quick return mechanisms commonly used are i Whitworth ii Drag link. iii Crank and
slotted lever mechanism
2. Whitworth quick return mechanism:
Whitworth quick return mechanism is an application of third inversion of the single slider
crank chain. This mechanism is shown in the figure below. The crank OC is fixed and OQ rotates
about O. The slider slides in the slotted link and generates a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects the
extension OQ provided on the opposite side of the link 1 to the ram link 6. The rotary motion of P
is taken to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is used in shapers and
slotting machines.
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The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in counter clockwise direction is α or 360 -2θ.
During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2θ or β.
3. Drag link mechanism :
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This is four bar mechanism with double crank in which the shortest link is fixed. If the crank AB
rotates at a uniform speed, the crank CD rotate at a non-uniform speed. This rotation of link CD is
transformed to quick return reciprocatory motion of the ram E by the link CE as shown in figure.
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When the crank AB rotates through an angle α in Counter clockwise direction during working stroke,
the link CD rotates through 180. We can observe that / α >/ β. Hence time of working stroke is α /β
times more or the return stroke is α /β times quicker. Shortest link is always stationary link. Sum of
the shortest and the longest links of the four links 1, 2, 3 and 4 are less than the sum of the other two.
It is the necessary condition for the drag link quick return mechanism.
4.Crank and slotted lever mechanism:
It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure
below.
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In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever link 4)
and crank link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram link 6). The ram with the cutting tool
reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion
when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the
crank through angle α and the return stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or
360 – α. Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get,
Time to cutting = α =
α
Time of return β 360 – α
This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary engines.
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5.Ratchets and escapements - Indexing Mechanisms - Rocking Mechanisms:
Intermittent motion mechanism:
Ratchet and Pawl mechanism: This mechanism is used in producing intermittent rotary motion
member. A ratchet and Pawl mechanism consists of a ratchet wheel 2 and a pawl 3 as shown in
the figure. When the lever 4 carrying pawl is raised, the ratchet wheel rotates in the counter clock
wise direction driven by pawl. As the pawl lever is lowered the pawl slides over the ratchet
teeth. One more pawl 5 is used to prevent the ratchet from reversing. Ratchets are used in feed
mechanisms, lifting jacks, clocks, watches and counting devices.
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6. Geneva mechanism: Geneva mechanism is an intermittent motion mechanism. It consists of a
driving wheel D carrying a pin P which engages in a slot of follower F as shown in figure.
During one quarter revolution of the driving plate, the Pin and follower remain in contact and
hence the follower is turned by one quarter of a turn. During the remaining time of one
revolution of the driver, the follower remains in rest locked in position by the circular arc.
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7. Pantograph: Pantograph is used to copy the curves in reduced or enlarged scales. Hence this
mechanism finds its use in copying devices such as engraving or profiling machines.
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This is a simple figure of a Pantograph. The links are pin jointed at A, B, C and D. AB is parallel to
DC and AD is parallel to BC. Link BA is extended to fixed pin O. Q is a point on the link AD. If the
motion of Q is to be enlarged then the link BC is extended to P such that O, Q and P are in a straight
line. Then it can be shown that the points P and Q always move parallel and similar to each other
over any path straight or curved. Their motions will be proportional to their distance from the fixed
point. Let ABCD be the initial position. Suppose if point Q moves to Q1 , then all the links and the
joints will move to the new positions such as A moves to A1 , B moves to Q1, C moves to Q1 , D
moves to D1 and P to P1 ) and the new configuration of the mechanism is shown by dotted lines. The
movement of Q (Q Q1 will be enlarged to PP1 in a definite ratio.
8. Toggle Mechanism:
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In slider crank mechanism as the crank approaches one of its dead centre position, the slider
approaches zero. The ratio of the crank movement to the slider movement approaching infinity is
proportional to the mechanical advantage. This is the principle used in toggle mechanism. A toggle
mechanism is used when large forces act through a short distance is required. The figure below
shows a toggle mechanism. Links CD and CE are of same length. Resolving the forces at C
vertically F Sin α =P Cos α 2
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Therefore, F = P . because Sin α/Cos α = Tan α 2 tan α Thus for the given value of P, as the links
CD and CE approaches collinear position (αO), the force F rises rapidly.
9. Hooke’s joint:
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Hooke’s joint used to connect two parallel intersecting shafts as shown in figure. This can also be
used for shaft with angular misalignment where flexible coupling does not serve the purpose. Hence
Hooke’s joint is a means of connecting two rotating shafts whose axes lie in the same plane and their
directions making a small angle with each other. It is commonly known as Universal joint. In Europe
it is called as Cardan joint.
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10. Ackermann steering gear mechanism:
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This mechanism is made of only turning pairs and is made of only turning pairs wear and tear of the
parts is less and cheaper in manufacturing. The cross link KL connects two short axles AC and BD
of the front wheels through the short links AK and BL which forms bell crank levers CAK and DBL
respectively as shown in fig, the longer links AB and KL are parallel and the shorter links AK and
BL are inclined at an angle α. When the vehicles steer to the right as shown in the figure, the short
link BL is turned so as to increase α, where as the link LK causes the other short link AK to turn so
as to reduce α. The fundamental equation for correct steering is, CotΦ–Cosθ = b / l
In the above arrangement it is clear that the angle Φ through which AK turns is less than the angle θ
through which the BL turns and therefore the left front axle turns through a smaller angle than the
right front axle. For different angle of turn θ, the corresponding value of Φ and Cot Φ – Cos θ are
noted. This is done by actually drawing the mechanism to a scale or by calculations. Therefore for
different value of the corresponding value of and are tabulated. Approximate value of b/l for correct
steering should be between 0.4 and 0.5. In an Ackermann steering gear mechanism, the
instantaneous centre I does not lie on the axis of the rear axle but on a line parallel to the rear axle
axis at an approximate distance of 0.3l above it.
Three correct steering positions will be:
1) When moving straight.
2) When moving one correct angle to the right corresponding to the
link ratio AK/AB and angle α.
3) Similar position when moving to the left. In all other
positions pure rolling is not obtainable.
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Some Of The Mechanisms Which Are Used In Day To Day Life.
BELL CRANK:
GENEVA STOP:
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BELL CRANK: The bell crank was originally used in large house to operate the servant’s bell, hence the
name. The bell crank is used to convert the direction of reciprocating movement. By varying the angle of the
crank piece it can be used to change the angle of movement from 1 degree to 180 degrees.
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GENEVA STOP: The Geneva stop is named after the Geneva cross, a similar shape to the main part
of the mechanism. The Geneva stop is used to provide intermittent motion, the orange wheel turns
continuously, the dark blue pin then turns the blue cross quarter of a turn for each revolution of the
drive wheel. The crescent shaped cut out in dark orange section lets the points of the cross past, then
locks the wheel in place when it is stationary. The Geneva stop mechanism is used commonly in film
cameras.
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ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL
PISTON ARRANGEMENT
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ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL: This fascinating mechanism converts rotary motion to reciprocating
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motion in two axis. Notice that the handle traces out an ellipse rather than a circle. A similar
mechanism is used in ellipse drawing tools.
PISTON ARRANGEMENT: This mechanism is used to convert between rotary motion and
reciprocating motion, it works either way. Notice how the speed of the piston changes. The piston
starts from one end, and increases its speed. It reaches maximum speed in the middle of its travel
then gradually slows down until it reaches the end of its travel.
RACK AND PINION
RATCHET
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RACK AND PINION: The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and linear motion.
The rack is the flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion can convert from rotary to
linear of from linear to rotary. The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as
the pinion turns. Rack and pinions are commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the
rotary motion of the steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels. Rack and pinion gears
give a positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel in tarmac. In the rack and
pinion railway a central rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on the engine allowing the
train to be pulled up very steep slopes.
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RATCHET: The ratchet can be used to move a toothed wheel one tooth at a time. The part used to
move the ratchet is known as the pawl. The ratchet can be used as a way of gearing down motion. By
its nature motion created by a ratchet is intermittent. By using two pawls simultaneously this
intermittent effect can be almost, but not quite, removed. Ratchets are also used to ensure that motion
only occurs in only one direction, useful for winding gear which must not be allowed to drop.
Ratchets are also used in the freewheel mechanism of a bicycle.
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WORM GEAR
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WATCH ESCAPEMENT.
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WORM GEAR: A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the worm shaft the gear
shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. In this case, with a twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced
by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of rotation is turned by 90 degrees. Unlike ordinary gears, the
motion is not reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to
increase it. As the speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears
are a compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power. Ideal for use
with small electric motors.
WATCH ESCAPEMENT: The watch escapement is the centre of the time piece. It is the
escapement which divides the time into equal segments.The balance wheel, the gold wheel, oscillates
backwards and forwards on a hairspring not shown) as the balance wheel moves the lever is moved
allowing the escape wheel green to rotate by one tooth. The power comes through the escape wheel
which gives a small 'kick' to the palettes (purple at each tick.
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GEARS
CAM FOLLOWER.
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GEARS: Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement. In the example above the blue
gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To turn the orange gear one full turn the
blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r turns. Notice that as the blue gear turns clockwise the orange
gear turns anti-clockwise. In the above example the number of teeth on the orange gear is not
divisible by the number of teeth on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the orange gear had thirty
three teeth then every three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would mesh together which could
cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers the same teeth mesh only every seventeen
turns of the blue gear.
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CAMS: Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created can
be simple and regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the
cam follower traces the surface of the cam transmitting its motion to the required mechanism. Cam
follower design is important in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower
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will more accurately trace the outline of the cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of
the strength of the cam follower.
STEAM ENGINE.
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Steam engines were the backbone of the industrial revolution. In this common design high pressure
steam is pumped alternately into one side of the piston, then the other forcing it back and forth. The
reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to useful rotary motion using a crank.
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As the large wheel the fly wheel turns a small crank or cam is used to move the small red control
valve back and forth controlling where the steam flows. In this animation the oval crank has been
made transparent so that you can see how the control valve crank is attached.
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1.8 Straight line generators, Design of Crank-rocker Mechanisms:
 Straight Line Motion Mechanisms:
The easiest way to generate a straight line motion is by using a sliding pair but in precision machines
sliding pairs are not preferred because of wear and tear. Hence in such cases different methods are
used to generate straight line motion mechanisms:
1. Exact straight line motion mechanism.
a. Peaucellier mechanism, b. Hart mechanism, c. Scott Russell mechanism
2. Approximate straight line motion mechanisms
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a. Watt mechanism, b. Grasshopper’s mechanism, c. Robert’s mechanism,
d. Tchebicheff’s mechanism
 a. Peaucillier mechanism :
The pin Q is constrained to move long the circumference of a circle by means of the link OQ. The
link OQ and the fixed link are equal in length. The pins P and Q are on opposite corners of a four bar
chain
which has all four links QC, CP, PB and BQ of equal length to the fixed pin A. i.e., link AB = link
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AC. The product AQ x AP remain constant as the link OQ rotates may be proved as follows: Join
BC to bisect PQ at F; then, from the right angled triangles AFB, BFP, we have AB=AF+FB and
BP=BF+FP. Subtracting, AB-BP= AF-FP=AF –FPAF+FP = AQ x AP .
Since AB and BP are links of a constant length, the product AQ x AP is constant. Therefore the point
P traces out a straight path normal to AR.
 b. Robert’s mechanism:
This is also a four bar chain. The link PQ and RS are of equal length and the tracing pint ‘O’ is
rigidly attached to the link QR on a line which bisects QR at right angles. The best position for O
may be found by making use of the instantaneous centre of QR. The path of O is clearly
approximately horizontal in the Robert’s mechanism.
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a. Peaucillier mechanism
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UNIT I-B KINEMATICS OF LINKAGE MECHANISMS
2.1 Displacement, velocity and acceleration analysis in simple mechanisms:
Important Concepts in Velocity Analysis
1. The absolute velocity of any point on a mechanism is the velocity of that point with reference
to ground.
2. Relative velocity describes how one point on a mechanism moves relative to another point on
the mechanism.
3. The velocity of a point on a moving link relative to the pivot of the link is given by the
equation: V = r, where = angular velocity of the link and r = distance from pivot.
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Acceleration Components
 Normal Acceleration:An = 2r. Points toward the center of rotation
 Tangential Acceleration:At = r. In a direction perpendicular to the link
 Coriolis Acceleration:Ac = 2dr/dt. In a direction perpendicular to the link
 Sliding Acceleration:As = d2r/dt2. In the direction of sliding.
A rotating link will produce normal and tangential acceleration components at any point a
distance, r, from the rotational pivot of the link. The total acceleration of that point is the vector
sum of the components.
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A slider attached to ground experiences only sliding acceleration.
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A slider attached to a rotating link such that the slider is moving in or out along the link as the
link rotates experiences all 4 components of acceleration. Perhaps the most confusing of these
is the coriolis acceleration, though the concept of coriolis acceleration is fairly simple. Imagine
yourself standing at the center of a merry-go-round as it spins at a constant speed (. You begin
to walk toward the outer edge of the merry-go-round at a constant speed dr/ dt. Even though
you are walking at a constant speed and the merry-go-round is spinning at a constant speed, your
total velocity is increasing because you are moving away from the center of rotation (i.e. the edge
of the merry-go-round is moving faster than the center. This is the coriolis acceleration. In
what direction did your speed increase? This is the direction of the coriolis acceleration.
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The total acceleration of a point is the vector sum of all applicable acceleration components:
A = An + At + Ac + As
These vectors and the above equation can be broken into x and y components by applying sines
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and cosines to the vector diagrams to determine the x and y components of each vector. In this
way, the x and y components of the total acceleration can be found.
2.2 Graphical Method, Velocity and Acceleration polygons :
* Graphical velocity analysis:
It is a very short step using basic trigonometry with sines and cosines to convert the graphical
results into numerical results. The basic steps are these:
1. Set up a velocity reference plane with a point of zero velocity designated.
2. Use the equation, V = r, to calculate any known linkage velocities.
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3. Plot your known linkage velocities on the velocity plot. A linkage that is rotating about
ground gives an absolute velocity. This is a vector that originates at the zero velocity point and
runs perpendicular to the link to show the direction of motion. The vector, VA, gives the velocity
of point A.
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4. Plot all other velocity vector directions. A point on a grounded link such as point B will
produce an absolute velocity vector passing through the zero velocity point and perpendicular to
the link. A point on a floating link such as B relative to point A) will produce a relative velocity
vector. This vector will be perpendicular to the link AB and pass through the reference point A)
on the velocity diagram.
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5. One should be able to form a closed triangle (for a 4-bar that shows the vector equation: VB =
VA + VB/A where VB = absolute velocity of point B, VA = absolute velocity of point A, and VB/A
is the velocity of point B relative to point A.
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2.3 Velocity and Acceleration analysis of mechanisms Graphical Methods:
Velocity and acceleration analysis by vector polygons: Relative velocity and accelerations of
particles in a common link, relative velocity and accelerations of coincident particles on separate
link, Coriolis component of acceleration.
Velocity and acceleration analysis by complex numbers: Analysis of single slider crank
mechanism and four bar mechanism by loop closure equations and complex numbers.
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Velocity Analysis of Four Bar Mechanisms:
Problems solving in Four Bar Mechanisms and additional links.
Velocity Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanisms:
Problems solving in Slider Crank Mechanisms and additional links.
Acceleration Analysis of Four Bar Mechanisms:
Problems solving in Four Bar Mechanisms and additional links.
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Acceleration Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanisms:
Problems solving in Slider Crank Mechanisms and additional links.
Kinematic analysis by Complex Algebra methods:
Analysis of single slider crank mechanism and four bar mechanism by loop closure equations
and complex numbers.
 Vector Approach:
 Relative velocity and accelerations of particles in a common link, relative velocity and
accelerations of coincident particles on separate link
 Computer applications in the kinematic analysis of simple mechanisms:
 Computer programming for simple mechanisms
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2.4 Coincident points, Coriolis Acceleration:
 Coriolis Acceleration:Ac = 2dr/dt. In a direction perpendicular to the link.
A slider attached to ground experiences only sliding acceleration.
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A slider attached to a rotating link such that the slider is moving in or out along the link as the
link rotates experiences all 4 components of acceleration. Perhaps the most confusing of these
is the coriolis acceleration, though the concept of coriolis acceleration is fairly simple. Imagine
yourself standing at the center of a merry-go-round as it spins at a constant speed (. You begin
to walk toward the outer edge of the merry-go-round at a constant speed dr/dt. Even though
you are walking at a constant speed and the merry-go-round is spinning at a constant speed, your
total velocity is increasing because you are moving away from the center of rotation (i.e. the edge
of the merry-go-round is moving faster than the center. This is the coriolis acceleration. In
what direction did your speed increase? This is the direction of the coriolis acceleration.
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2.5 Linkage Synthesis Problem
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UNIT I-C KINEMATICS OF CAMMECHANISMS
3.1INTRODUCTION
Acam is a mechanical device used to transmitmotion to a follower by direct contact. The
driveris called the cam and the driven member is called the follower.In a cam follower pair,the
cam normally rotates while the follower may translate or oscillate.Afamiliar exampleis the cam
shaft of an automobile engine, where the cams drive the push rods thefollowers to open
And close the valves in synchronization withth emotion of the pistons.
 Cams:
Type of cams, Type of followers, Displacement, Velocity and acceleration time curves for cam
profiles, Disc cam with reciprocating follower having knife edge, roller follower, Follower
motions including SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal
motion.
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Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created can be simple
and regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the cam
follower traces the surface of the cam transmitting its motion to the required mechanism. Cam
follower design is important in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower
will more accurately trace the outline of the cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of
the strength of the cam follower.
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3.1.1 Types of cams
Cams can be classified based on their physical shape.
a)DiskorplatecamThedisk orplate camhas anirregularcontourtoimpartaspecificmotion
tothefollower.Thefollowermovesinaplaneperpendiculartotheaxis ofrotationofthe camshaftandis
heldincontactwiththecambysprings orgravity.
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Fig.3.1Plateordiskcam.
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bCy lindricalcam:Thecylindricalcamhas agroovecutalongits cylindrical surface.The
rollerfollows thegroove,andthefollowermovesinaplaneparalleltotheaxis ofrotationofthe cylinder.
Fig.3.2Cylindricalcam.
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c Translatingcam.Thetranslatingcamis acontouredorgroovedplateslidingonaguiding
surface s .Thefollowermayoscillate F ig.3.3aor reciprocateF ig.3.3b .Thecontourorthe
shapeofthegrooveis determinedbythespecifiedmotionofthefollower.
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Fig.3.3translatingcam
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Types offollowers Fig3.4 :
i Basedonsurfaceincontact.
a Knifeedgefollower
b Rollerfollower
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Fig3.4
ii Basedontypeofmotion Fig3.5 :
aO scillatingfollower
b Translatingfollower
Fig:3.5
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BasedonlineofmotionF ig3.6 :
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a Radialfollower:Thelines ofmovementofin-linecamfollowers pass throughthecenters of
thecamshafts
b Off-setfollower:Forthis type,thelines ofmovementareoffsetfromthecenters ofthe
camshafts
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Fig
3.6
Cam
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nomenclature Fig.3.7 :
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CamProfileThecontouroftheworkingsurfaceofthecam.
Tracer PointThepointattheknifeedgeofafollower, orthecenterofa roller, orthecenterofa
sphericalface.
PitchCurveThepathofthetracerpoint.
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BaseCircleThesmallestcircledrawn,tangentialtothecamprofile, withits centerontheaxis of
thecamshaft.Thesizeofthebasecircledetermines thesizeof
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thecam.
PrimeCircleThesmallestcircledrawn,tangentialtothepitchcurve, withits centeron theaxis
ofthecamshaft.
PressureAngleTheanglebetweenthenormaltothepitchcurveandthedirectionof
motionofthefolloweratthepointofcontact
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3.2 Types offollowermotion:
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Cam follower systems are designed to achieve a desired oscillatory motion.Appropriate
displacement patterns are to beselected forthis purpose, before designing the cam surface.The
cam is assumed to rotate at a constant speed and the follower raises,dwells, returns to it soriginal
position and dwells again through specified angles of rotation of the cam,during each revolution
of the cam.Some of the standard follower motions are as follows:
Theyare,follower motion with,
aUn iformvelocity
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b Modifieduniformvelocity
cUn iformaccelerationanddeceleration
d)Simpleharmonicmotion
e Cycloidalmotion
3.3 Displacementdiagrams:
In a cam follower system,the motion of the follower is very important. Its displacement can
be plotted against the angular displacement θ of the cam and it is called as the displacement
diagram.The displacement of the follower is plotted along they-axis and angular displacement θ of
the cam is plotted along x-axis.From the displacement diagram, velocity y and acceleration of the
follower can also be plotted for different angular displacements θ of the cam.The
displacement,velocity and acceleration diagrams are plotted forone cycle of operationi.e., one
rotation of the cam. Displacement diagrams are basic requirements for the construction of cam
profiles.Construction of displacement diagrams and calculation of velocities and accelerations of
followers with different types of motions are discussed in the following sections.
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a)FollowermotionwithUniformvelocity:
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velocity type of motion.Since the follower moves with constant velocity,during riseand fall,the
displacement varies linearly with θ.Also,since the velocity changes from zero to a finite value,
with in no time, theoretically,the acceleration be comes in finite at the beginning and end of rise
and fall.
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Fig
3.8
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Follower motion with modified uniform velocity:
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Itis observedin thedisplacement diagrams ofthefollower with uniform velocity that the
acceleration nof the follower becomes in finit eat the beginning and ending of rise and return
strokes. Inorder to prevent this,the displacement diagrams are slightly modified.In the modified
form,thevelocity of the follower changes uniformly during the beginning and end of each
stroke. Accordingly,the displacemen to the follower varies parabolically during the seperiods.
With this modification, the acceleration becomes constant during the seperiods, instead of being
infinite a sin the uniform velocity type of motion.The displacement, velocity and acceleration
patterns shownin fig
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c
Follower
motion
with
uniform
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b SimpleHarmonicMotion:In fig3.11, the motion executed by point Pl, whichis the
projection of point P on the vertical diameter is called simple harmonicmotion. Here, P moves
With uniform angular velocity ωp, along a circle of radius r r=s/2 .
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Fig3.11
c Cycloidalmotion:
Cycloid is the path generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, as the circle rolls
without slipping, on a straight/flat surface.The motion executed by the follower here, is similar
to that of the projection of a point moving along a cyloidal curve on a vertical lineas shown in
figure6.12.
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3.4 Drawthecamprofileforfollowingconditions:
Followertype=Knifeedged,in-line;lift=50mm;basecircle radius =50mm;outstrokewith SHM,for600
camrotation;dwellfor450camrotation;returnstrokewithSHM,for90ocam
rotation;dwellforthe
remainingperiod.
2)Draw the cam profile for the same operating condition so f with the follower offset by 10mm
to the left of cam center.
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Camprofile:
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Camprofilewith10mmoffset:
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1D rawthecamprofileforfollowingconditions:
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Follower type=roller follower, in-line; lift=25mm; base circle radius=20mm;roller radius=
5mm;out stroke with Uniform acceleration and retardation,for120 0cam rotation;dwellfor600
camrotation;return stroke withUniform acceleration and retardation,for90 0 camrotation; dwell for
the remaining period.
4)Draw the cam profile for conditions same with follower off set to right
of cam center by 5mm and cam rotating counter clockwise.
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DisplacementDiagram:
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Cam profile;
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Camprofilewith5mmoffset
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2D rawthecamprofileforfollowingconditions:
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Follower type=knife edge d follower, in line; lift=30mm;base circle radius =20mm;outstroke with
uniform velocity in1200of cam rotation;dwell for 600; return stroke with uniform velocity,
during900ofcam rotation;dwell for the remaining period.
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DisplacementDiagram
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3D rawthecamprofileforfollowingconditions:
Followertype=flatfacedfollower,inline;followerrisesby20mmwithSHMin120 0of cam
rotation,dwellsfor300 ofcamrotation;returnswithSHMin1200 ofcamrotationanddwells duringthe
remainingperiod.Basecircle radius =25mm.
DisplacementDiagram:
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Cam profile
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3.5 Layout of plate cam profiles:
 Drawing the displacement diagrams for the different kinds of the motions and the plate cam
profiles for these different motions and different followers.
 SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal motions
 Knife-edge, Roller, Flat-faced and Mushroom followers.
3.6Derivatives of Follower motion:
 Velocity and acceleration of the followers for various types of motions.
 Calculation of Velocity and acceleration of the followers for various types of motions.
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3.7Circular arc and Tangent cams:
 Circular arc
 Tangent cam
Standard cam motion:
 Simple Harmonic Motion
 Uniform velocity motion
 Uniform acceleration and retardation motion
 Cycloidal motion
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3.8Pressure angle and undercutting:
 Pressure angle
 Undercutting
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UNIT II GEARS AND TRAINS
4.1 Introduction
Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement.
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In the example above the blue gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To turn the
orange gear one full turn the blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r turns. Notice that as the blue gear
turns clockwise the orange gear turns anti-clockwise. In the above example the number of teeth on
the orange gear is not divisible by the number of teeth on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the
orange gear had thirty three teeth then every three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would mesh
together which could cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers the same teeth mesh
only every seventeen turns of the blue gear.
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A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth,or cogs,which mesh with
another toothed part in order to transmit torque.Two or more gears working intandemare
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called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through agearratio and
thus may be considered a simple machine.Geared devices can change the speed,
magnitude,and direction of a powersource.The most common situation is for a gear to
mesh with another gear,however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called
a rack, there by producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley.Anadvantage of
gears is that theteeth of a gear prevent slipping.
When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is
produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in
asimple relationship.
In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles and cars, the term
gear, as infirstgear, refers to agear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The
term is used to describe similar devices even when gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or
when the device does not actually on tain any gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.
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4.1.1 Fundamental LawofGear-Tooth
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Pitch point divides the line between the line of
centers and its positiond ecides the velocity ratio of
the two teeth.The above expression is the
fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
Formation of teeth:
Involute teeth
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Cycloidal teeth
Involute curve:
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The curve most commonly use d for gear-tooth
profiles is the involute of a circle. This involute curve
is the path traced by a pointonalineas the line
Rolls without slipping on the circumference of a circle. It may also be defined asapathtraced by
the end of a string, which is originally wrapped on a circle when the string is un wrapped from the
circle.The circle from which the involute is derived is called the base circle
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CycloidalCurve
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Pathofcontact:
Consider a pinion driving wheel as shown in figure. When the pinion rotates in
clockwise, the contact between a pair of involute teeth begin sat K on the near the base circle of
pinionortheouterendofthetoothfaceonthewheel andendsatL outerendofthetoothface on the pinion
or on the flank near the base circle of wheel .
MN is the common normal at the point of contacts and the common tangent to the base
circles.The point K is the intersection of the addendum circle of wheel and the common tangent.
The point L is the intersection of the addendum circle of pinion and common tangent.
The lengthof path of contact is the length of common normal cut-offbytheaddendum circlesof
thewheelandthepinion.Thusthelengthof partof contactisKLwhichisthesumof thepartsof pathof
contactsKPandPL.ContactlengthKPiscalledaspathofapproachand
contactlength
PLis
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Arcofcontact:Arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning
to the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. In Figure, the arc of contact is EPF or GPH.
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The arc GP is known a sarcofapproachand the arc PH is called arc of recess.The angles
subtended by the searcs at O1arecalled angle of approach and angle of recessrespectively.
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Contact Ratio or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact
The
contactratioor
the
number
of
pairs
ofteethincontactis
ned as the ratio of the length of the arc of contact to the circular pitch.
defi
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Continuous motion transfer requires two pairs of teeth in contact at the ends of the
path of contact, though the reisonly one pairincontact in the middle of the path,as in Figure. The
average number of teeth in contact is an important parameter-If itis tool owdue the use of
inappropriate profile shift sortoan excessive centredistance.Them anufacturinginaccuracies
mayleadtolossof kinematiccontinuity-thatistoimpact,vibrationandnoiseTheaverage numberof
teethincontactisalsoaguidetoloadsharingbetweenteeth;itistermedthecontact ratio
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The tooth tip of the pinion will then undercut the toot h on the wheel at the
rootanddamages partoftheinvoluteprofile.Thiseffectis knownas
interference,andoccurs when theteetharebeingcutandweakens thetoothatits root.
Ingeneral,thephenomenon,whenthetipoftoothundercuts
the
rootonitsmatinggearis
knownasinterference.Similarly,if theradiusof theaddendum circlesof thewheelincreases
beyondO2M,thenthetipoftoothonwheelwillcauseinterferencewiththetoothonpinion.The points M
andNarecalledinterferencepoints.
Interference may be avoided if the path of
interferencepoints.Thelimitingvalueoftheradius
andofthewheelis O2M.
the contact does not extend beyond
oftheaddendumcircleofthepinionisO1N
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Theinterferencemayonlybeprevented,ifthepointof contactbetweenthetwoteethis alwayson
theinvoluteprofilesandiftheaddendum
circlesofthetwomatinggearscutthe
commontangenttothebasecircles atthepoints oftangency.
MethodstoavoidInterference
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1.Heightoftheteethmaybe reduced.
2.undercutofthe radialflankofthepinion.
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3.Centredistancemaybeincreased.Itleads toincreaseinpressureangle.
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tooththickness ofgear willbegreaterthanthepiniontooththickness.
Minimumnumbers ofteethonthepinionavoidInterference
Thepinionturns clockwiseanddrives thegearas showninFigure.
remainunchanged,but
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interferencewilloccur.
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Thelimitingvalueofaddendumcircleradiusof pinionisO1Nandthelimitingvalueof addendum
circleradiusofgearisO2M.Consideringthecriticaladdendum
circleradiusofgear,
thelimitingnumberofteethongearcanbecalculated.
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equation gives minimum number of teeth required on the pinion to avoid interference.
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If the number of teethonpinionandgearissame:G=1
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Addendum:The radialdistancebetweenthePitchCircleandthetopoftheteeth.
Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the beginning and the end ofthe
engagementofagivenpairofteeth.
ArcofApproach:Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between thefirstpointofcontactofthegear
teethandthePitchPoint.
ArcofRecession:ThatarcofthePitchCirclebetweenthePitchPointandthelastpointof
contactofthegearteeth.
Backlash:Playbetweenmatingteeth.
BaseCircle:Thecirclefromwhichisgeneratedtheinvolutecurveuponwhichthetoothprofile isbased.
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CenterDistance:Thedistancebetweencenters oftwogears.
ChordalAddendum:Thedistancebetweenachord,passingthroughthepointswherethe Pitch
Circlecrosses thetoothprofile, andthetoothtop.
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ChordalThickness:Thethicknessofthetoothmeasuredalongachordpassingthroughthe points
wherethePitchCirclecrosses thetoothprofile.
CircularPitch:MillimeterofPitchCirclecircumferencepertooth
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Clearance:Thedistancebetweenthetopofatooth andthebottomofthespaceintowhichitfits
onthemeshinggear.
ContactRatio:The ratioofthelengthoftheArcofActiontotheCircularPitch.
Dedendum:The radialdistancebetweenthebottomofthetoothtopitchcircle.
DiametralPitch:Teethpermmofdiameter.
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Face:Theworkingsurfaceofageartooth,locatedbetweenthepitchdiameterandthetopofthe tooth.
FaceWidth:Thewidthofthetoothmeasuredparalleltothegearaxis.
Flank:Theworkingsurfaceofageartooth,locatedbetweenthepitchdiameterandthebottom oftheteeth
Gear: Thelargeroftwomeshedgears.Ifbothgearsarethesamesize,theyarebothcalled
"gears".
Land:Thetopsurfaceofthetooth.
LineofAction:Thatlinealongwhichthepointofcontactbetweengearteethtravels,between
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thefirstpointofcontactandthelast.
Module:MillimeterofPitchDiametertoTeeth.
Pinion:Thesmalleroftwomeshedgears.
PitchCircle:Thecircle,theradiusof whichisequaltothedistancefromthecenterofthegear
tothepitchpoint.
Diametralpitch:Teethpermillimeterofpitchdiameter.
PitchPoint:Thepointoftangencyofthepitchcirclesoftwomeshinggears,wheretheLineof
Centers crosses thepitchcircles.
PressureAngle:AnglebetweentheLineofActionandalineperpendiculartotheLineof
Centers.
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Profile Shift:AnincreaseintheOuterDiameterandRootDiameterofagear,introduced
tolowerthepracticaltoothnumberor acheiveanon-standardCenterDistance.
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Ratio:Ratioofthenumbers ofteethonmatinggears.
RootCircle:Thecirclethatpasses throughthebottomofthetoothspaces.
RootDiameter:ThediameteroftheRootCircle.
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WorkingDepth:Thedepthtowhichatoothextendsintothespacebetweenteethonthemating gear.
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4.3 Worm, Rack and Pinion Gears
RACK AND PINION
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RACK AND PINION: The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and linear motion.
The rack is the flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion can convert from rotary to
linear of from linear to rotary. The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as
the pinion turns. Rack and pinions are commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the
rotary motion of the steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels. Rack and pinion gears
give a positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel in tarmac. In the rack and
pinion railway a central rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on the engine allowing the
train to be pulled up very steep slopes.
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WORM GEAR: A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the worm shaft the gear
shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. In this case, with a twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced
by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of rotation is turned by 90 degrees. Unlike ordinary gears, the
motion is not reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to
increase it. As the speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears
are a compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power. Ideal for use
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4.4 Parallel axis gear trains:
 Simple Gear Trains – A simple gear train is a collection of meshing gears where each gear is
on its own axis. The train ratio for a simple gear train is the ratio of the number of teeth on
the input gear to the number of teeth on the output gear. A simple gear train will typically
have 2 or 3 gears and a gear ratio of 10:1 or less. If the train has 3 gears, the intermediate
gear has no numerical effect on the train ratio except to change the direction of the output
gear.
 Compound Gear Trains – A compound gear train is a train where at least one shaft carries
more than one gear. The train ratio is given by the ratio m V = product of number of teeth on
driver gears/product of number of teeth on driven gears. A common approach to the design
of compound gear trains is to first determine the number of gear reduction steps needed each
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
step is typically smaller than 10:1 for size purposes. Once this is done, determine the
desired ratio for each step, select a pinion size, and then calculate the gear size.
Reverted Gear Trains – A reverted gear train is a special case of a compound gear train. A
reverted gear train has the input and output shafts in –line with one another. Assuming no
idler gears are used, a reverted gear train can be realized only if the number of teeth on the
input side of the train adds up to the same as the number of teeth on the output side of the
train.
4.5 Epicyclic gear trains:
 If the axis of the shafts over which the gears are mounted are moving relative to a fixed axis ,
the gear train is called the epicyclic gear train.
 Problems in epicyclic gear trains.
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Differentials:
 Used in the rear axle of an automobile.
 To enable the rear wheels to revolve at different speeds when negotiating a curve.
 To enable the rear wheels to revolve at the same speeds when going straight.
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Problem:1
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UNIT III FRICTIONIN THE MACHINE ELEMENTS
5.1 Surface contacts:



Basic laws of friction
Pivot and collar, introduction and types.
Problem on flat pivot, Problems on conical pivot.
Friction
Frictionisa measureofhow harditistoslide one objectoveranother. Take alook at thefigure
below.Bothof theblocksaremadefromthesame material,butone is heavier.Ithink we
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allknow which onewillbeharder forthe bulldozer to push.
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Friction forceversus weight
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To understand whythis is, let's takea close look at one ofthe blocks and thetable:
Because
frictionexistsatthemicroscopic
level,
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amount
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.ne
t
of
forceittakestomoveagivenblockis proportionaltothat block'sweight.
Eventhoughtheblockslooksmoothtothenakedeye,they
areactuallyquiteroughat
themicroscopiclevel.Whenyousettheblockdownonthetable,thelittle
peaksand
valleysgetsquishedtogether,andsomeofthemmayactuallyweldtogether.Theweightof
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heavier block causes ittosquishtogether more,soitisevenharder to slide.
Differentmaterialshavedifferentmicroscopic structures;forinstance,itisharder to slide
rubber
againstrubber
than
itistoslidesteelagainststeel.The
typeof
material
determinesthecoefficient offriction,the ratioof the force requiredtoslide the block
totheblock'sweight.Ifthecoefficientwere1.0inourexample,thenitwouldtake
100poundsof force toslide the 100-pound(45 kg block, or 400pounds180 k g of
forcetoslidethe400-poundblock.Ifthecoefficientwere0.1,thenitwouldtake 10 pounds of
forceto slideto the100-pound blockor40 pounds offorceto slide the400- pound block.
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Sothe amountof force ittakestomove agivenblock isproportionaltothatblock's weight.The
more
weight,themore
force
required.Thisconceptappliesfor
likebrakesandclutches,whereapadispressedagainstaspinning
devices
disc.Themore
forcethat
presses on thepad, thegreaterthe stoppingforce
5.1.1Types orfriction:
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1. Staticfriction:Itis experiencedbyabody,whenatrest.
2. Dynamicfriction:It is friction experienced by a body when in motion.
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a. Sliding friction:It is friction experienced by a body when it slide so veran other
body.
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b. Rolling friction:It is frictionexperiencedbetweenthesurfaceswhichtheballsor
rollersinterposedbetweenthem.
c. Pivot friction:Itis thefrictionexperiencedbyabodyduetomotionofrotation.
Further classified
net
1.Frictionbetweenunlubricatedsurfaces
2.Frictionbetweenlubricatedsurfaces.
Laws ofdryorsolidfriction:
Theforceoffrictiondirectlyproportionaltothenormalloadbetweenthesurfaces.
Theforceoffrictionisindependentoftheareaofthecontactsurfaceforagivennormal load.
Theforceoffrictiondepends uponmaterialwhichthecontactsurfaces ormade.
Theforceoffrictionisindependentofthevelocityofslidingofonebodyrelativetoother
body.
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Coefficientoffrictionµ :
Itis as the ratiothelimitingfriction Fto thenormalreaction R N betweenthetwobodies.
µ=F/RN
Angleoffriction:
It may be defined as the angle which the resultant reaction R makes with
normal reactions
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tan =F/RN
5.2Friction drives:
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5.3 Friction in screw threads:

Friction in screw and nut

Friction in screw jack

Problems in screw jack
net
5.3.1Screwjack:
The screw jack is adevice lift ingloads.Forlift in gheavy loads by applying a
comparatively smaller effortatits handle.The principle on which as crewjack works in a
smallert ot hatofaninclinedplane.
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1. Torquerequiredliftingtheloadbyascrewjack
Let
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p=pitchofthescrew
d=meandiameterofthescrew
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P=effortappliedatthecircumferenceofthescrewtolifttheload
W=loadtobelifted
µ=coefficientofthefriction
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tanα=p/Πd
Torquerequiredovercomingfrictionbetweenthescrewandnut
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Thetorquerequiredtoovercomefrictionatthecollar
TotalTorque requiredovercomingfriction
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IfanP1isappliedattheendofaleverofarml,thenthetotaltorquerequiredtoovercome
frictionmustbeequaltothetorqueappliedattheendofthelever
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.Torquerequiredlowertheloadbyascrewjack
Let
p=pitchofthescrew
d=meandiameterofthescrew
α=helixangle
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P=effortappliedatthecircumferenceofthescrewtolifttheload
W=loadtobelifted
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µ=coefficientofthefriction
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Torque requiredovercomingfrictionbetweenthescrewandnut
Efficiencyofthescrewjack:
Thee fficiency of the screwjack may b defined as the ratio be tweentheideal efforts to
actualeffort.
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Selflockingandoverhaulingofscrews
Torque requiredtolowertheload
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In the above expressions,if <α,then the torque required to lower the loadwill
be negative,the load will start movingdown ward without application offorce,such
acondit ion is known as overhaulin gofscrew.
If >α,then the torquerequiredtolowertheloadwillbepositive,indicatingthatan
efforts appliedlowertheload,suchaconditionis knownas self lockingofscrew
5.4 Clutch
For other uses, seeClutch
disambiguation .
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Clutchforadriveshaft:The clutchdisc c enter spins with the flywheel (left . To
disengage, the lever is pulled (black arrow ,causingawhite pressureplate right to
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disengagethegreenclutch disc from turningthedriveshaft, which turnswithin the
thrust-bearingringof thelever. Never will all 3 rings connect, with nogaps.
A clutchis a mechanicaldevice, byconvention understood to be rotating,which
provides driving force to another mechanismwhenrequired, typicallybyconnecting
net
the driven mechanismto thedrivingmechanism.Clutches andbrakesaresimilar; if the
driven memberof aclutch is fixed to themechanismframe, it serves asabrake.
Clutches areuseful in devices that havetworotatingshafts.In thesedevices, oneshaft
is typicallyattached to amotoror other power unit (thedrivingmember ,and the
othershaft (thedriven member p rovides output power for work to be
done.Inadrill,forinstance, oneshaft isdriven byamotor, and theotherdrivesadrill
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chuck. The clutch connects thetwo shafts so that theycaneither belocked
togetherandspin at the same speed(engaged, orbed ecoupled and spin at different
speeds (disengaged .
Multiple plate clutch
This typeofclutch has several drivingmembers interleavedwith several driven
members.It is used in racecars includingF1,Indycar, World rallyandeven most
club racing, motorcycles,automatictransmissionsand in some diesel locomotives
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with mechanical transmissions.It is also used in some electronicallycontrolled
all- wheel drivesystems.
Vehicular
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There aredifferent designs of vehicle clutch, butmostarebased on oneormore
frictiondiscs, pressed tightlytogether or againstaflywheelusingsprings.The friction
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material varies incomposition dependingon whether the clutch is dryor wet, and on
other considerations. Friction discs once containedasbestos, but this has been largely
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eliminated. Clutches found in heavydutyapplications such as trucks andcompetition
cars useceramic clutchesthat haveagreatlyincreased friction coefficient.However,
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thesehavea"grabby" action and areunsuitableforroad cars. Thespringpressureis
released when theclutchpedal is depressed thus either pushingor pullingthe
diaphragm of the pressureplate, dependingon type. However, raisingtheengine speed
too
highwhile
engagingtheclutch
willcause
excessive
clutch
platewear.
Engagingtheclutch abruptlywhen theengine is turningat high speed causes aharsh,
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jerkystart. This kind ofstart is necessaryand desirable indrag racingandother
competitions, wherespeed is moreimportant than comfort.
5.4.1 Friction clutches:
CLUTCHFRICTION
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Single plate clutches andMulti-plate clutche
Uniform wear theory andUniform
pressuretheory Problems in clutches
5.5 BELT
Thebeltorropesareusedtotransmitpowerfromoneshafttoanothershaftby means ofpulleys
whichrotateatthesamespeedoratdifferentspeed.
Types ofbeltdrives.
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1. Light drives:belt speed upto10m/s
2. Medium drives: speed 10m/s to22m/s
3. Heavy drives :Speed ove r22m/s
5.5.1Types ofbelt
1.Flat belt
2.V- belt
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Typeofflatbeltdrives
Openbeltdriv
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e Cross
beltdrive
Quarterturnb
eltdrive
Beltdrivewithidlerpulley
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Belt andropedrives:
BELT
DRIV
ES
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V Belt Drives
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BRAKES
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