Principles of Effective Writing (Properties of Well-written Texts)
NOTES | CORENG 2 | 2nd Sem
Paragraph
 Series of sentences that are
organized, coherent and are
all related to a single topic
 To be effective
- Consider properties of a
well-written text
 Organization
 Coherence and
Cohesion
 Unity
 Language use
 Mechanics
 First line = indented
- Indicates where the
paragraph begins
Parts of Paragraph
 Introduction
- First section
- Include
 Topic sentence
 Any other sentence
that give background
info or provide
transition
 Body
- Follows the introduction
- Discusses controlling idea
 Using facts,
arguments, analysis,
examples
 Conclusion
- Final section
- Summarizes connections
between the info
discussed in the body of
the paragraphs and the
paragraph’s controlling
idea
Types of Sentence in a
Paragraph
 Topic sentence
- States the main topic and
controlling idea
-


State the main point of the
paragraph
 Clearly and accurately
- Not too general or too
specific
Supporting sentences
- Develop the topic
sentence
- Supporting details
 Drawn from a variety of
sources
 Based on research,
experience, writer’s
own analysis
- Using combination of
different supports
 Most common and
effective way to
strengthen paragraph
Concluding Sentence
- Signals end of the
paragraph
- Leaves the reader with
important points to
remember
ORGANIZATION
 Arrangement
 When ideas are logically and
accurately arranged
- Focus on
 Arrangement of ideas,
incidents, evidence,
details in definite order
 Done with a recognizable plan
- Defines one sentence
connection to the other
sentence
 Paragraph arrangements
1. Chronological order
- First, second, later
2. Order of importance
- Less, more primary, next
3. Spatial order
- Above, below, beside
4. Definition order
- Is, refers to, can be
defined as
5. Classification
- Comprises, several
6. Process
- First, next, then
7. Cause and effect
- Because, for,
consequently
8. Comparison and contrast
- Both, also, unlike, in
contrast
9. Listing
- The following, several,
also
10. Clarification
- In fact, in other words
11. Summary
- In summary, in conclusion,
in brief, to summarize
12. Example
- For example, for instance,
to illustrate
13. Addition
- Furthermore, additionally,
besides
COHERENCE
 When ideas are connected at
the conceptual level
 Overall sense of unity in a
passage
- Including both the main
point of sentences and
each paragraph
 Focuses the reader’s attention
on main ideas, specific
people, things, events
COHESION
 Connection of ideas at the
sentence level
 Immediately effects the tone of
writing
 Grammatically correct
sentences



Connection of ideas at
sentence and paragraph level
Allows writers to make
multiple references to people,
things, and events
- Without reintroducing them
Techniques to improve
cohesion
1. Transitions
- Use a conjunction or
conjunctive adverb to link
sentences with particular
logical relationships
- To specify sequence
 Again, also, and,
besides
- To specify time
 After a few days,
afterward
- To specify comparison
 Again, also, likewise
- To specify contrast
 Although, despite,
however
- To specify examples
 After all, indeed, in fact
- To specify cause and
effect
 Accordingly, because,
thereupon
To specify place
 Above, adjacent to,
beyond
- To specify concession
 Although it is true that,
granted that
- To specify summary,
repetition, conclusion
 As a result, as
mentioned earlier
2. Repetition
- In sentence B, repeat a
word from sentence A
3. Synonymy
- If direct repetition is too
obvious
- Use a synonym of a word
you wish to repeat
- Elegant variation
4. Antonymy
- Use an antonym
 Share more elements
of meaning
5. Pro-forms
- Pronoun, pro-verb, proform
 Make explicit reference
back to a form
mentioned earlier
6. Collocation
- Commonly paired or
expected or highly
probable word to connect
one sentence to another
7. Enumeration
- Use overt markers of
sequence to highlight
connection
- Link ideas that are
otherwise unconnected
- Looks formal and
distinctive
- Promotes a second
method of sentence
cohesion
8. Parallelism
- Repeat a sentence
structure
- Oldest, most overlooked
- Most elegant method of
creating cohesion
UNITY
 When a composition contains
one focused idea
 All supporting ideas are
relevant to the main thought
 Arrangement
- Topic sentence/thesis
statement/lead
- Supporting sentences
- Cohesive device
- Conclusion
LANGUAGE USE




Clearest indicators of a well
written text
Enables writers to effectively
communicate ideas without
confusion
Levels in Language Use
1. Informal/personal
- Slang, local expressions,
text messaging
- Yow, bes, dude
2. Standard/academic
- Widely accepted words
and phrases found in
books, magazines, and
newspapers
- “I missed last night’s class
and will email my paper
later.”
3. Business/technical
- Scientific terms, jargons,
and special expressions
- “Dissociative rage order is
not indicated by the ER
assessment.”
Principles in Language
Use/Diction
- Use clear and concise
sentences
 Usually about 18
words long
- Avoid redundancies,
cliches, wordiness, and
highfalutin
 Cliches = time will tell,
in a jiffy
 Highfalutin =
hackslaver, Hedleymedly
- Avoid excessive use of
“there” and “it”
- Use precise vocabulary
and be accurate
- Be consistent on pronoun
POV
- Avoid sexist language
- Appropriate level of
formality
MECHANICS
 Focuses on the technicalities
of the structure
 Determines errors on
- Subject-verb agreement
- Prepositions
- Tenses
- Grammar
- Spelling
- Capitalization
- Abbreviation and acronym
- Numbers
- Punctuation marks
- Grammar
 Punctuation marks
- PERIOD (.)
- EXCLAMATION POINT (!)
- QUESTION MARK (?)
- QUOTATION MARKS (“ “)
 Indicate direct
quotations
- APOSTROPHE (‘)
 Show possession
 Show missing letters
and number (you’re,
’95)
 Show plurals of letters
- COLON (:)
 After independent
clauses to introduce
elements
 Separate items in
numerals, ratios, title
and subtitles, time and
scripture references
- PARENTHESES ()
 Set off nonessential
details and
explanations
 To enclose letters and
numbers used when
listing items
 First-time use of
acronym
- BRACKETS []
 Set off clarifications
inserted in quotations
- HYPHEN (-)
-

DASH (--)
 Show sudden break of
thought
- SLASH (/)
- SEMICOLON (;)
 Join independent
clauses
- ELLIPSIS (…)
 Indicate words that
have been deleted
from quoted material
General principles
- Always use standard
English
- Avoid contraction
- Avoid exclamation marks
unless part of a quotation
- Mention full name in first
mention. Thereafter, use
abbreviations
- Numbers zero to ten vs 11
- Citations are used in
academic and formal texts
but sparingly used in
business texts
PROOFREADING
 Trying to find a mistake and
correcting it with focus on
mechanics
 End marks
 Commas
 Abbreviations and titles
 Quotation marks
 Capitalization
 Verb tense
 Subject-verb agreement
 Possessiveness
 Plurals
CLAIMS
 Statement that is not
considered accepted by all
 May be unverified or
controversial to a certain
degree
 Usually related to one side of
the issue



Called a position
Argumentative and specific
Types
1. Claim of Fact
- Can be easily verified
- Not dependent on a
person’s preference
- Asserts that a condition
has existed, is existing, or
will exist
 Based on facts or data
- Statement of fact
 Facts that are
universally accepted
- Often qualified by terms
such as generally,
probably, or as a rule
- “Earth is warming rapidly”
- “Probably, aliens exist”
2. Claim of Value
- Involves judgments and
evaluations
- Judges whether something
is good/bad
- Judge the worth of
something
- Prove that some things are
more or less desirable
than others
- Simply expressions of
taste, preferences,
prejudices
- Establish standards of
evaluation
- “Cheating is not good”
- “No ID rule is a good idea”
3. Claim of Policy
- Advocates a specific
course of action
- Asserts specific policies
should be instituted as
solutions to problems
- Argue that certain
conditions should exist
- Should, ought to, must
- “The mayor should
suspend the classes
today.”
CONTEXT OF TEXT
DEVELOPMENT
 Intertext
- Shaping of the text
meaning
 By referencing or
calling to mind other
texts as it aims to add
meaning to current text
- Readers get to understand
the piece through
 Parallel plot
 Characters
 Premise
 Wealth of prior
knowledge
 experience and
research
- Types of Intertextuality
1. Quotation
 Actual insertion of a
text within another
2. Travesty
 Practice of imitation of
an original text
a. Pastiche
 Rewriting of some
noble text as a new
text that retains the
fundamental content
but presents it in
another style to
debase it
b. Parody
 Retaining the stylistic
properties of the
original text while
diverting its subject
3. Copy
 A performance that
aims at being closest
possible imitation of a
pre-existent, usually
recorder performance
4. Translation
 Creation of a new text
from a text of different
language
5.

6.


Reply
Answer to original text
Instrumental cover
Instrumental rendering
of a previously
recorded song
 Main vocal line is
replaced by an
instrumental melodic
line
7. Instrumental remix
 Remix of the original
song from which the
leading voice has been
removed
Hypertext
- External links embedded in
a text by the writer
 Enables the reader to
arrive at the intended
interpretation of the
author
- Online medium
 Embedded links
- Print media
 Commentaries or
footnotes