Basic Features of Clinical
Assessment
Range of assessment options
Goal of assessment:
- Diagnosis - (advantages/disadvantages) - not necesseraly - we have different
sources to fain information
- Description
- Treatment planning
- Prediction (if someone is in danger / suicidle thoughts)
Clinical Judgment and Decision making
Psychometric Properties of Assessment Instruments
Assessment choices
A Clinical Case
Dr. T was asked to take the case of Jessie.
A 17-year-old male whose school counselor had become
concerned that Jessie was showing signs of depression and
rebellion.
In addition to missing school because of alleged illnesses
(his counselor does not believe him).
Jessie has frequently been aggressive with some of his
teachers.
Jessie’s parents drove him to the appointment, but they
declined to meet with the therapist, saying only that they
wanted to know what was wrong with their son and that
they wanted him to get whatever treatment the insurance
would cover.
In the intake interview, Jessie expressed a strong
dislike of school
, saying it was a waste of time.
He said that no one understands him there, and
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
1
most of his classmates only ignore him or make
fun of him.
In school, he was mostly
silent and did not speak
with classmates.
Outside of school, he spent most of his time with a
20-year-old friend who worked as a dishwasher at
a local diner.
Last week, the two young men had been caught in
possession of alcohol. He admitted that he had been
depressed and that for at least the last 3 weeks had “
no
interest in anything.”
He said that during this time he had slept for longer
periods, sometimes as much as 14 to 16 hours per day.
He also claimed to have had “some pretty
bizarre thoughts
about leaving this life and living in another dimension.”
Jesse admitted to beliefs that he was not meant for this
world, that he was being told (he could not or would not
say by whom)
that he might be better off dead. He also
informed the therapist that his parents were in the process
of getting a divorce.
How can the therapist best understand Jessy’s problem?
Which of the problems are the most pressing?
What diagnosis most accurately describes those
problems?
Is Jessie suicidal or dangerous to others?
What role do the parents play in his difficulties?
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
2
How can an effective treatment be designed?
In order to answer these questions, the psychologist
must conduct an assessment.
Where we start? WHat is the plan?
Not just data collection about background,
attitudes, behaviors ….
Clinical psychologists collect and process
assessment information that is more formal and
systematic
Assessment is required in order to: (system + purpose)
 define a client’s problems
 plan treatments
 measure treatment effectiveness
 conduct other kinds of research
Receiving and Clarifying the Referral
Question
2 important questions:
What do we want to know?
who requested the assessment and for what purpose?
How best can we find out about it?
What do we want to know?
Referral source ⇒ the person/agency requesting
the psychological assessment
Referral question  the question/issue to be
addressed
 Very important! It influences clinician’s choice of
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
3
assessment instruments and the interpretation and
communication of results
Referral question is first step in shaping the ultimate
goal of assessment
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
4
Planning Data Collection Procedure
How best can we find out what we need to know?
Goal is clear  planning methods to collect data
1. Identifying data
 name, sex, occupation, income (of self or family), marital status,
address, date and place of birth, religion, education, cultural
identity.
2. Reason for coming to the agency, expectations for
service.
3. Present and recent situation, including place, principal
settings, daily round of activities, number and kind of life
changes over several months, impending changes.
4. Family constellation (family of origin), including
descriptions of parents, siblings, other significant family
figures, and respondent’s role growing up.
5. Early recollections, descriptions of earliest clear
happenings and the situation surrounding them.
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
5
6. Birth and development, including age of walking and
talking, problems compared with other children, view of
effects of early experiences.
7. Health and physical condition, including childhood and
later diseases and injuries; current prescribed medications;
current use of unprescribed drugs, cigarettes, or alcohol;
comparison of own body with others; habits of eating and
exercising.
8. Education and training, including subjects of special
interest and achievement, out-of-school learning, areas of
difficulty and pride, any cultural problems.
9. Work record, including reasons for changing jobs,
attitudes toward work.
10. Recreation, interests, and pleasures, including
volunteer work, reading, respondent’s view of adequacy of
self-expression and pleasures.
11. Sexual development, covering first awareness, kinds of
sexual activities, and a view of adequacy of current sexual
expressions.
12. Marital and family data, covering major events and
what led to them, and comparison of present family with
family of origin, ethnic or cultural factors.
13. Social supports, communication network, and social
interests, including people talked with most frequently,
people available for various kinds of help, amount and
quality of interactions, sense of contribution to others, and
interest in community.
14. Self-description, including strengths, weaknesses,
ability to use imagery, creativity, values, and ideas.
15. Choices and turning points in life, a review of the
respondent’s most important decisions and changes
16. Personal goals and view of the future, including
what the subject would like to see happen next year
and in 5 or 10 years and what is necessary for these
events to happen, realism in time orientation, ability
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
6
to set priorities.
17. Any further material the respondent may see as
omitted from the history.
a lot of information’s type but do we need all of them? - no
your question should be very clear / for which purpose are you collecting this
information
Quality of the assessment instrument ⇒ high
psychometric properties
 Reliability, validity, usefulness
Slightly lower (but still acceptable) reliability but
provided more relevant information about a particular
referral question
Assessment instruments should be appropriate for
each client ⇒ reading level, length, and the like. (sometimes people have
difficulties with a concentration so high question questionnaires are not
appropriate for them and we shuld give them 10+- questions test)
Explain to clients the procedures and purposes of the
assessment using language that clients can
understand. (always explain why and why are you doingg this)
Collecting Assessment Data
4 main sources:
 Interviews
 Observations
 Tests
 and historical records (case history data)
Multiple assessment channels to cross-validate
information about a wide variety of topics
Multiple assessment sources appears when the
clinician evaluates the effects of treatment
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
7
Processing Data and Forming
Conclusions
What mean the collected data?
Data should be transformed from raw into
interpretations and conclusions
Known data and what is assumed to be true on the
basis of those data
Information from various sources must be
integrated.
Minimal data can be dangerous - we can not conclude something with just one
test/assessment - collect information from different sources
Clinical judgment!
Communicating Assessment Results
Organized presentation of results called an
assessment report
clearly written and clearly related to the referral
question - no confusions!
 If goal was to classify the client’s behavior into a
diagnostic category ⇒ information about diagnostic
classification should be highlighted in the report.
The Goal of Clinical Assessment
 Most referral questions relate to:
• Diagnostic Classification
• Description
• Treatment Planning
• Prediction
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
8
Diagnostic Classification
Diagnostic classification remains an important part
of clinical research and practice
Why?
Treatment decisions base on diagnosis
Research in cause of psychological disorders
requires reliable and valid identification of
disorders and accurate differential diagnostic
Efficient communication with one another about
disorders (e.g. supervision)
World Health Organization’s (WHO) International
Classification of Diseases (ICD) provides common
codes that identify each disease. - classification of all diseases, not only mental
ones
In clinical psychology and psychiatry, the
comparable system is the American Psychiatric
Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, or DSM. - mostly used by psychologists
What we have to know about DSM-5
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
9
Description
Classification should be reliable and valid
But, diagnostic labels are not enough, clinicians want
often more information
⇒ descriptive assessment
E.g. for CBT: information about antecedent conditions,
environmental motivations, alternative sources of
reward, maintaining factors, and attributional style.
E.g. for Psychodynamic Therapists: information about
ego strengths and weaknesses, cognitive functioning,
defense mechanisms, quality of family and other
relationships, and characteristics of the self.
It allows also to focus on the clients’ assets and
adaptive functions, not just symptoms and
weakness
data are used to provide pretreatment measures of
clients’ behavior, to guide treatment planning, and
to evaluate changes in behavior after treatment.
E.g. not just depressive vs. nondepressive, what is the score of depression?
 depression test scores!
Treatmentt Planning
A diagnosis (e.g., panic disorder) leads to a
preferred treatment (e.g., cognitive-behavioral
psychotherapy)
Treatment planning assessment goes beyond the
basic medical-model question: Which treatments
work best for which disorders?
⇒
”What treatment, by whom, is most effective for
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
10
this individual with that specific problem, and under
which set of circumstances?
Measuring Treatment Results
Prediction
A final goal of clinical assessment ⇒ to make
predictions about human behavior ⇒ Prognosis,
predicting future performance, predicting
dangerousness
Making predictions about human behavior is not easy so we need a lot of
Valid information!!
Prognosis
Prognosis - refers to a prediction about the outcome of
treatment
DSM diagnoses contain considerable information
about prognosis
 information related to its typical onset, chronicity,
those most at risk, etc.
 E.g. client’s level of social support and subjective distress
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
11
can alter a prognosis
 Treatment setting (e.g., inpatient versus outpatient),
 The “fit” between client and therapist (e.g., shared values
or cultural background),
Predicting Future Performance
Asked by businesses, government agencies, police
departments, and the military to help selecting
people who are most likely to perform well in
certain jobs.
Critical! We cannot not make prediction in each
domain of life
We need empirical evidence about which
characteristics reliably predict which performances
Predicting Dangerousness
Often called forensic evaluations
E.g. making prediction about the likelihood that a
sex offender will commit another offense if
released
involve life-or-death situations
 e.g. the potentially suicidal client or potentially
harmful to others
 How accurate are such predictions?
Attempts to predict dangerousness follow certain
guidelines
1. Making predictions about level of risk (e.g., high,
moderate, low)
2. Use of validated assessment instruments designed to
predict the behaviors in question
 dispositional tendencies, such as anger or impulsiveness
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
12
 clinical factors, such as evidence of mental or personality
disorders
 historical factors, especially a record of violence
 contextual factors such as the strength of social support
from family and friends
Clinical Intuition
Body of research ⇒ addressed the accuracy of clinical
intuition ⇒ compared clinical judgments with
judgments made by laypersons or with judgments
based on statistical or mechanical models.
Results: The clear result is that clinical intuition too
often underperforms
Why do clinicians not make better clinical judgments,
even after years of training and experience? - biases
We are human!
Clinicians are disposed to the same cognitive habits and biases like
others
Availability heuristic
 E.g. airplane crash
Illusory correlations
 Drawing false inferences from assessment data (e.g. paranoid
tendencies in clients who draw large eyes on figure-drawing tests,
even without empirical data)
Anchoring bias
 basis of the first few pieces of assessment information than on any
subsequent information
 adjustments with new data is important!
Confirmation bias
 tendency to interpret new information in line with existing beliefs
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
13
Psychometric Properties of Assessment
Instruments
Reliability Consistency in measurement or agreement among
different judges or raters
test-retest reliability
 repeated measurements of the same client are very similar
split-half reliability (or internal consistency)
 one part of an assessment is similar to data from other
parts
- Interrater reliability
 comparing the conclusions drawn by different clinicians
using a particular assessment system to diagnose, rate, or
observe the same client (using same scales is critical)
Validity the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to
measure
Content validity
 how well it uses all the relevant dimensions of its target
Predictive validity
 is measured by evaluating how well an assessment guesses
events
Criterion validity
 measures how strongly an assessment result correlates with
important independent criteria of interest
Construct validity
 good construct validity when its results are shown to be
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
14
systematically related to the construct it is supposed to be
measuring
Standardization When a assessment instrument is standardized ⇒
the test have been analyzed in a large,
representative sample of persons
 Key consideration: sample size should be large and
representative!
Information about:
 Average scores in a population
 Variance of scores in a population
Bandwidth – Fidelity Issues
Clinicians have found that the more extensively
they explore a client’s behavior, the less intensive
each aspect of that exploration becomes
 E.g. 2-hour interview  a clinician tries to cover a long
list of questions  wide range of topics (broad
bandwidth, low fidelity).
optimum balance of bandwidth and fidelity!
Clinicians’ Experience and Theoretical
Orientation
The orientation of a clinician provides an outline for
assessment
Psychodynamic orientation ⇒ unconscious
motives and fantasies, ego functions, early
developmental periods, etc.
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
15
Cognitive-behavioral orientation ⇒ clients’ skills,
habits, stimuli that precede and follow problematic
behaviors, etc.
Humanistic orientation ⇒ less likely to follow a
specific assessment outline.
 assessment as a collaborative process
 seek to understand with each client how that client
perceives himself or herself and the world
Ideally: assessment outline should be broad
enough to provide a general overview of the client
The Assessmet Context
The context plays also a role in assessment choice
 medical and psychiatric facilities, private or
community psychological clinics, prisons, forensic
(legal) situations, schools
The language used in different contexts can also
change/differ
Clinicians must select context-appropriate
instruments
Cultural Factors
Multicultural competence is increasingly necessary
for mental health professionals
With more diversity ⇒ significant differences in
clients’ and therapist’s cultural background
Using assessments which are equally valid for
different populations
Cross-cultural research is important!
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
16
Communicating Assessment Results
Report Clarity
Lack of Clarity is troublesome 
misinterpretations can lead to misguided decisions
Relevance to Goals
the need of assessment
Usefulness of Reports
Does the information it contains add anything
important to what we already know about the
client?
Ethical Considerations in Assessment
Clinicians must know the limitations of
assessments
Clinicians must be clear in advance how those
assessments are to be used
Clinicians Should also be knowledgeable about
how federal and state laws
The process of collecting, processing, and
communicating assessment data gives clinicians
access to sensitive information ⇒ heavy
responsibility
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
17
Clinical Assessment: Exam Preparation Summary
1. Goals of Clinical Assessment
Diagnosis: Identifying disorders; pros/cons include potential misdiagnosis.
Description: Understanding the client’s unique experience.
Treatment Planning: Developing an effective intervention strategy.
Prediction: Evaluating risk for dangerous behaviors (e.g., suicide, violence).
2. Clinical Judgment and Decision Making
Clinicians interpret assessment data to make informed decisions.
Use of standardized instruments to minimize bias and increase reliability.
3. Psychometric Properties of Assessment
Instruments
Reliability: Consistency of results (test-retest, interrater reliability).
Validity: Accuracy in measuring what it intends to measure (content,
predictive, construct validity).
Standardization: Norms established from a large representative sample.
4. Assessment Choices and Methods
Main Sources of Assessment Data:
1. Interviews (structured, semi-structured, unstructured)
2. Observations (behavioral assessments)
3. Psychological Tests (self-report, intelligence, personality tests)
4. Case History Data (medical, school, legal records)
5. Clinical Case: Jessie
17-year-old male showing signs of depression and social withdrawal.
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
18
Poor school attendance, social isolation, possible substance use.
Reports bizarre thoughts and feelings of detachment from reality.
Parents are disengaged and going through a divorce.
Key Assessment Questions:
What is Jessie’s most pressing problem?
Does he meet diagnostic criteria for a mental disorder?
Is he at risk of harming himself or others?
What role does family context play in his difficulties?
What treatment plan would be most effective?
6. Planning the Assessment
Steps in Data Collection:
1. Identifying basic demographic and personal information.
2. Understanding the reason for referral and client expectations.
3. Gathering details about current life situation and major stressors.
4. Exploring family background and early developmental history.
5. Assessing educational and occupational history.
6. Evaluating health status, substance use, and medical history.
7. Examining social support, relationships, and personal strengths.
8. Assessing personal goals, coping mechanisms, and future outlook.
Important Considerations:
Avoid excessive data collection; focus on relevant information.
Ensure high psychometric quality of assessment tools.
Adapt assessments to client’s reading level, concentration ability.
Clearly explain procedures and goals of assessment to the client.
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
19
7. Processing Data and Forming Conclusions
Data should be analyzed systematically.
Use multiple assessment sources to cross-validate information.
Avoid minimal data bias (one test is not enough for diagnosis).
Clinical judgment should integrate objective and subjective findings.
8. Communicating Assessment Results
Results should be clear, concise, and directly relevant to referral question.
Diagnostic classification should be clearly stated if applicable.
Ensure reports focus on both strengths and weaknesses of the client.
9. Goals of Clinical Assessment
Diagnostic Classification: Using DSM-5 or ICD for accurate diagnosis.
Description: Understanding beyond labels (e.g., cognitive style, social skills).
Treatment Planning: Selecting appropriate interventions.
Prediction: Making informed forecasts about behavior and treatment
outcomes.
10. Diagnostic Classification
DSM-5 and ICD systems help clinicians identify and classify disorders.
Important for:
Treatment planning
Researching causes of disorders
Communicating diagnoses across professionals
11. Treatment Planning
Diagnosis helps guide treatment selection (e.g., CBT for anxiety disorders).
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
20
Consideration of client-specific factors (cultural, personal preferences,
severity).
Effectiveness Monitoring: Track progress through outcome assessments.
12. Prediction in Clinical Assessment
Prognosis: Predicting treatment success based on available data.
Future Performance: Used in hiring, law enforcement, military evaluations.
Dangerousness:
Assessing risk of harm (e.g., violence, self-harm, recidivism in offenders).
Requires validated risk assessment tools.
13. Common Biases in Clinical Judgment
Availability Heuristic: Overestimating likelihood based on recent cases.
Illusory Correlation: Seeing false patterns (e.g., paranoia from large eyes in
drawings).
Anchoring Bias: Relying too much on first impressions.
Confirmation Bias: Favoring data that supports preexisting beliefs.
14. Psychometric Properties of Assessment
Instruments
Reliability:
Test-retest: Consistency over time.
Interrater: Agreement between different clinicians.
Validity:
Content: Covers all aspects of what is being measured.
Predictive: Correlates with real-world outcomes.
Construct: Measures theoretical concept accurately.
Standardization:
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
21
Ensures test results are comparable across different populations.
15. Bandwidth vs. Fidelity in Assessment
Bandwidth: Covering many topics but in less detail.
Fidelity: Focusing on fewer topics but in greater depth.
Clinicians must find the right balance for effective assessment.
16. Role of Clinician’s Theoretical Orientation in
Assessment
Psychodynamic: Focus on unconscious conflicts, early development.
Cognitive-Behavioral: Examines thought patterns, behavioral triggers.
Humanistic: Collaborative, client-centered understanding.
17. Cultural and Contextual Factors
Importance of culturally competent assessments.
Tests must be valid across diverse populations.
Consider language, socioeconomic factors, cultural beliefs.
18. Ethical Considerations in Assessment
Clinicians must ensure informed consent.
Confidentiality must be protected.
Use assessments only for their intended purpose.
Be aware of legal and ethical guidelines.
Final Thoughts
Clinical assessment is a systematic, multi-step process.
It should be tailored to the client’s needs and referral questions.
Use multiple data sources to ensure accuracy.
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
22
Minimize bias and maintain ethical standards.
Effective assessment leads to better treatment outcomes and improved
client care.
Referral Question
A referral question is the specific issue or concern that prompts a psychological
assessment. It is typically provided by a referring party (e.g., a doctor, teacher,
parent, or legal authority) and determines the focus of the assessment.
Examples of Referral Questions:
"Does this child have ADHD?" (Requested by a school counselor)
"Is this employee fit to return to work after a mental health leave?" (Requested
by an employer)
"Is this individual at risk of self-harm?" (Requested by a psychiatrist)
The referral question guides the assessment process, influencing the choice of
tests, interviews, and observations.
Relevant Information
Not all client data is necessary for an assessment—only relevant
information should be collected based on the referral question.
Examples of Relevant vs. Irrelevant Information:
Relevant for ADHD diagnosis: Attention span, impulsivity, school behavior.
Irrelevant for ADHD diagnosis: Favorite music genre, clothing style.
Collecting only relevant information saves time, reduces bias, and improves
accuracy in assessment.
Psychometric Quality
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
23
Psychometric quality refers to the scientific soundness of an assessment tool. A
high-quality test should have:
1. Reliability – Produces consistent results.
2. Validity – Measures what it claims to measure.
3. Standardization – Uses norms from a large, representative sample.
Why is Psychometric Quality Important?
A low-quality test may lead to misdiagnosis (e.g., falsely identifying someone
as depressed).
A high-quality test ensures accurate and fair assessment (e.g., correctly
identifying a learning disability).
Cross-Validation
Cross-validation is the process of verifying findings by using multiple sources of
data to ensure accuracy.
Example: Diagnosing Depression
Self-report questionnaire: Client rates mood as "low."
Clinical interview: Client describes persistent sadness.
Observation: Client appears withdrawn and fatigued.
Medical records: No underlying medical condition causing mood changes.
By cross-validating different sources, clinicians avoid errors and increase
confidence in their conclusions.
Why Should Clinical Judgment Integrate Objective and
Subjective Findings?
Clinical judgment should be based on both objective and subjective data.
Objective Findings (Measurable Data)
Test scores (e.g., depression scale score)
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
24
Medical history (e.g., past mental health hospitalizations)
Behavioral observations (e.g., client avoids eye contact)
Subjective Findings (Client’s Perspective)
Self-reported emotions (e.g., "I feel hopeless")
Personal experiences (e.g., "I have no motivation to get out of bed")
Social context (e.g., "My parents are divorcing, and I feel lost")
✅ Why Include Subjective Findings?
A client’s perception of their experience matters in diagnosis and treatment.
Psychological conditions (e.g., anxiety) cannot be diagnosed purely by tests
—they require self-reported experiences.
Cognitive Biases in Clinical Judgment
Cognitive biases distort clinical decision-making and can lead to errors in
assessment.
1. Availability Heuristic
Clinicians overestimate the likelihood of a condition based on recent cases.
Example: If a psychologist recently diagnosed multiple clients with bipolar
disorder, they might mistakenly assume a new client has it, even if their
symptoms fit another disorder better.
2. Illusory Correlation
Clinicians see false relationships between variables that are not actually
linked.
Example: Believing that a child who draws large eyes in a projective test must
have paranoid tendencies—even if no scientific evidence supports this.
3. Anchoring Bias
Relying too much on first impressions when making a diagnosis.
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
25
Example: A clinician assumes a client has social anxiety disorder just
because they seem shy in the first interview, without considering additional
evidence.
4. Confirmation Bias
Clinicians focus only on evidence that supports their initial belief and ignore
contradictory information.
Example: If a clinician suspects a client has PTSD, they might only pay
attention to trauma-related symptomsand ignore other potential diagnoses.
Reliability: Measuring Consistency
Reliability means a test gives consistent results over time or across different
raters.
Types of Reliability:
1. Test-Retest Reliability
A test produces similar results over time when administered to the same
person.
Example: A depression questionnaire taken twice in two weeks should
show similar scores if the client’s mental state has not changed
significantly.
2. Interrater Reliability
Different clinicians should arrive at the same conclusions using the same
assessment tool.
Example: Two psychologists observing the same therapy session should
agree on whether the client exhibits signs of PTSD.
Validity: Measuring Accuracy
Validity ensures that a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
Types of Validity:
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
26
1. Content Validity – The test covers all important aspects of the condition.
Example: A depression test should include symptoms like sadness,
fatigue, and low motivation, not just “feeling sad.”
2. Predictive Validity – The test accurately predicts future outcomes.
Example: An IQ test should predict academic performance.
3. Construct Validity – The test measures the psychological concept it claims to
assess.
Example: A self-esteem test should actually measure self-esteem, not
just social confidence.
Bandwidth vs. Fidelity in Assessment
There is a tradeoff between breadth (covering many areas) and depth (focusing
on fewer topics in detail).
Bandwidth: Broad but Shallow
Covers many psychological areas in less detail.
Useful for screening purposes.
Example: A general mental health questionnaire that asks about anxiety,
depression, substance use, and eating habits.
Fidelity: Narrow but Deep
Covers few areas in greater depth.
Useful for specific diagnoses.
Example: A detailed PTSD assessment with multiple trauma-related
questions.
✅ Clinicians must find the right balance between bandwidth and
fidelity depending on the client’s needs.
Final Takeaways
A referral question defines the goal of an assessment.
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
27
Relevant information is selected to answer the referral question.
Psychometric quality ensures tests are reliable and valid.
Cross-validation uses multiple sources to confirm accuracy.
Clinical judgment should integrate objective (data-driven)
and subjective (client experience) findings.
Cognitive biases (availability heuristic, illusory correlation, anchoring bias,
confirmation bias) can distort assessment.
Reliability ensures consistent test results.
Validity ensures accurate test results.
Bandwidth vs. Fidelity is a balance between covering many topics and going
in-depth on fewer topics.
Basic Features of Clinical Assessment
28