LANGUAGE AND WRITING: TYPES OF DISCOURSE
Although on average we communicate less through writing than through the other language arts (listening, speaking, reading),
writing takes up a considerable amount of our time; especially as students and certainly in many professions later in life. The
codes of language that we follow when writing are stricter and less flexible than those of speech. Obviously, what this means
is that much attention must be paid to the art of writing.
*Importantly, language and communication are not the same, although their functions may overlap. Communication
involves sending a message and humans generally use language to do so. As such, language has many functions:
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The Cognitive Function – when language is used with the intention of affecting the audience in some way in order to
evoke some type of response. Therefore, when one uses language to persuade, entertain, stir to anger or arouse
sympathy, (jokes, political speeches, horror stories) they are actually utilizing the cognitive function of language.
The Expressive Function – when language is used to express feelings, ideas or attitudes, without necessarily taking
a reader or listener into consideration. When language is used in this way, the speaker/writer is not trying to effect
change in an audience or elicit response. He/she is merely giving vent to emotions or needs.
The Informative Function – when language is used to convey information.
Phatic Language – has the function of maintaining contact between individuals and does not seek to generate a
meaningful response; “How are you?” “What’s up?”. In other words, maintaining social customs.
Metalinguistic Language – refers to an individual’s ability to correct, describe, explain and analyze errors, that is,
language that explains.
ACTIVITY:
Identify the function of the language in each of the following sentences:
(a)How are you?
(b) Perhaps we can rearrange the garden. We can put in a fish pond and landscape the grounds.
(c) Jah Rastafari. I and I big up de queen.
(d) Hail Mary full of grace. The Lord is with you.
(e) O dear! O dear! How sad.
HOMEWORK:
1. What is the difference between a “function of language” and a “purpose of language”?
2. List and explain five (5) purposes of language.
3. Explain the statement “language and communication are not the same, although their functions may overlap”.
The primary goal of writing is to convey a message. However, whether you are writing for yourself or for others, you are writing
with a purpose in mind. As such, language functions or works in a particular way to fulfil a specific purpose. This purpose for
writing could be one, or a combination of the following:
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To inform
To entertain
To persuade
For instance, you can express sorrow about the death of wildlife because of an oil spill, but your purpose for doing so may be
to persuade others to share your point of view.
One of the key elements of good writing calls for planning. Most times before a piece of writing is made public, writers create
several versions of a text. They plan, organize, draft, revise, edit and proofread their work. By engaging in these activities,
they are going through what is called the writing process.
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EDITING/PROOFREADING
Check mechanics and grammar
Check overall presentation
PRE-WRITING
Identify the writing task
Identify audience
Determine information needed
Develop a thesis statement/focus
Organize information/plan format
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DRAFTING
Write information in sequence
based on plan
REVISING (Assess overall impact)
 Make changes for meaning
 Review sequencing or structure
 Rewrite portions
PRE-WRITING – This stage determines the substance of your writing and the shape it will take. Here you actually identify the
message to be conveyed and therefore what mode of writing is most appropriate (descriptive, narrative,
argumentative/persuasive). Importantly, your writing is shaped by the audience you wish to address. The more specific your
choice of audience is, the easier your decisions about the characteristics of your writing will be. As such the tone (attitude
towards the topic), style and structure must be carefully designed to elicit the required response or to convey the intended
message to the target audience.
In your planning or pre-writing stage, you must determine how much information you will need in addition to your personal
experiences; and which will be the most likely or appropriate sources of such information. However, regardless of the extent
of research that you are required to do, the first step is exploring what you know. Your own experience often serves as a basis
from which to build ideas. Some useful techniques to use inorder to discover the extent of your knowledge on a topic are:
1. Brainstorming – jotting down all the words and phrases which come to mind.
2. Free-writing – you focus on the topic and write quickly on it without stopping to consider and edit what you have
written.
3. Clustering/Mapping – the strategy the enables you to link ideas and explore the relationship between them
Once you have sorted or grouped your brainstormed or free written ideas, you should begin to narrow your topic. This means
that you think of a particular focus for your essay and determine the main idea that you want your readers to get. The main
idea will become the thesis statement for your essay. Your thesis is the premise on which your essay is based and it clarifies
the purpose of your paper. It is usually one sentence that states the exact focus of the essay. While a descriptive or narrative
piece is not highly dependent on a thesis statement, it is imperative that a persuasive or expository piece possess such a
statement. The kind of thesis that you have depends on the purpose of your writing. However, all thesis statements should
tell the reader three things: your topic, the points you intend to make about it and the order in which you will be presenting
them. Take note that your thesis statement should be neither too broad that you would not be able to structure your essay
nor too narrow that you would not be able to write enough.
Further, if you construct a good thesis statement, then planning a format for your essay is fairly simple. You simply use your
thesis statement as the outline or map that you will follow as you draft; it is the miniature version of your essay.
DRAFTING – The first draft your writing will likely undergo several changes as you revise and try to perfect it. It is important
to concentrate only on getting your ideas down in accordance with your plan. When writing your first draft, you should aim at
writing continuously and without interruption. Writers employ different approaches however. For instance, there is the:
1. Linear Approach – start at the introduction and write in a sequential manner through to the conclusion.
2. Recursive Approach – write on a section for a time then move on to another part of the essay before returning to the
first section.
REVISING – Good writers always revisit their work several times in an effort to take it to the level closest to their idea. At this
stage of the process, you are not primarily concerned with mechanics or grammar. You need to ensure that your ideas are
clearly stated and your essay supports its thesis statement adequately and coherently. Your main tasks in your attempts to
revise should include:
1. Check to see that the organizational structure of your essay is suited to your purpose or task.
2. Ensure each paragraph is relevant to the thesis statement
3. Assess the substance of your paragraphs – determine whether or not you have provided enough details to support
the points made in each paragraph
4. Remove repetitive or superfluous ideas/ does repetition serves any particular purpose?
5. Evaluate the appropriateness of your tone to the intended audience. Make sure that you have not adopted a tone that
would alienate your reader; such a being overly sarcastic.
Essentially, revisiting your writing enables you to see other possible ways of approaching or dealing with your topic, which
may not have occurred to you while drafting. From time to time you may want to utilize a peer reviewer inorder to provide an
honest feedback since a reviewer is actually reading and reacting to the work as an audience would. Therefore, elements that
may escape the writer because of his/her closeness to the writing would be obvious to an objective reader.
EDITING AND PROOFREADING – At this stage you are in the process of perfecting your work prior to its presentation. During
this stage you are looking for specific errors in your writing such as:
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Subject/Verb Agreement – identify your subject and look for its matching verb
Tenses – check for consistence in the tense used throughout your essay
Pronoun Reference – look for the pronoun then locate the noun it replaces. Ensure they agree in number
Parallel Structure – repetition of a chosen grammatical structure within a sentence. Ellen likes hiking, the rodeo, and
to take afternoon naps…hiking, attending the rodeo and taking afternoon naps
5. Fragments/Run-On Sentences – ensure each sentence expresses a complete thought
6. Spelling – identify commonly misspelt words
7. Punctuation – check commas to see if you have altered your intended meaning by their placement. Ensure that the
appropriate words are capitalized and semi colons and dashes have not been arbitrarily used. Check to see if
words/phrases belonging to other sources have been put into quotation marks.
HOMEWORK:
1. List ten (10) purposes of language.
2. Review the following topics, brainstorm and develop a thesis statement for each.
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The causes of increased crime in Caribbean society
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The benefits of belonging to a voluntary organization
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Coping with stress
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The pros and cons of urban living
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The roles of tertiary institutions in the Caribbean
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Making Caribbean Single Market and Economy work
3. Using a ruled government size exercise book (neatly papered):
-select a theme and topic that is current and stimulates your interest. Keep in mind this will guide all tasks associated with
your Internal Assessment; inclusive of your Creative Piece.
-briefly explain the purpose of your intended research; what benefit will it serve.
-briefly explain how this topic is related to your academic pursuits
-briefly explain how this topic is related to your career goals
-briefly explain how this topic affects you personally (you, family, friends, community)
Challenge yourself! https://www.ixl.com/ela/grade-12/order-topics-from-broadest-to-narrowest
DISCOURSE (COMMUNICATION OF THOUGHT BY WORDS) TYPES
Writer’s Main Purpose - This is basically what the writer is trying to do when they sit down and write the piece. • It’s why they
chose to write it and you typically have a 30-word limit to relate this. • You use the functions of language here to describe the
purpose. • For example, you can say “the writer’s main purpose is to inform the reader about the dangers of energy drinks on
sheep”
Writer’s Main Point - A lot of people confuse it with the purpose but this is what the writer is trying to say. • It’s basically what
the piece is about so you need to summarize it in less than 30 words (typically) • For example: “The writer’s main point is that
energy drinks cause reproductive malfunctions in young sheep and should be banned from farms”.
Tone - The tone of the writer says how they feel about the subject by their style of writing. It’s the quality their voice takes on
to express their purpose • Don’t confuse this with mood which is the atmosphere the writing itself creates. • So tone contributes
to mood (setting and vocabulary do too) but it is not mood. • A writer’s tone can be sarcastic, playful, ironic, informal.
There are two major classifications of discourse:
ARTISTIC – This type of discourse focuses on expressing the author’s thoughts and ideas through their imagination. The
emphasis is on the author’s feelings and emotions as opposed to facts. For example, novels, stories, poetry, journals,
biographies.
TECHNICAL/SCIENTIFIC – In this kind of discourse the author is generally writing about a specialized or particular subject
area. This generally requires direction, instruction or explanation and often uses specialized terms and expressions. This kind
of writing tends to be highly factual and evidence driven.
Technical/Scientific Discourse
Artistic Discourse
Objective – not influenced by personal feelings/opinions
Subjective
Evidence based
Opinions, biases
Denotative/concrete words (literal/dictionary; eg:dove)
Connotative words – deviate from literal meanings inorder
to give fresher ideas/images (eg; dove-peace)
Precise language - I think that there should be law against
using too much water. Precise Sentence-It should be illegal
to waste water. -
Figurative language
Neutral tone
Affective tone
Discourse types:
Expository
Argumentative
Discourse types:
Narrative
Descriptive
Persuasive
There are at least five (5) modes of rhetoric that may utilize either one or a combination of technical and artistic writing
depending on the topic, purpose for writing, and audience. Rhetoric is simply defined as the art of influencing the thought
and conduct of an audience. It also refers to the specialized literary uses of language and the ability to use language effectively
in communication.
Types of Discourse/Rhetoric
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Description
Narration
Expository
Persuasive
Argumentative
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DESCRIPTION - The main purpose of this type of discourse is to explain or describe some concept, person or
setting, or thought that may be unfamiliar to the audience. Descriptive writing uses various organizational/spatial
strategies. For example, in describing a house on a hill, a writer may start describing what it looks like starting from
the base of the hill upwards (ground view). Another writer may start by describing how it looks from the skies going
downwards to the base of the hill (aerial view).
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NARRATION - The main purpose and distinguishing factor of this writing is to explain some concept according to a
given time sequence. For example, The first thing Tory did when she arrived in the beautiful island of Jamaica was
to take a dip in the beautiful azure ocean of the North Coast. Afterwards, she went to the infamous jerk restaurant,
'Scotchies', for some delicious jerk chicken, festival and roast corn. She then ordered two glasses of refreshing red
stripe beer, which she savored as she rocked to the irie music floating in the island breeze. As the sun was about to
set, she contacted a reliable tour company and went for a relaxing drive along the sea coast culminating in a tour
of the alluring fern gully which covered with miles of the most gorgeous indigenous ferns.
NARRATIVE /DESCRIPTIVE WRITING – essentially tells a story and often incorporates description in order to do so. The
primary purpose of descriptive writing therefore is to describe a person, place, event or thing in such a way that it can be
clearly pictured in the reader’s mind. Therefore, the main characteristic of this type of writing is the vivid, sensory details that
you use to paint this picture for the reader. You should also make use of specific literary devices that assist the reader in
forming a picture, by making comparisons to familiar things.
Examples of Narrative/Descriptive Writing:
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Journals
Essays
Poetry
Anecdotes
Biography
Novels
ORGANIZATIONAL FEATURES OF NARRATIVE/DESCRIPTIVE DISCOURSE
1. Flashback – A flashback is an episode that took place in a time earlier than the present action. It may be used to
increase tension, to move the story forward by providing relevant back story, to provide context to current events, to
give background to explain a conflict, to provide insight into a character’s motives; etc. Flashbacks may be presented
through dream sequences, memories and even be presented in a straightforward fashion, indicating his/her
movement back in time (simply making mention of a time in the past).
2. Flash forward – It is a strategy employed by writers that is the mirror to flash back. It is often used in narratives to
create momentum or as motivation for driving plot and can help readers understand the significance of characters’
actions.
3. Foreshadowing – Authors tend to use this strategy to provide a hint of what is to come. It is utilized to create suspense
and it therefore adds dramatic tension in the narrative as it has readers anticipating what is going to happen next.
(Brian had no idea of the disastrous chain of events to follow.)
4. Time sequence – Artistic discourse uses chronological order as a means of organizing the piece of writing. Authors
will use chronological order to help the audience navigate through the story and to understand the causal relationships
between events. As such, this will help the audience to rationalize why things happen in the way they do.
5. Comparisons – Descriptive writing often allows for the similarity and difference between two or more things, ideas of
individuals. Through the use of literary devices, this is done inorder to emphasize a particular quality or to make that
quality more vivid in the minds of the audience. Comparisons tend to capture the audience’s attention and make it
easier for them to understand concepts.
6. Contrast – This is the opposite to comparison but functions with a similar effect of making concepts clearer to
readers/audience.
7. Description/Appeal to Senses– enhances a piece by appealing to the reader’s senses, thus creating images in their
minds. It helps with recall and may cause the reader to lean towards the author’s bias.
8. General to specific – A strategy employed by writer’s which gives preference to particular details.
9. Spatial Order – Information is presented according to their physical location in relation to each other.
Overall, what these strategies aim to do is to help the reader, or audience maneuver the piece with ease and to retain as
much details about the idea being conveyed.
HOMEWORK:
QUESTIONS:
1.List TWO possible places in which the passage might be found.
2. What type of discourse is the passage? List THREE features that helped you arrive at your decision.
3. What would you say was the purpose for writing the passage?
4. What is the MOST likely reaction of the reader to each piece of writing?
KINDLY PRINT FOR NEXT CLASS
As an example of this type of a process essay, let’s see how an earthquake happens.
1. First, the energy within the earth core builds up due to various moves in the earth crust;
2. The energy level grows up and causes tension in the tectonic plates;
3. After some time, the pressure radiates outwards by moving the plates from each other;
4. The seismic waves shake the earth as they get from the core of the earth to the surface;
5. That is when the earthquake takes place.
Consumption of processed and convenience foods and our dependence on the car have led to an increase in obesity and
reduction in the fitness level of the adult population. In some countries, especially industrialized ones, the number of obese
people can amount to one third of the population. This is significant as obesity and poor fitness lead to a decrease in life
expectancy, and it is therefore important for individuals and governments to work together to tackle this issue and improve
their citizens' diet and fitness.
Homelessness affects not only the people who must struggle to survive on the street, but also the business owners or
residents in the neighborhoods. Petty crime and drug abuse are common. While many factors have contributed to the rise in
homeless rates, one of the most profound is the lack of adequate social support services.
Before the advent of computers and modern technology, people communicating over long distances used traditional means
such as letters and the telephone. Nowadays we have a vast array of communication tools which can complete this task,
ranging from email to instant messaging and video calls. While the present and previous means of communication are
similar in their general form, they differ in regard to their speed and the range of tools available.
KINDLY PRINT THIS PAGE FOR NEXT CLASS
Terrorism is affecting countless countries in the world right now. The topic is hotly debated and a part of the collective fear
of our global society. However, do common people understand exactly what terrorism is and implies? In order to educate
readers, we will have a breakdown of what the term “terrorism” means, from the origins of the word and the types of
terrorism….Besides the countless definitions of terrorism, there are also varying types of terrorism. There is civil disorder,
political terrorism, non-political terrorism, quasi-terrorism, limited political terrorism, official or state terrorism, domestic
terrorism, and international terrorism…
EXPOSITORY
We use Exposition daily, more than any other type of writing. For example, if you are asked “What are you doing today?”
your answer will involve an explanation. The main purpose of exposition is to define, inform, teach or explain some concept.
As such, the expectation of expository writing is for it to be objective, precise and neutral (free from bias and prejudice). In
other words, it mostly uses technical/scientific writing.
When writing exposition, you must keep in mind that organization and word selection are important to the process. There
are various approaches or patterns to organizing exposition, and mastering them will help you in your writing. Writers also
employ a combination of varied organizational strategies in exposition, depending on their topic, audience and purpose for
writing. These may include:
DEFINITION – One way of clarifying something is by explaining its meaning. A definition essay is a personal, in-depth
explanation and commentary on what a word, term or concept means. Generally, definition essays deal with abstract
concepts that lend themselves to personal interpretation rather than with physical objects that have a universal, agreed
definition. As such, definitions of society or poverty would vary widely since perspectives on these topics are based on
subjective opinion and personal experience.
Further, one of the easiest ways to extend your definition is with the use of examples which gives your reader concrete
details which helps them to understand the subject. Also, the use of analogies which gives lengthy comparisons between
two subjects; as such the reader is able to understand your topic based on your use of a familiar subject.
Importantly, you can also extend your definition by showing what something is not. Contrasting what you are defining with
something else enables your reader to understand what it is. This is called definition by negation.
Example: What does it mean to be intelligent and what can you do to increase intelligence?
PROCESS EXPLANATION – Being one of the most common forms of expository writing, process explanation provides
systematic information that can be used to instruct or inform about a procedure. It emphasizes how something is done
rather than why it is done and therefore information should be presented in chronological order.
Example: Getting the best angles for your snapchat phots/videos.
DIVISION/CLASSIFICATION – are useful methods of organizing and explaining information because creating logical
categories in your essay helps your reader to process the information in a way that he or she is accustomed to using in
other aspects of life.
Division separates a single subject into subunits without invoking any specific principle or organization, For example, parts
of the body. These can be discussed and described separately. But if you were to analyse the body according to functions
or systems, respiratory, circulatory, reproductive; you would therefore be classifying. Hence, when you classify, you
organize things or sort things into groups or categories. The thing being classified is being broken down into its component
parts, which are then labelled and described. For instance, you may organize music into hip hop, jazz or even dancehall.
Similarly, the use of classification in writing performs a similar function. Hence, information about the effects of alcohol can
be classified by grouping information according to its physical effects or its psychological effects.
When you write a classification essay, you should select categories that are relevant to the topic and they should be
logically and carefully set out. For instance, suppose your topic is “Major tourist attractions in Barbados” and you identify
three major types of attraction: sea sports, sightseeing, and night life. You would then use these three categories to
structure or organize the essay.
Example: What influences people’s choices when they are shopping online.
CAUSE/EFFECT – A cause and effect essay is a common method of organizing ideas. It is the approach you use when
discussing the relationships or links between one thing and another. It addresses the question of why things
happen(causes) and the result of something happening (effects). Sometimes there may be many causes for why an event
occurs. On the other hand, there may be effects or results of a single event. For example, high the divorce rate is an
effect, but there may be many causes, such as changing societal values or gender shifts. Similarly, hurricane in
The Bahamas was caused by geological factors but the effects were economic, social and environmental.
COMPARE/CONTRAST – The words compare and contrast are often used interchangeably. When you compare however,
you emphasize the similarities between two or more people, places or things; as such, there must be a common element
linking the things being compared. When you contrast, you emphasize differences. Compare and contrast are
organizational patterns that are essential to academic writing because they are used to analyze similarities and differences
in writing.
There are two major approaches to this type of essay:
Point-by-point/Alternating Approach – where each point of similarity or difference is discussed considering both entities in
turn.
Block Approach – where all the points of similarities between the two entities are dealt with before moving on to present all
the differences between them. This approach is more taxing on the reader who may find it difficult to keep the first part of
the essay in perspective in order to make judgements or draw conclusions. You are therefore required to discuss the points
in each case in exactly the same order, as the parallel structure makes it more logical for the reader.
Examples: E-mail or Traditional Mailing: What Will Happen in the Future?
The influential role of peers and your family;
PROBLEM/SOLUTION - Problem-solution essays consider the problems of a particular situation, and give
solutions to those problems. They are in some ways similar to cause and effect essays, especially in terms
of structure.
There are two main ways to structure a problem-solution essay. These are similar to the ways to
structure cause and effect essays, namely using a block or alternating structure. For the block structure, all of
the problems are listed first, and all of the solutions are listed afterwards. For the alternating structure, each
problem is followed immediately by the solution to that problem.
Example: Dangers of procrastination
PERSUASION
The main purpose of this type of writing is to convince or influence readers to accept a particular point of view. Persuasive
writing does this by mainly appealing to readers' emotions. In this type of writing you may find the use of emotive
words, repetition, figurative language, opinions, biases etc. In other words, this type of writing relies heavily on artistic
writing.
ARGUMENTATIVE
The main purpose of this type of writing is to convince or influence readers to accept a particular point of view.
Argumentative writing does this by appealing to readers' logic. Readers expect a strong piece of argumentative writing to
be as objective and neutral as possible, and to convince them by presenting them with statistical/scientific data, quotes,
facts and other information that can be tested/substantiated. In other words, this type of writing relies heavily
on technical/scientific writing.
Some features of Persuasive/Argumentative Writing are:
CAUSE/EFFECT
COMPARE/CONTRAST
PROBLEM/SOLUTION
CLASSIFICATION
RHETORIC - The term rhetoric refers to language that is used to inform, persuade, or motivate audiences. Rhetoric uses
language to appeal mainly to emotions, but also in some cases to shared values or logic. The study of rhetoric dates back to
ancient Greece. According to Aristotle, rhetoric uses three primary modes of persuasion: ethos, logos, and pathos.
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Ethos appeals to the character of the writer or speaker-stating that his or her background, credentials, or experience
should convince you of the accuracy of the argument. “Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced, not only
by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers
who have come to expect nothing but the best”. OR “Doctors all over the world recommend this type of
treatment.”
Logos appeals to logic or reason-often citing facts, figures, and statistics. "Ladies and gentlemen of the jury: we have
not only the fingerprints, the lack of an alibi, a clear motive, and an expressed desire to commit the robbery…
We also have video of the suspect breaking in.”
Pathos appeals to emotion, empathetic responses, or shared moral values. A teenager tries to convince his parents
to buy him a new car, as the old one continually breaks down, by saying if they cared about their child's safety,
they'd upgrade him.
DEDUCTIVE/INDUCTIVE REASONING – Deductive reasoning is one which the premise is so strong that it guarantees the
truth of the conclusion, it moves from general premise to a specific conclusion. The argument begins with a fundamental truth
or value that is unlikely to be disputed. However, care must be taken when employing deductive reasoning in writing as there
are social and cultural differences that affect what constitutes a truth or value, the family. The most commonly used pattern
is syllogism, which is a form of reasoning consisting of a major and a minor premise, both of which support the conclusion.
Every time I take a test in math, I fail it. I am taking a math test today. I will fail my test today.
On the other hand, inductive reasoning (bottom-up thinking) refers to the strategy where a writer takes specific information
and makes a broader generalization that's considered probable, while still remaining open to the fact that the conclusion
may not be 100% guaranteed. Further, inductive reasoning is one in which the premise offers reasons that support the
probable truth or validity of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning leads to a likely conclusion based on observation supported
by collected evidence and therefore usually challenged because conclusions are based on probability and not certainty.
Ben has visited four places today, and Sam has gone to those places soon after. Sam is probably following Ben. A
teacher notices that his students learned more when hands-on activities were incorporated into lessons, and then
decides to regularly include a hands-on component in his future lessons.
FALLACY – No discussion of argument can neglect the issue of fallacy. Fallacy may be defined as a false or mistaken idea
based on faulty knowledge or reasoning. However, a fallacy may appear to be more than a mistake, as it may be a
deliberate error in reasoning in an attempt to persuade. Fallacies are associated with appeals to emotion and are used
extensively by advertisers as deliberate marketing strategies. The following indicate commonly used fallacies:
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Appeal to Pity – preying on sympathy to elicit a favourable response.
Appeal to prejudice – loaded or emotive terms used to attach value or moral goodness to believing the proposition.
You would be stupid not to do that or a lady does not engage in such behavior.
Appeal to authority – using respected sources to impress the reader or listener of the strength of your argument.
Begging the question – presupposing the conclusion in an argument, and using circular reasoning. The conclusion
essentially appears both at the beginning and the end of the argument, it creates an endless circle, never
accomplishing anything of substance. You should drive on the left side of the road because that is what the
law says, and the law is the law. To curse is immoral because it is wrong.
Opposing the straw man – Choosing a weak opposing argument that is easy to discredit or arguing against a claim
that was not really made. Caroline says that she thinks her friends should not be so rude to the new girl.
Jenna says that she cannot believe that Caroline is choosing to be better friends with the new girl than the
girls who have always known her.
CONCESSION AND REBUTTAL – the author acknowledges a point or argument that opposes the position he/she is
presenting (concession) before proving it wrong (rebuttal).By acknowledging the point or argument the author shows he/she
understands the position and is somewhat unbiased but at the same time his/her rebuttal discredits that very position as it
attacks the point he/she just acknowledged. Further it proves a weaker or invalid argument for the opposition while
highlighting the author’s argument as being acceptable.
COUNTERARGUMENT – contradict the objection raised and support this with evidence or reasoning. It encourages the
audience to dismiss objection as invalid and accept the counter argument presented. It seems like an easy argument to
be against littering, but many can also use the counterargument stating littering results in the creation of jobs.
People get paid to clean up the litter. Littering, of course, can also be argued as detrimental to the environment.
REFUTATIONS – this is where a writer dissects the arguments of the opposition, bringing to light the mistakes/weaknesses
of the argument and presents reasoning to indicate why the conclusions/reasons are mistaken, weak or incorrect. OJ
Simpson case, [Opening Sentence] It may be true that some people use marijuana as a gateway drug to move on to
harder, more dangerous drugs. [Topic Sentence] The truth of the matter is that marijuana is not the first addictive
substance that users initially try. [Evidence] “A study published in the peer-reviewed Journal of School Health has
concluded that the theory of a gateway drug is not associated with marijuana, but rather one of the most damaging
and socially accepted drugs in the world, alcohol” (Scharff). [Explanation of Evidence] In other words, alcohol is
the drug and high that influences people to try harder, more addictive substances. Alcohol is the drug that the
government should be focusing on. Alcohol is the drug that needs more intervention. [Concluding Sentence] In
reality, alcohol should be the focus of reform and recovery programs, and making marijuana legal will eliminate the
gateway theory entirely.
An important distinction to be appreciated is the difference between refutation and counter-argument. In the case of counterargument, the writer acknowledges that there is substance in the contradicting argument, yet he provides evidence for his
alleged stance. On the other hand, refutation goes a bit further by presenting evidence that in turn negates the opposing
arguments.
DEFINITION – this is where the writer clarifies his interpretation of a concept, idea or thing by explaining what it is or what
it represents.
EVIDENCE – following an explanation, writers may extend their definitions by using facts, statistical or historical data,
testimony and even quotes from reputable sources in order to prove or disprove a claim. Evidence adds credibility to an
argument, thus increasing the chances of the audience or reader trusting the claim.
ILLUSTRATIONS/EXAMPLES – Similarly, illustrations and examples contribute to a writer’s credibility and further makes
an idea clearer. For instance, a chart can help a reader to process a presentation heavily loaded with statistics. In
essence it simplifies the information.
REASONS – the writer rationalizes a point of view by outlining causes, justifications or explanation. Lending to clarity, this
strategy allows the reader to believe that the argument’s end point is a logical conclusion.
LISTS – are used to present factual information and aid in navigation through a piece of writing. They therefore help with
clarity as it allows the audience to follow his/her line of reasoning to its conclusion. Firstly, secondly, in addition to…
ORDER OF IMPORTANCE – Order of importance is one of the most frequently-employed organizing principles used in
essays and informational pieces. Because it provides the details of a subject in a manner that makes sense for many (a
pyramid structure), it makes a lot of writing easier to follow.
This type of writing organization can be used in two ways, either discussing the details from the most important to the least
or the other way around. Both approaches can work, depending on your overall intent for the material.
Most Important First
Using this structure means revealing the most significant information early on, filling in the rest of the details as the writing
moves forward. Most opinion essays are also arranged in this manner, drawing the reader in with the most impactful ideas
upfront.
Least Important First
Some writers like to employ this method when writing a negative piece, easing readers into the bad features of a product or
reporting an investigative piece without shocking at the onset.
For example, if you are arguing in favor of bill that would reduce air pollution, a reader is likely to lose interest if
you start off with minor points, such as reducing air pollution will help flowers in the local parks to thrive. Flowers
simply are not that important to most people. But if you start with statistics about increases in major, life
threatening diseases, such as cancer or heart disease, illustrated with the story of an otherwise healthy person
who was debilitated by a disease related to air pollution, people are much more likely to pay attention. Once you
have caught the reader's attention and presented your strongest case, you can then buttress your argument with
less important, but still relevant points.
JUXTAPOSITION – A sed by writes to strategy employed by writers to discredit the other side of the argument while at the
same time presenting the writer as thoughtful and well-reasoned.
Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any
hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty (para.5).
In this example, the juxtaposition is "whether it wishes us well or ill," two contrasting ways that other countries
might regard us.
GROUP ASSIGNMENT: IN CLASS DEBATE
Rules:
 First Speaker – 2 minutes
 Second Speaker – 4 minutes
 Third Speaker – 2 minutes
 Preparation of Rebuttal – 3 minutes
 (Third Speaker) Rebuttal – 2 minutes
 Defense – 2 minutes
 Marks will be awards for inclusion of FOUR (4) features of Argument or Persuasion.
 Kindly note that the team is responsible for the Defense, exclusive of the three speakers. The entire team is also
responsible for preparing the rebuttal.
 Best Speaker will be selected on the basis of Body Language, Engagement with the Audience and Charisma.
MOOT #1: Euthanasia should be legalized.
MOOT #2: Knowledge of history enriches one’s world view.
CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES GUIDELINES FOR WRITING MODULE ONE ESSAY
Every year the CXC report continues to lament the fact that students do badly on this essay. This happens because
students either write insufficient information on the effectiveness of the devices or they are confused between the writer’s
main point and the writer’s purpose.
TIPS ON DISTINGUISHING THE MAIN POINT/MAIN IDEA AND THE WRITER’S PURPOSE/INTENTION/INTENT
Remember that the main point/idea is what the writer is writing about, the idea that is coming out from what you are
reading; if you were asked what the piece was about, whatever you respond that should be the main idea. The Main
Idea/Point is NEVER A VERB so it can never be stated like this...” The main point/idea of this passage is to inform...” If you
have done this then your answer will be incorrect. Always remember the main point/idea is never to do something rather it is
stated like this...” The main point/idea of the piece is that students have problems answering the Module One essay...”.
On the other hand the writer’s purpose/intent is ALWAYS STATED AS A VERB! It is what the writer wants happen as a
result of your reading the piece. So, the writer wants to “inform the reader of...”, “to entertain the reader...”, “to criticize...” “to
argue that...”. Remember that all writers write with a purpose/intent in mind, to shift the readers from point A to point B!
If you understand and can identify these two different concept s you are on your way to satisfying one- third of the essay
requirements.
The next two thirds are correctly identifying the language strategies /techniques/devices that the writer employed to help her
achieve the Main Point/ Idea and the Purpose/Intent. Some of the techniques that the writer employs are Simile, Metaphor,
Personification, Alliteration, Imagery, Rhetorical Question, Conversational tone, Anecdote, Historical data, Statistical data,
Repetition, and Humor. Once you have identified a technique you need to write it out (do not give line alone) and then you
must write about the effectiveness of the device, in other words what is this device adding to the piece, how does it appeal
to the senses and therefore to your understanding and most importantly how is it aiding the author to achieve her purpose
and expand her main point? For example when a writer uses the strategy of historical data its effectiveness is to add/lend
credibility to what she is saying as a reader can easily check the records. Conversational tone (found in anecdote and use
of Personal Pronouns) on the other hand allows for the reader to be drawn into the piece as one feels that the writer is
striving to make us comfortable with the piece.
The challenge is NOT TO DEFINE the devices but rather to identify appropriate examples (use quotation marks) from the
passage to support and then say how they add or why you believe that the writer used them and how in rare cases they
took away from the piece.
As with every essay one must have proper organization. There must be an opening, a body for the content and a conclusion
where no new ideas must be introduced. The correct use of transitional words will enhance your essay. Refrain from making
your essay read like a list of devices. For example, do not say the first, the second etc. Do not analyze the piece by its
paragraphs but by the strategies/techniques found.
KINDLY PRINT FOR NEXT CLASS
Read the extract and answer the questions that follow.
Okay, okay. I agree. I actually agree now with the position of a local editor who posits that environmentalists are anti-people.
It’s taken me a couple of weeks. I think all the tree hugging makes me a little slow. I accept it. Environmentalists are really
anti-people. I mean now that I see the light, I totally get where he’s coming from.
Environmentalists must be anti-people. That is why we protest for the loss of quality of life. We value trees more than we
value money. And everybody knows that this is the most shameful thing for a modern consumer to do. Eat it, sleep in it,
bathe yourself in it. Let it soothe your dark hours. Because environmentalists are anti-people and we don’t like progress.
Clearly, the only way to define your progress is in tall buildings and smoke stacks. Tall buildings to mimic tall trees. Shiny
metallic monuments to attract iron birds and upright animals whose only instinct is to make money.
We environmentalists are an over-emotional bunch of zealots, you know. We just don’t understand that progress is about
acquiring things. Civilization is about murdering, decimation, pillaging and conquest. After we’ve gone through all of those
things maybe we might want to consider saving a tree or two. But for now, the focus should be on maximizing everything.
Thank goodness some among us is this society still have the good sense to point out our shortcomings to us. Thank Jah for
the people who are pro-people. Who want to make sure we’re all getting what we deserve from our government that loves
us enough to want to give us a smelter?
Unfortunately, I’m so anti-people I’ll maintain my defiance and wallow in my environmentalist ignorance. My life would be
way too pleasant and predictable any other way.
Attilah Springer
(a) state the speaker’s MAIN point in no more than 30 words
(b) write an essay of no more than 500 words in which you include reference to the following:

The speaker’s purpose

The organizational strategies and language techniques used in the piece

The tone and its appropriateness