ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
CLASS NOTES
CHRSTMAS TERM
Kyra Adams
DEFINITIONS
September 10, 2024
1. Abiotic Factors are the non-living components of the environment, such as
sunlight, soil type, topography, and water.
2. Biotic Factors are the living components of the environment, such as plants,
animals, and fungi.
3. A biome is a specialized ecosystem with distinct vegetation, climate, soil
conditions, and biological communities.
4. Carrying capacity is the maximum population of a species that an environment
can sustain.
5. CITES refers to the "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora," an agreement to ensure that international trade does
not threaten the survival of wild species.
6. A community consists of all the living organisms within a habitat.
7. An ecotone is a boundary or transitional zone between two ecosystems. Within
the ecotone, characteristics of adjoining ecosystems can be observed, such as
coastlines that separate oceans from land.
8. Ecology is the study of interactions between living organisms and their
environment.
9. An ecosystem examines the interaction between biotic and abiotic components
and how they influence each other in creating a stable environment.
10. Ecosystem stability is the ability of an ecosystem to withstand significant changes
over time and repair itself after a natural disaster.
11. The habitat is the place where an organism lives.
12. The hydrosphere refers to the watery portion of the Earth.
13. The keystone species has a specific and critical role in the ecosystem that no
other species can perform.
14. The lithosphere is the upper layer of the Earth, which includes the oceanic and
continental crust.
15. A niche refers to the role or function of an organism within an ecosystem and
everything affected by its existence throughout its lifetime.
16. A population contains living organisms of the same species that live together in
the same area.
17. A species is a group of organisms with common physical features that allow them
to interbreed and produce viable offspring.
18. Species diversity refers to species richness in the environment.
19. A threatened species is one that is rare, vulnerable, or in danger.
20. Vulnerable species are prone to population depletion or endangerment, primarily
due to human activities.
21. The atmosphere is the layer where all the Earth's gases are held.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOTIC AND
ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTS
October 7, 2024
Biotic and Abiotic Environments
Ecosystems are influenced by both biological and physical factors. Biotic factors are the
living influences on organisms within an ecosystem, while abiotic factors are the non-living
elements that shape ecosystems. Both biotic and abiotic factors determine the survival,
growth, and productivity of organisms and their ecosystems. A habitat includes both of these
factors.
Biotic Factors
An ecosystem is home to various plants and animals living together. In ecology, living
organisms are referred to as a population or community. A population consists of organisms
of the same species, while a community comprises all the populations of different species
present. Their interactions with each other contribute to the success of the ecosystem.
Abiotic Factors
The key abiotic factors include climatic influences such as light, temperature, wind, and
water availability. Additionally, edaphic factors relate to soil properties like texture, nutrient
status, acidity, and moisture content. These abiotic factors determine which organisms can
survive in a habitat, indicating that organisms living in a particular environment are well
adapted to its specific conditions.
Topographic Factors
These factors include the angle and aspect of a slope, which influence local climatic and
edaphic conditions.
ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS
October 7, 2024
Food Chains and Food Webs:
1. A food chain represents a one-directional flow of energy, beginning with the sun or
decomposers that create food through inorganic means, such as bacteria, in addition to
producers (autotrophs).
2. A food web consists of interconnected food chains, where herbivores and carnivores
consume multiple sources.
3. As energy transfers through the chain/web, 90% of energy is lost, while 10% is
retained or gained.
4. A trophic level is a stage in a food chain where organisms obtain food in the same
manner.
5. Typical food chain sequence: Producers (mainly plants) are consumed by herbivores
(primary consumers), which are then eaten by carnivores (secondary consumers).
Examples include first-level secondary consumers and second-level tertiary
consumers.
Energy Transfer and Ecological Pyramids
Energy Transfer Between Trophic Levels:

The transfer of energy within food webs is inefficient, with only about 10% of
available energy being passed on to the next trophic level.

Much of the total energy, known as biomass, is lost at each level due to heat and
energy used for reproduction, growth, and repairs.

Consequently, organisms at higher trophic levels have significantly less energy
available.
Ecological Pyramids:

Ecological pyramids visually depict the relative proportions of energy or biomass at
each level of a food chain.

They provide a general overview of energy and nutrient distribution within
ecosystems.
Types of Ecological Pyramids:
1. Pyramid of Numbers: Illustrates the number of organisms at each trophic level.
2. Pyramid of Biomass: Represents the total biomass at each trophic level.
3. Pyramid of Energy: Shows the energy available at each level of the food chain.
Pyramid of Numbers
An ecological pyramid of numbers is a diagram that shows the number of organisms at each
level of a food chain in an ecosystem:
What it shows
The total number of organisms at each trophic level, without considering their biomass or
size
Inverted Pyramid
An inverted pyramid of numbers can occur when a few producers with large biomass support
many smaller consumers, or when parasites feed on large host animals
Limitations
Only applicable to simple food chains, and doesn't consider seasonal or climate variations
The pyramid of numbers is similar to a bar diagram indicating numbers of organisms in a
food chain. Elton's original observations of the abundance of animals noted that:

ecosystems are populated by very large numbers of small animals and small numbers
of larger.

predators are larger than prey and able to catch easily.

because the prey is small, it takes the predator a long time to collect sufficient food.

small creatures reproduce much faster, hence the supply of small organisms to power
a food chain.
Organisms within an ecosystem are counted or estimated, then the number within each group
was represented by a rectangle with an area directly proportional to the number of organisms
in that group.
Pyramid of
Numbers
The Pyramid of Biomass represents the total mass of organisms at each trophic level within
an ecosystem. Here's a breakdown:
Pyramid of Biomass:

This ecological pyramid shows the relative amount of living organic matter available
at each trophic level.

Biomass is measured in units such as grams per square meter (g/m²) or kilograms per
hectare (kg/ha).

Unlike the Pyramid of Numbers, which only counts the number of organisms, the
Pyramid of Biomass takes into account the size and weight of the organisms.
Characteristics:
1. Base: The base of the pyramid is composed of producers (mainly plants), which have
the highest biomass as they capture energy from the sun through photosynthesis.
2. Middle Levels: These levels consist of herbivores and primary consumers, which
have less biomass compared to the producers.
3. Top Levels: The top levels include secondary and tertiary consumers, which have the
least biomass due to the energy lost at each trophic level.
Example:

In a grassland ecosystem, the base might consist of grasses and plants, the middle
levels could include herbivores like rabbits, and the top levels might feature predators
such as foxes.
Inverted Pyramids:

Sometimes, the Pyramid of Biomass can be inverted, particularly in aquatic
ecosystems where the biomass of primary consumers (such as zooplankton) can
exceed that of the producers (like phytoplankton) at any given moment. This is
because phytoplankton reproduce very quickly and are rapidly consumed by
zooplankton.
Pyriamid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
Definition:

A Pyramid of Energy illustrates the flow of energy through each trophic level in an
ecosystem over a specific time period.
Key Points:
1. Base (Producers):
o
Producers, such as plants and algae, capture solar energy and convert it into
chemical energy through photosynthesis.
o
This level contains the most energy as it directly receives energy from the sun.
2. Middle Levels (Primary Consumers):
o
Primary consumers are herbivores that obtain energy by consuming producers.
o
Examples include rabbits, deer, and insects.
o
Only about 10% of the energy from producers is transferred to herbivores; the
rest is lost as heat through metabolic processes.
3. Top Levels (Secondary and Tertiary Consumers):
o
Secondary consumers are carnivores that obtain energy by eating herbivores,
while tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat other carnivores.
o
Examples: Wolves (secondary), Eagles (tertiary).
o
Energy diminishes further at these levels, with only 10% of the previous
level's energy being passed on.
Characteristics:

Energy pyramids are always upright because energy decreases as you move up each
trophic level.

Energy is measured in units such as joules or calories per square meter per year
(J/m²/year).
Importance:

Provides an accurate representation of energy flow in an ecosystem.

Highlights the inefficiency of energy transfer across trophic levels.

Helps in understanding the energy dynamics and sustainability of ecosystems.
Example:

In a grassland ecosystem, the base of the pyramid would be composed of grasses and
plants, the middle levels would include herbivores like rabbits, and the top levels
would feature predators such as hawks.
Pyramid of Energy
Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the process by which organisms occupy an area during changing
environmental conditions over time. When new landforms are created, the first set of species
to occupy that space is considered the pioneer population (e.g., grass, mosses, algae, [lichen
form]).
When the population of new species changes because of nutrient build-up, climatic changes
that can add moisture, or any other abiotic factor, the next set of dominant species is
considered the primary successors species.
NICHES AND COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
October 8, 2024
Niche
There are 2 types of niche:
Fundamental Niche - This is a niche/type of environment where an ideal situation exists
with no competition or environmental resistors exist. (ideal human/animal life)
Realized Niche - This is usually an environment with limiting factors and a true
representation of actual living conditions of organisms.
Community Ecology
The organisms within an ecosystem take part in interactions such as:

Competition

Symbiosis

Predator and Prey
Competition
Resources are very limited, so organisms compete for them, for example, space, light,
mineral ions; animals may compete for food, shelter, and mates.
When a resource is in short supply and prevents unlimited growth, it is known as a limiting
factor.
Competition among individuals of the same species is known as intraspecific competition.
(food, habitat, space, light)
Competition among individuals of different species is interspecific competition.
ECOSYSTEM STABILITY AND RESILIANCE
October 9, 2024
Ecosystem Stability and Diversity are hinged around the evolution of organisms, natural
selection or survival of the fittest, and adaptability.
Charles Darwin, in his theory, states that all species have the ability to go through natural
selection. This is mainly through competitive relationships where the weak or very weak, old
and young are always the ones that are first sought for predatory relationships.
Natural selection for humans varies when looking for artificial characteristics (e.g., hair,
eyes).
Evolution is usually defined as the adaptation of species to their surrounding environments
over time. However, adaptation is mainly physical, but evolution can go through chemical
processes where gene mutation can occur over time.
Evolution is a slow, continuous process just as the environment and climatic conditions are
constantly changing over time.
Adaptation is the capacity of an organism to withstand extreme physical conditions such as
environmental hazards/water shortages.
Succession in a community can give rise to diversity in the environment which can affect
the ecosystem. The more diverse an ecosystem is, the more stable it is because it can
withstand significant changes over time and repair any damages after natural disasters.
Biotic & Abiotic factors influence the ecological succession process. Climax communities
are usually complex communities where ecosystems are interwoven by feeding relationships,
forming more of a food web than a food chain.
1. The more stable an ecosystem is, the more resilient it is to natural disturbances.
2. Many different species occupy each trophic level and can act as fillers when others
are stressed or eliminated by external forces.
Ecosystem stability makes the whole community resistant to changes, recovering faster,
increasing the density of the area.
METHODS OF ESTIMATION
October 14, 2024
Example of species of fish in an ecosystem.
Diversity Index
The Diversity Index measures the diversity within a community. It takes into account the
number of species present (species richness) and the abundance of each species (species
evenness).
The Diversity Index formula is a way to measure how many different kinds of organisms are
in a community and how evenly they are distributed. More variety and even distribution
mean a higher diversity index.

A higher number means more diversity, and a lower number means less diversity.
Formula:
Diversity =
N(N−1)
Σn (n−1)
Where:

N = Total number of organisms of all species

n = Number of individuals of each species

D = Diversity index
Example Calculation: For Ecosystem A:
Diversity =
85(84)
Σ[7(6) + 20(19) + 13(12) + 40(39) + 5(4)]
Diversity=
7140
2158
Diversity= 3.31D = 3.31
2. Population Size Estimation
The Population Size Estimation calculates the size of a population using various methods,
such as the capture-mark-release-recapture method.
1. No. of recapture sample: Total number of individuals captured in the second
sampling.
2. No. of marked individuals in the initial capture: Number of individuals initially
marked and released.
3. Recaptured sample: Number of marked individuals recaptured in the second
sampling.
Formula:
Pop size(x)=
No. of recapture sample
No. Of marked individuals in initial capture (X) recaptured sample
Example Calculation:
1. Initial capture: Mark and release 50 fish.
2. Recapture: 30 fish are captured, 10 of which are marked.
Using the formula:
Pop size(x)=
30
50 X 10
(x)=
30
500
(x)=
0.06
Diversity Index Calculation for Ecosystem A, B, and C
Indices to determine the population size, the relationships between living organisms and
their environment, and the types of interactions between organisms in communities are
calculated/measured using human resource management and conservation techniques.
Sampling Methods:

For moving organisms: The main method is the capture-mark-release-recapture
technique.

For non-moving or slow-moving organisms: The quadrat and transect methods are
used.
Interpreting Results
Diversity Index (D):

A higher value of D indicates a more diverse and stable ecosystem.

Lower values suggest less diversity, indicating possible dominance of a few species.
Population Size:

A larger population size value indicates a healthy, sustainable population.

A smaller population size might indicate a struggling or declining population.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY NATURAL
ECOSYSTEMS
October 16, 2024
Indices to determine the population size, the relationships between living organisms and
their environment, and the types of interactions between organisms in communities are
calculated/measured using human resource management and conservation techniques.
Sampling Methods:

For moving organisms: The main method is the capture-mark-release-recapture
technique.

For non-moving or slow-moving organisms: The quadrat and transect methods are
used.
When looking at species diversity, there are many factors that can hinder its growth (biotic
potential). The density or frequency of most populations is assessed using:
1. Birth/mortality rate
2. Death/fatality rate
3. Migration/Emigration/Immigration
4. Fecundity (the ability of a woman to conceive)
5. Age-sex structures
6. Doubling time of the country
7. Factors such as natural disasters, politics, and war, poverty
8. Fertility rate
These factors will increase with increasing population densities and are referred to as densitydependent factors.
When experiencing exponential growth or biotic potential, there are essentially no limits to
population increase in the area. This type of increase is usually rapid but not sustainable in
the long term.
Sustainability
1. Lag Stage:
o
Shows very little growth.
o
Few organisms with a low reproductive rate.
o
Organisms are usually adjusting to their environment.
2. Exponential Growth (Log Phase):
o
Shows accelerated growth.
o
Ideal conditions lead to maximum reproduction rates.
3. Caribbean Replacement Fertility:
o
The replacement fertility rate is 2.5.
4. Environmental Resistors:
o
These are factors that cause the number of organisms to decrease, often
rapidly.
o
Includes biotic factors (living) and abiotic factors (non-living).
o
Examples: light, heat, space, predation, food availability, and internal
regulatory mechanisms like behavioral adaptation and competition (intraspecific for the same species, inter-specific for different species).
Carrying Capacity
This refers to the maximum level at which a habitat can sustainably support a population
indefinitely.
Benefits and Importance of Natural Ecosystems
According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, natural ecosystems provide benefits in
four major categories:
1. Provisioning Services (Economic): These generate income directly or indirectly
through skilled and unskilled labor, contributing to GDP, GNP, and foreign
investments.
o
Food: From land and sea.
o
Water: For fishing, transport, and energy.
o
Minerals: Extracted for various uses.
o
Raw Materials: For decorations and processing.
o
Energy: From oil and hydropower.
o
Genetic Resources: Supporting eco-tourism.
o
Medical Resources: Providing natural compounds for medicine.
2. Regulatory Services:
o
Biogeochemical Cycles: Essential processes like the carbon and nitrogen
cycles.
o
Climate Regulation: Maintaining a stable climate through natural
mechanisms.
Regulating Services:

Flooding/erosion control

Purification of water & air

Waste decomposition and detoxification

Pollination for agriculture food production/food security

Natural pest & disease control

Population regulation
Supporting Services: These are ecosystem services that are essential for the production of all
other services provided/natural resources.

Nutrient cycling

Seed dispersal

Soil formation

Primary productivity (food webs/chain, photosynthesis)

Provision of habitats (coral reefs, forests)

Ecosystem stability
Cultural Services: The non-material/intrinsic values that humans obtain from natural
resources include:

Inspiration for art & light

A stress reliever/aesthetic value

Scientific and teaching purposes such as bio prospecting

Recreational for land/aquatic activities
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
November 20th, 2024
Human activities, population distribution, and density are affected by both biotic & abiotic
factors such as:
1. Climate
2. Relief
3. Soil
4. River and Water Supply
5. Natural Resources
6. Industry
7. Politics
8. Trade and Natural Vegetation
Climate in areas that have hostile environments, such as Northern Alaska, the Sahara Desert,
and parts of Haiti, are considered either too cold, too hot, or too dry. These extreme
conditions make agriculture difficult and expensive, thus discouraging people from living or
farming there.
The tropical climate by the Caribbean Sea promotes a more productive agriculture sector in
places such as Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbados, and Guyana, where they have more than 2 crop
seasons per year.
Significant agriculture technology, resources and products to feed not only the
Caribbean but for foreign exchange for Caribbean markets.
Relief The relief looks at the physical features of the landscape such as the altitude (height
above sea level), angle of slope and the aspect (direction in which the slope faces). It is easier
and cheaper to build homes, roads and towns on flat surfaces (coastertown) and it is also
easier to farm since agricultural machinery cannot be used safely on slopes steeper than 10°
from the horizon.
Population densities are often higher on flat lower parts of valleys rather than slopes. In areas
of high altitude the weather is colder, the growing season shorter and most persons run from
this type of setting.
Soil Fertile soils are key factors in determining population size and density. Large
populations are found in areas where agricultural productivity can be most supported.
Rivers and Water Supply
Rivers provide the main method of long-distance transport for early settlements. Now they
are being used for recreation and tourism activities and, in some cases, irrigation for
agriculture and fishing.
DEMOGRAPHICS
November 27th, 2024
Demographics is the study of population and thus can be used to determine employment
by government size and to make predictions for future changes in the population.
Age, sex structure
This looks at the pattern for people using grouping by age we are usually classified by 5 year
intervals it also does separation by sex or gender. There are 3 types of population age
structures:
a) Expansive - has a broad base and a very small top - shows a rapidly increasing population
which is very common for Caribbean / Developing countries.
b) The constructive Pyramids - represents decreasing population / Negative growth where the
bottom section is usually the smallest eg. very developed countries eg. USA.
c) Stable / stationary pyramids - This is where the population shows very slow or zero growth
where the mid section of the pyramid is larger than the top as well as the bottom. This is
common for developing countries and
When calculating population growth rate, we have to take certain parameters into
consideration:
1. Birth rate
2. Death rate
3. Migration
4. Emigration
5. Life expectancy
6. The rate at which the population doubles
Factors Affecting Population Growth Rate:
1. Culture:
o
The values and norms of society influence the number of children that people
have. For example, in some cultures, like among Muslims, having many boy
children is seen as a sign of wealth, and therefore, they encourage having
many children.
2. Economic Development:
o
Highly economically developed countries tend to have a high level of
education and strong work ethics. Individuals may have longer working hours,
higher economic status, and better health efficiency, leading to having fewer
children.
3. Family Planning Access:
o
Family planning programs help educate people on how many children to have
and when to have them. These programs also provide access to affordable
contraceptives and other control methods.
4. Government Policies:

Governments play a crucial role in population regulation. They can implement
policies to promote growth or decrease and allocate more budget towards family
planning services, healthcare, pension schemes, or other incentives, e.g., China.
5. Lack of Affluence:

If a country has great wealth and abundant resources, these are indicators of a high
standard of living and high economic development. In such instances, people spend
more on education and their economic status, leading to delayed childbearing.
6. Pension Schemes Availability:

Availability of pension schemes through proper government policies reduces the need
for a "security child."
7. Level or Cost of Education:

In many Caribbean countries, educational opportunities, especially for women, impact
fertility rates. Increased education leads to improved healthcare and family planning
options, reducing infant and child mortality and providing women with career options
and ways to achieve status beyond having children.
Poverty and Health Care
Poverty can greatly increase the population of a country. For example, in Haiti, couples
cannot afford contraceptives, leading to a high population growth rate. Haiti also practices
peasant farming on a large scale, so families have many children to help work on the farm
and increase their overall income. Poverty increases infant mortality because parents in these
poor rural areas lack access to good healthcare, so families compensate by having more
children in hopes that some will survive to adulthood.
Religion
Some religions oppose the use of artificial contraceptives, for example, Rastafarians and
Hebrews, or encourage sex before marriage or early marriages in women. This helps to
increase the fertility rate since natural family planning measures may be unreliable, and the
young age of marriages increases reproductive years.
Social and Economic Status of Women
When women have access to education and paying jobs, they suddenly discover their rights
and tend to have fewer and healthier children. In today's society, these rights are being upheld
through governments and other agencies to help slow population growth and improve cultural
norms.
Population Control Methods
December 2, 2022
There are 2 main types of population control methods:
1. Indirect Method
o
These are not very reliable or can be controlled
2. Direct Method
o
These use family planning measures and methods / Governmental policies:

a. Budgetary allocations for contraceptives, education, healthcare for
infants, and/or family planning services, e.g., in Guyana GRPA
(Guyana Responsible Parenthood Association).

b. Tax structure and incentives based on family sizes

c. Policies to promote later marriages

d. Incentives for smaller families


Some countries offer medical care, schooling, housing,
retirement funds, and pension schemes to promote this.
e. Promote social and economic status of women through advocacy
Penalties and fines for larger families
NB: All contraceptives given thus include not only the pills but also vasectomy, sterilization,
tying of tubes, and other methods like condom use, and the copper T.
Consumption Patterns for Population
December 3, 2024
Consumption patterns vary between developed and developing countries for the following:
1. Food consumption
2. Fuel consumption
3. Water consumption
4. Waste production
5. Greenhouse gas emissions
The use of resources is referred to as per capita consumption.
Developed countries have high per capita consumption of resources even though their
populations are smaller, and vice versa for developing countries. Developing countries
usually demand more for better lifestyles and economic gains.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland
Report) or the common future.
The idea of sustainable development emerged in the 1970s and 1980s and became a
significant issue at the Earth Summit in Rio De Janeiro, which led to the definition and the
creation of three main policy documents:
1. The Climate Change Convention on Global Warming
2. The Biodiversity Convention, which deals with the protection of flora and fauna
3. The Agenda 21 report that addresses sustainable development and the need to
conserve the environment and its resources
Aims of Sustainable Development:
1. To ensure a better life for everyone, now and for future generations
2. To achieve social progress, economic growth, high resource maintenance,
employment, and education, without compromising the environment
The Climate Change Convention on Global Warming
The Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement is an international treaty signed by many countries to address climate
change. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius and to pursue
efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. This agreement encourages
countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and transition to renewable energy
sources.
How can sustainable development be achieved
January 6th, 2025
Sustainable development requires:
1. More recycling of water and waste
Recycling Water: After washing dishes, the leftover water can be collected and used to water
plants. This way, instead of letting the water go down the drain, it gets a second use. The soap
and food particles in the water can even act as a mild fertilizer for the plants.
Recycling Waste: Organic kitchen waste like vegetable peels, coffee grounds, and eggshells
can be composted. The compost can then be used to enrich garden soil, providing nutrients
for plants and reducing the need for chemical fertilizers.
2. Less wastage of energy and raw materials
Using Wood Shavings: When you work with wood, the leftover shavings can be repurposed
instead of being thrown away. For example, wood shavings can be used as mulch in gardens
to help retain moisture in the soil and suppress weeds. They can also be used for decorative
purposes in landscaping.
Turning Lights On and Off: Every time you turn a light on, it uses a surge of energy. If you
frequently turn lights on and off, it can lead to more energy consumption. To reduce this
wastage, it's sometimes more efficient to leave the light on if you plan to return to the room
shortly.
3. Greater energy conservation
Energy conservation is the practice of using less energy to reduce overall energy
consumption.
Carpooling is when multiple people share a ride in one vehicle instead of each person driving
their own car. This helps conserve energy in several ways:
Reduced Fuel Consumption: Fewer cars on the road means less fuel is burned overall.
Lower Emissions: With fewer vehicles, there are fewer emissions, which is better for the
environment.
Less Traffic Congestion: Fewer cars can lead to smoother traffic flow, which means less
idling and wasted fuel.
4. More use of clean and non-polluting production methods
Green Manufacturing: Companies can use eco-friendly materials and processes to reduce
pollution. For example, using water-based paints instead of solvent-based ones reduces
harmful emissions.
Waste-to-Energy: Converting waste materials into energy through processes like anaerobic
digestion can reduce landfill waste and produce clean energy.
5. More use of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power
Solar Power: Installing solar panels on rooftops to harness sunlight and convert it into
electricity. This reduces reliance on fossil fuels and lowers greenhouse gas emissions.
Wind Power: Using wind turbines to generate electricity. Wind farms can be set up on land
or offshore to capture wind energy and convert it into clean power.
There are some policies that helps us achieve sustainable development.
Government polices
1. Green Taxation or Clean Air Act: These are environmentally friendly policies aimed
at reducing pollution and promoting sustainability.
2. Recycling Taxes: In some places, like Europe, there are taxes and regulations that
focus on recycling materials such as paper, metal, glass, and plastic. For example, you
may need to rinse a glass bottle or tin before recycling it to avoid fines. Similarly,
cardboard boxes must be taken apart before recycling.
3. Carbon Tax Law of Norway: Introduced in 1991, this law focuses on reducing
carbon emissions into the atmosphere. The European Union also has laws for civil
engineering projects to mitigate their environmental impact.
4. Legislation and Environmental Protection Agencies: These agencies can take direct
action to legally monitor and control pollution and environmental damage. They
oversee new developments, such as housing schemes, to ensure they are
environmentally friendly. They also operate in areas affected by war or poverty to
protect the environment and public health.
Guyana has the environmental protection agance, however we do not have a saniatary
agency.
Energy
At the 1992 Rio Summit, high incomoe countries, only the agree to bring their fossil fuel
emissions back to the 1990 levels by the year 2000, only the UK an Germany had managed to
achieve this target.

In Germany, this was achieved by closing down coal powered stations that were dirty
and inefficient.

The UK achieved this by turning their coal industries to gas-fire power stations
because the burning gas, emitted less pollution than coal. However, there is still a dubt
on whether this move is sustainable, since, Nirth Sea gas reserves be one day be
exhausted.
In the future, China, US, European Union and Asia, believe that they will be included for
environmentally friend and sustainable energy resources.
The European Union made significant strides in environmental protection by partnering with
Guyana. They signed a five-year deal worth €50 million to help protect Guyana's forests. This
partnership aimed to promote sustainable forest management and reduce deforestation.
However, the deal ended in 2015, and Guyana shifted its focus towards oil extraction, which
has increased its carbon footprint
Urban Dwelling
Traditionally urbanisation was viewed as a process or destruction since cities grew rapidly for
large number of persons, creating massive environmental problems, for sanitation, healthdue to the close proximity- five times more poor people than rural areas infringing on soil
fertility, and creating lots of social issues such as crime.
RESOURCES
2023-01-13
A resource is anything that is useful in the production of goods and services that people
consume.
Natural resources are resources that naturally occur in nature. These include animals, plants,
fossil fuels, minerals, and the sun's energy.
Resources are broken up into two types:
Renewable Resources - These are resources that can replenish themselves within our
lifetime. They are considered infinite since they can be used again and again.
Non-renewable Resources - These are resources that cannot replenish themselves within the
human lifetime and may only occur in a fixed quantity, resulting in very slow regeneration
over millions of years. Examples include fossil fuels and coal.
All resources have the ability to go through exhaustion. Exhaustible resources are dependent
on the rate and type of use since they have the potential to finish. Inexhaustible resources
are limitless.
Resources can also be consumptive and non-consumptive.

Consumptive resources are resources that can be consumed and their stock supply
becomes depleted or reduced over time.

Non-consumptive resources are resources where the stock amount is not depleted or
reduced noticeably while being utilized.
When dealing with natural resources, we must consider the term bioprospecting.
Bioprospecting is known as the search for development and commercialization of new and
useful sources of compounds, genes, plants and animals, microorganisms, and any valuable
product from the natural ecosystem.
Natural resources are broken down into four categories (WEMS):

Water

Ecosystem and Biodiversity

Minerals and Hydrocarbon

Soil, Beaches, and Mountains