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Margeret Garner
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Paul Halsall
Listening to Medieval Music
©[
Author: Paul Halsall
Title: Listening to Medieval Music
Date: 1999: last revised 01/18/2000]
_______________________________________________________________
In the summer of 1999, I made a concerted effort to get a better grasp of medieval
music -- better that is, than that acquired by listening to the odd recording here and there.
In this document, I outline the general development of music in proto-Western
and Western cultures from the time of the earliest information until the beginning of the
tonal era, around 1600. Since I am not a musicologist, this outline derives from reading in
secondary sources [see bibliography at the end], information supplied with the better CDs
and some online sources. Appreciation of almost all serious music is improved by some
effort to understand its history and development -- and indeed until very recently any
educated person would have had some music education. In the case of Ancient and
Medieval music, such effort is essential to enjoyment of the music, unless appreciation is
to go no further that a certain "new age" mood setting.
For each major period, I list suggested CDs [and occasionally other types of
media] which document or attempt to represent the music. These CDs are not the only
ones available to illustrate the musical history of Western civilization, but they are
however, the ones I have available. [Those marked with * are additional titles that I have
not been able to assess personally.] For a much greater selection of available CDs see
The Early Music FAQ [http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/], which provides general
overviews, and lists of the contents of the vast majority of recordings of early music.
In addition, I have added excerpts, comments, and summaries of music history
from reasonable online guides.
Ancient and Medieval Music: Performance
There are all sorts of problems with modern presentations of pre-1600 music -- but the
current effort seems to be towards "historically informed performance" [HIP] with an
awareness that however "right" you get the instruments, vocalization, etc. you will never
get a "historically correct audience." It is HIP which distinguishes, for instance, even if
sometimes tendentious, recordings of groups like Sequentia or the Ensemble Organum
from the new-agey, not to say trippy, recordings such as Vision: The Music of Hildegarde
of Bingen. Almost all the HIP recordings available are of the music of socially privileged
groups. There is no real basis whatsoever, it seems, for HIP reconstructions of folk music.
Ancient and Medieval Music: Periodization
Periodization is always a contentious matter, but there are some broad outlines:
Ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian Music. Although there are efforts to present
reconstructions of this music, data is very sparse, and even the small amount of annotated
music seems to have no connection to later forms.
Greek and Roman Music. About 70 minutes worth of annotated Greek music survives,
and rather a lot of description of Roman music. There seems to be no direct stylistic link
between this surviving music and later medieval forms. Greek theorists, however, did
write about the mathematical principles of harmonics, and speculated on the philsophical
implications of music. These ideas survived into the medieval world, and beyond.
Thus the period between the 2nd and 4th centuries represents a real break in musical
history. Modern Western music develops from Medieval forms, but cannot be pushed
back any further.
Early Christian Music. There are no firm data -- with the exception of one hymn tune -about the earliest Christian music. We do know that Christians rejected any music which
was associated with pagan religion -- and that included instrumental music and theater
music. From the 4th century we know there is a tradition of monodic chant in both eastern
and western Christendom, and interchange of melodies and techniques. Augustine, for
instance, describes Ambrose' introduction of Eastern singing at Milan. An important
moment was the introduction of Pslam singing into the eucharist, apparently in the mid to
late 4th century.
Liturgical Chant. There were a variety of chant traditions, some of which still survive.
 Syrian chant, which may have impacted on Byzantine Greek music via monastic
and hymnographical diffusion.
 Coptic chant, representing the liturgy of the numerically largest early Christian
church.
 Armenian chant.
 Byzantine chant, or the chant of the Greek Church. This must have been
established in the 4-5th centuries, with huge numbers of hymns surviving from the
6th century and on. Its annotation is rather late, however. Apart from western
chant traditions, Byzantine chant was adapted, and underwent distinctive
development, in Slavic countries after the 10th century.
 Western chant, which had a variety of forms. Modern renditions of the early
forms of this chant often emphasize the Eastern connections, and some use the
"ison" -- the underlying tone heard in modern Greek Orthodox chant.
 Ambrosian chant -- the chant of the church of Milan, a tradition that was able
to survive all later efforts at uniformity because of the prestige of St. Ambrose.
 Beneventan Chant -- used in the Cathedral of Benevento and other parts of S.
Italy.
 "Old Roman" Chant -- the chant of the Church of Rome from about the 7th to
the 13th centuries. This is *not* "Gregorian chant" but a quite distinct singing
style.


Mozarabic chant -- or the chant of Iberian Christians. It survived under the
Islamic occupation, but was suppressed in the 11th century, and revived in the
late 15th century.
 Gallican chant -- a variety used in Merovingian Gaul.
Carolingian Chant, usually known as Gregorian Chant or Plainchant. In the mid-8th
century, Carolingian leaders -- with their imperial ambitions -- decided to reject
Gallican forms, and adopt Roman chant. In practice, however, the took over the
chants and some melodies of the Roman church but then significantly modified what
they had found. For instance the "eight modes" ("oktoechos") schema of Byzantine
music was adopted, and singing styles changed. The result was the chant style which
became by far the most common in the West -- and which was eventually ascribed to
Pope Gregory I "the Great." Deliberate efforts were made to impose this style, and it
eventually displaced other forms of chant -- for instance Mozarabic chant in the 11th
century and Old Roman chant in the 13th. Unlike the other earlier forms of chant,
which survive in a small number of manuscripts, "Gregorian" chant manuscripts are
very widespread, and exhibit a great deal of consistency, with some regional
variations.
An important stage in the history of "Gregorian" chant was the transition from a
neumatic notation system, in which the movement of melody was indicated, but not
the pitch, to the use of a stave, which allowed proper recording of pitch.
(Vocalization, speed, and other stylistic aspects were not recorded, which leads to the
variety of modern efforts to record this music.)
Plainchant continued to be used in churches and Cathedrals as the usual and normal
method of singing until the 16th century and later.
Polyphony. Various and spontaneous efforts at polyphony seem to have taken place for
centuries, but in the later 12th century, the development of stave-based notation allowed
the creation of repertoires of written polyphonic music -- with two distinct centers in
Aquitaine and Notre-Dame in Paris. This polyphonic music was often based on
plainchant, which continued to be used for most services.
Non-liturgical Music. The "high" culture music of the Western middle ages was
connected to the forms set by chant. A great deal of "paraliturgical" music was written
for uses by pilgrims, or for popular presentation. "Troubadour" music fits into this
scheme -- it was composed not by romantic "wandering minstrels" but by members of the
high nobility. In recent years the music of Hildgard of Bingen has become popular,
although how much was performed at the time is open to question.
There must also have been a tradition of popular music -- using more rhythm,
percussion instrumentation, and with tendency to strophic lyrics.
Thirteenth- and Fourteenth-century Music. A series of professional composers in the 13
and 14th century composed self-conscious music of great complexity and subtlety in a
number of national styles..
Renaissance Music. From circa 1400-1600 an international style of music developed -with Plainchant continuing to be an important presence.
Reformation and Catholic Reformation. These great religious movements both attempted
to regulate music for ideological reasons. Luther and followers in Germany created the
chorale and a huge number of hymns. Catholic composers such as Palestrina responded
to reforming criticism of late-medieval polyphony and created liturgical music that
enabled the words to be heard.
Music of American Conquest. Despite an large number of recordings focused on "music
in the time of Columbus," such music is simply the music of the Spanish Renaissance,
and will not appear especially connected to exploration. [Listen to Vangelis' 1492 for
that!]. Much more interesting are recent recordings of music composed in Spanish and
French America, in some cases by indigenous composers.
The Baroque Era 1600-c.1750. Around 1600 a number of changes in music occurred
simultaneously, and we have a real break in musical history: a series of national styles
emerged; opera began as an important form, and modern conceptions of tonality began to
prevail. Although "baroque" music is counted as "early music" in modern categorizations
- because, unlike the music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, it does not have a
continuous performance tradition -- it is quite distinct from earlier "medieval" music.
Notes on Buying Medieval Music CDs
Some notes on buying experiences.
1. Buying online is cheaper than in a store only if you purchase three or more disks. The
online sellers offer discounts and no sales tax, and when a number of disks ships at one
time, the shipping costs become less an issue. In general, CDWorld.com's prices are
cheaper, but Amazon.com ships faster, lets you track orders more easily, and has more
rapid customer service.
2. If in a city with an outlet/discount store -- such as the Tower Outlet in New York -- a
lot of early music CD's are available. [At Tower the very same disk that costs $19 in the
main store can often be had for $7 in the outlet.]
3. Thank God for Naxos. This label's "Early Music" series has issued a whole series of
excellent recordings, and generally sells at less than $8 a disc.
4. The very best used-CD location for this type of music seems to be Academy Music on
18th St., between 5th and 6th Avenue in New York.
Near Eastern and Egyptian Music
Ancient Middle East and Egypt
The inhabitants of the Mesopotamian region around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (the
Sumerians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians) flourished from c. 3500 to c. 500 BC. Their
pictures and the few surviving artifacts indicate that they had instruments of every basic type-idiophones, whose sound is made by resonating as a whole; aerophones, which resonate a column
of blown air; chordophones, with strings to be plucked or struck; and membranophones, made of
stretched skins over a resonating body. An undecipherable hymn engraved in stone, dating from c.
800 BC, is evidence of a primitive system of musical notation.
The Egyptians, entering historical times about 500 years later than the Mesopotamians,
enjoyed all of the same types of activities and instruments, as may be deduced from numerous
written references to music as well as seen on many artifacts, especially the pictures preserved on
pottery utensils
The musical culture of the Hebrew peoples, recorded from about 2000 BC and
documented primarily in the Old Testament, was more directly influential in the West because of
its adoption and adaptation into the Christian liturgy. Because of the prohibition of Jewish
religious law against the making of "graven images," there are very few surviving artifacts or
pictures. Among the established practices of the temple service still current in the synagogue are
the extensive use of the shofar (a ritualistic ram's-horn trumpet) and the singing of passages from
the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament), prayers, and songs of praise.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=2> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Ankh: The Sound of Ancient Egypt
Michael Atherton
Celestial Harmonies
[Each set of tracks is based on a theme, beginning with an effort at vocalization, and
then a series of instrumental tracks. It might be worth considering that the Oxyrhnchus
hymn on the various ancient Greek CD's is using Egyptian themes.]
Reviews at Amazon.com
This album is based on a challenging idea: Try to recreate a musical form from a culture
and period that left behind no recordings or musical notation, using only history, a description of
the instruments, and some historical artifacts. It takes intuition as much as scholarship and
craftsmanship to recreate the ancient instruments of Egypt--from simple percussion and flutes to
boat-shaped and triangular harps and trumpets. Atherton, with his musicians and singers, exhibits
both innovation and skill, offering not so much a look at how the music actually was, but more an
intuitive guess at how it might have been, keeping the music first and history a close but wellheeled second. It can be frantic one moment and somber the next, as each of these lengthy song
suites develops organically around a song or a piece of poetry--offering both early music and
improvisational music aficionados something unique. Excellent recording quality is augmented by
well-documented notes on history and instrumental research. --Louis Gibson
Notes from celestial@harmonies.com , May 17, 1999
A creative reconstruction of ancient Egyptian music... The artists: Multi-instrumentalist Michael
Atherton composed and produced this recording. He is an internationally travelled performer,
composer, author of books on musical instruments, an accomplished composer for the screen, and
writes chamber music. Since 1993, he has served as a Foundation Professor at the University of
Western Sydney, Nepean. The artists featured on this extraordinary reconstruction of the sound of
ancient Egypt include some of Australia's finest musicians: Michael Atherton, Mina Kanaridis,
Philip South and Greg Hebblewhite. Mary Demovic provides spoken word and the chorus is
comprised of Maria Campbell, Angela Shrimpton, Stephen Clark, and Hasan Shanal. Using visual
records, Atherton gathered and adapted a variety of similar instru-ments from various cultures
(Greek, Turkish, Indian, Egyptian, etc.) to recreate the sound of ancient Egypt. These include:
sambuca (boat-shaped harp), a trigon (angle harp), auloi (double-oboes), a shawm to simulate a
Tutankhamun trumpet), adapting bronze disks and metal rods to simulate sistra, a pair of Turkish
zils to simulate crotala, adapting a rewap to simulate the long-lute, riq (tambourine), bendir and tar
(framedrums), and udongo for timbral variety. The project: The catalyst for ANKH: THE SOUND
OF ANCIENT EGYPT was an exhibition—Life and Death in the Land of the Pharaohs, developed
by the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, The Netherlands. The exhibition came to the
Australian Museum in 1998. It provided the challenge of producing a creative reconstruction of
ancient Egyptian music and the inspiration for a longer term research project. The first stage of the
project began with a response to the contents of the exhibition itself, followed by a delving into the
ever-increasing output of Egyptological scholarship, to establish a broader musical context. The
big questions loomed large: what did the music sound like? How were the instruments tuned? Was
the music polyphonic? One must proceed by conjecture and deduction, using the literary and visual
record in conjunction with an examination of surving instruments. The answers remain elusive,
mainly gleaned from instruments housed in museums, along with iconographic and literary
evidence. There is no surviving music notation, nor any musical theory which might instruct one
about pitch, rhythm and timbre. In approaching the composition and performance of the music,
Michael Atherton drew on his experience in playing medieval monophony, eastern European and
Turkish folk music, as well as his participation in intercultural music projects. Atherton primarily
uses 5, 6, and 7 note scales based on specific pitches, resulting in a combination of Moroccan
ramal mai mode and Persian afshari. He also gravitates toward pentatonic scales and major modes.
The melodies move in small steps. The setting of the hymns is monophonic, with the inclusion of
call and response development. Sung items include interpolated recitations, as a means of
acknowledging a deep connection between lanuguage and music. ANKH: THE SOUND OF
ANCIENT EGYPT is a contribution to giving a voice to the vivid images of a dynamic musical
culture.
A music fan from Japan , June 7, 1999
Unbelievably Realistic sounds from Ancient Egypt. First thing to hit me once the CD
player started was.... THIS IS NOT another good sounding New Age from Egypt track. As I
listened I was struck at the realism of this CD, its not fancy or high-tech sounding or New Agish at
all. It reality in movement as I think of it. The chants from the high-priestess as very well done as
well, plus the added bonus of having actual Egyptian scripts being read in the background to some
of the chants made it all the more enjoyable. If your looking for something different from all the
rest, get this CD!!! It clearly stands out from all the others as a one of a kind. Once again very
realistic....
Anne Kilmer, Richard Crocker, Sounds of Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near
Eastern Music
Bit Enki Records [in LP form, from Prof Kilmer at UC Berkeley].
[This is a recording of Anne Kilmer singing music in Hurrian, along with Richard
Crocker doing Sumerian tuning schemes from c. 2200 BCE. It is not a recording to listen
to for pleasure.]
Ancient Greek Music
Ancient Greece
Of the eastern Mediterranean cultures, it was undoubtedly that of the Greeks that
furnished the most direct link with musical development in western Europe, by way of the Romans,
who defeated them but adopted much of Greek culture intact. Entering historical times relatively
late, c. 1000 BC, the Greeks soon dominated their neighbours and absorbed many elements of
earlier cultures, which they modified and combined into an enlightened and sophisticated
civilization. The two basic Greek religious cults--one devoted to Apollo, the other to Dionysus-became the prototypes for the two aesthetic poles, classical and romantic, that have contended
throughout Western cultural history. The Apollonians were characterized by objectivity of
expression, simplicity, and clarity, and their favoured instrument was the kithara, a type of lyre.
The Dionysians, on the other hand, preferred the reed-blown aulos and were identified by
subjectivity, emotional abandon, and sensuality.
The prevailing doctrine of ethos, as explained by ancient Greek philosophers such as
Plato and Aristotle, was based on the belief that music has a direct effect upon the soul and actions
of mankind. As a result, the Greek political and social systems were intertwined with music, which
had a primary role in the dramas of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes. And the
Grecian educational system was focused upon musica and gymnastica, the former referring to all
cultural and intellectual studies, as distinguished from those related to physical training. (See ethos,
dramatic literature.)
To support its fundamental role in society, an intricate scientific rationale of music
evolved, encompassing tuning, instruments, modes (melodic formulas based on certain scales), and
rhythms. The 6th-century-BC philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras was the first to record the
vibratory ratios that established the series of notes still used in Western music. From the total
gamut of notes used were derived the various modes bearing the names of Grecian tribes--Dorian,
Phrygian, Lydian, etc. The rhythmic system, deriving from poetry, was based on long-short
relationships rather than strong-weak accentual metre. After Pythagoras, Aristoxenus was the
major historian and theoretician of Greek music.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=3>
There is very little evidence left of ancient Greek performance practice. What does
survive is much philosophical discussion, and about 70 minutes worth of music with
annotations, which some modern musicians can tentatively interpret. Greek theory
philosophical texts about the effects of music, music treatises, and so forth continued to
be important to later medieval and Renaissance musical theory. The mathematical theory
of notation goes back to Pythagoras.
Musiques de l'Antiquité Grecque
Ensemble Kérilos - Annie Bélis
K617 069
Musique de la Grèce Antique
Atrium Musicæ de Madrid - Gregorio Paniagua
Harmonia Mundi musique d'abord 1901015
*Music of the Greek Antiquity
Petros Tabouris
F.M. Records 653
[With "middle-eastern" aspects.]
*Music of the Ancient Greeks
De Organographia
Pandourion 1001
Review by John W. Barker in American Record Guide, March 13, 1997, 284
The reach of recorded repertoire extends back far by now, but only rarely does it go quite
as far as pre-Christian Antiquity. Some (highly questionable) reconstructions of Biblical Hebraic
music have been attempted, and even ancient Greece and Mesopotamia have not gone untouched.
Apart from a few disputed odds and ends, authentic musical tidbits from classical Greece amount
to about enough to fill one disc.
That was first ventured back in 1978 by Gregorio Paniagua and his Atrium Musicae
ensemble of Madrid (Harmonia Mundi). That was unfortunately nullified by Paniagua's delight in
instrumental embellishments, elaborations, and his own outright compositions in bizarre style twangs, bangs, clatters, and weird sound-collages up the kazoo.
From present-day Greece came two newer ventures. One looks terribly ambitious: two 2CD sets from the Paian/FM label of Athens, not easily found in the USA, one representing the
"Secular Music of Greek Antiquity" and the other its "Sacred Music". Most of the material is not
authentic but a string of modern adaptations of ancient literary passages, prepared by Petros
Tibouros, all very heavily overburdened with pretentious "orchestrations" using recreated
"ancient" instruments. Meanwhile, from that hokey instrument-maker, pseudo-scholar, and
pretentious huckster Christodoulos Halaris came a supplement to his deplorable perversions of
"Byzantine" music on his Orata label - a single disc called "Music of Ancient Greece". Its
authentic repertoire is drowned in his gawd-awful taverna-style adaptations favoring his jug-band
of self-created instruments who overpower some blowzy-sounding singers. In all of these
productions, the Ancient Greek texts were sung in modern Greek pronunciation.
Nobody has trusted what we have of ancient music to speak for itself, either in its original
verbal sounds or just as we have it - as bare fragments. It has to be modernized and bedeviled by
hokey decoration. So, we might look to this new venture for relief at last. Committed to the study
and performance of Ancient Greek music, the Ensemble Kerylos consists here of three singers and
five players, the latter using recreations of ancient instruments. Since they are not Greeks
themselves, one might hope for a purer, less prejudiced approach to the language. Unfortunately,
they also use essentially a Modern Greek pronunciation. Nevertheless, they respect the ancient
differentiation between long and short vowels, and they understand ancient poetic metres. And the
use of the "old" instruments is carefully controlled and not overdone, while the vocal scorings are
apt and the delivery often very compelling in the dramatic fragments. Like most of the previous
recordings, this one also includes that priceless bit of the earliest Christian music, the Hymn to the
Trinity, discovered in an Egyptian papyrus; this is one of its best renditions, though why
instruments have to appear in it, I don't know.
In a few cases the texts are spoken before they are sung, in French and then in Greek which points up one serious problem with this production. For all the good annotations, not a scrap
of text is supplied - not in the original Greek, nor in transliteration, nor in translation. This is a
devastating omission for anyone who wants to use this recording seriously.
So this is a definite improvement over all earlier recordings of Ancient Greek music, but
it still leaves room for improvement. Cannot somebody, some time, just give us what the Ancient
Greeks left us, without misrepresentations and glitz?
Roman Music
Ancient Rome
When the musical culture of the eastern Mediterranean was transplanted into the western
Mediterranean by the returning Roman legions, it was inevitably modified by local tastes and
traditions. In most cases, the resulting practices were more limited than their models. The diatonic
(seven-note) scale, for example, became the standard, displacing the chromatic and enharmonic
structures of the Grecian system. Of particular consequence was the new concept of metre as a
series of equal durations, with emphasis being determined by accent (stress) rather than by
duration. (See Roman Republic and Empire, diatonic.)
An inventory of the musical heritage transplanted from the ancient East (particularly
Greece) to Rome reveals the rich treasure inherited: an acoustical theory that accounted for the
identification and classification of tones; a concept of tonal organization resulting in the system of
modes; principles of rhythmic organization; basic principles of instrument construction; a system
of notation that conveyed all necessary indications of pitch and duration; and a large repertory of
melodies to serve as models for further composition.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=4> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
No annotated Roman music survives, although some of the music on the Greek
recordings above dates from the Roman period. The CDs below represents an effort to
recreate the sound of Roman music using reconstructed instruments and historical
descriptions. The music -- associated with temple practice, games, and theater -- is
important in that early Christian music, from which all later Western music is derived and
which rejected musical instruments for centuries, was formed in reaction to this Roman
secular music.
Music from Ancient Rome: Volume 1 - Wind Instruments
Synaulia - Walter Maioli
Amiata 1396
*Music from Ancient Rome, Vol. 2 Music of the imperial court.
Synaulia - Walter Maioli
Amiata 2098
Disc notes
The first recording in a series, in which we have the honor to present a preview of a
hypothetical reconstruction of the music of Imperial Rome, using original instruments, rebuilt by
musician and musicologist, Walter Maioli, and his research group. This unique recording,
dedicated to flutes and various wind instruments, has been highly acclaimed in the international
press and media. Extensive reportage on, and documentaries about this production, have been
made by several television companies in Europe and Japan. Produced in collaboration with the
Museo della Civiltˆ Romana in Rome, and recognized by the Italian academic world for its
authenticity, this fascinating project is excellently performed by the ensemble, Synaulia, a group of
aleorganologists and musicians dedicated to the study of ancient music.
Longer Discussion
http://www.amiatamedia.it/beta/uk/series/musant/ar1396/ar1396.htm
Amazon.com Review: A music fan from Pittsburgh, PA , October 18, 1998
Music that transports you to an ancient world. This CD went well beyond anything I could have
imagined. The songs are performed on the very types of instruments that the ancient Romans
would have played, and there is a lot of speaking and laughing and shrieking interspersed with
some of the music. Flutes, drums, and other unique instruments combine in a haunting manner. The
sound is very powerful and unusual -- it is not harmonious in the sense that we are familiar with -yet at the same time it draws you in. It seems to transport you to the world of the ancient Romans.
You can almost feel yourself in the midst of the crowds at a gladiatorial game or at a religious
event. Although no authentic Roman music has survived to this day as far as I know, this music
gives the impression that it is probably very close to what the original was like. The accompanying
book is full of information and pictures, only unfortunately it is written in German; if you can find
somebody to translate, though, it is well worth it as it will help you to see
how much preparation has gone into creating this wonderful music. As a final comment, the music
in itself is enjoyable; I played it for someone who has no interest in Roman history and she really
liked the music!
Biblical Music (Reconstructed)
Music clearly played an important part in Jewish worship, and Jewish synagogue liturgy
must have formed the context of early Christian practice. Virtually no manuscripts of
Jewish musical documents survive from before 900 CE. These texts -- the so-called
Masoretic texts -- are marked with some sort of chanting marks, but many scholars think
the marks to be indecipherable. There are 19 such musical among the vowel signs of the
Hebrew text of the entire Bible. On the assumption that the marks were preserved on the
basis of a copyist tradition, even as the meaning of the marks was not understood, the
French musicologist Suzanne Haïk Vantoura claims to have decrypted there musical
meaning. Several CDs have been released on the basis of her work.
In addition to specifically Jewish music, there is reason to consider the music of the
Aramaic- (or Syriac-) speaking Christians. Aramaic was the language of Palestine during
the time of Jesus, and is the language of the Talmud. The Christian dialect known as
Syriac is still the liturgical language of several churches in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq
and Israel.
La Musique de la Bible revélée Vol 3
notation millénaire décryptée
Suzanne Haïk Vantoura
Alienor AL 1051
[Various cantorial possibilities are explored on this disk, which if it is not as accurate
as it claims, does present the music attractively.]
Psaumes de David en hébreu biblique
Esther Lamandier
Alienor AL 1041
[Lemandier uses the same "decryption" of Masoretic markings as La Musique de la
Bible revélée, but with a much dryer vocal production.]
Chants Chretiens Arameens
Esther Lamandier
Alienor AL 1034'
[Lamandier includes a synagogue chant from the Zohar. The extent to which one
accepts continuity in oral musical transmission directly impacts on how "genuine" you
consider this music.]
Reviews from Amazon.com.
John Wheeler, kdhinc@hotmail.com from King David's Harp, Inc., Houston, TX., USA , July 5,
1999
A seminal and still-underestimated discovery. This is the first of six recordings of the music
contained in the "musical accents" of the Hebrew Masoretic Text, as deciphered by Suzanne HaikVantoura. It is the shortest recording, and in some ways the least well-produced -- but it has the
greatest variety of musical samples and emotions for its size.
The most astounding thing about this music is that it sounds so "modern" (that is, tonal and
harmonic in its structure), despite the fact some of it is 3,000 years old. One senses this is so
because of the way the tonal and verbal syntaxes interweave to form a "gestalt": it gives the
impression that the music and the words were created, taught and transmitted together. Yet that
very interweaving is what makes the "gestalt" sound so "modern", despite the obviously archaic
music theory and practice behind it.
The splendid versions of Psalms 23 and 24 alone make this recording worth the purchase -- but
there are many other fine selections, including both prosodic and psalmodic texts. The recording is
marred only by errors of transcription in the melodies and accompaniments (compared to the Bible
and the score published by Editions Choudens, Paris, in 1978), and by the seeming lack of
understanding at times by the vocalists (especially the bass cantor) of the spirit of what they were
singing.
John Wheeler (kdhinc@hotmail.com) from Houston, TX. , June 24, 1999
From the editor of "The Music of the Bible Revealed" (book)
The original LP was published in 1976 concurrent with the French book of the same title. That LP
led to my association with Suzanne Haik-Vantoura, and in 1991 I became editor and co-publisher
of the English translation of her French book. (The book may be ordered from Amazon.com as
well.) I give this CD 4 stars because of transcription and performance problems on some tracks.
But the music is one of the most important discoveries of biblical scholarship of the century, if not
of the millennium. (See my description of the English book for details on the basis of the musical
transcriptions.) Psalms 23 and 24 are my personal favorites among the tracks. For more
information on Suzanne Haik-Vantoura's work and other CD's and musical scores available from
France, feel free to contact me by e-mail.
A music fan from California, USA , June 22, 1999
Exciting music connects us with ancient music of the Bible. I was very excited to hear this music. I
have always been curious about what the Psalms sounded like at the time of their writing and now
we have a chance to hear an educated guess based on ancient notations. Anyone who enjoys vocal
music, chants or Venetian Renaissance would also enjoy this recording. Track 3, "The Earth is the
Lord's" and track 9, "Praise ye the Lord" are particularly wonderful.
Medieval Jewish Music
Jewish and Eastern Christian chant
Ancient Hebrew music followed well-established modal patterns. According to Abraham
Zevi Idelsohn, a musicologist whose comparative research conducted during the early decades of
the 20th century established modern understanding of the Hebrew modes,
A mode . . . is composed of a number of motives (i.e., short music figures or groups of
tones) within a certain scale. The motives have different functions. There are beginning and
concluding motives, and motives of conjunctive and disjunctive [i.e., convergent and divergent]
character. The composer operates with the material of these traditional folk motives within a
certain mode for his creations. His composition is nothing but his arrangement and combination of
this limited number of motives. His "freedom" of creation consists further in embellishments and in
modulations from one mode to the other.
The modal Hebrew music strongly influenced early Christian chant. This correlation can
be illustrated by comparing a plainchant Kyrie, in the third mode, with a Babylonian Jewish
melody for a phrase from Exodus: [Image omitted]
Syria played an important part in developing early Christian chant by integrating both
Hellenistic and Hebrew elements. The Syrians devised a musical system called oktoechos, a term
suggesting a classification into eight echoi. The Syrian echoi are modes, although there is no
consensus on whether they represented modes in a specifically technical sense, comparable to the
Greek tonoi, or melodic formulas, comparable to the Greek nomoi.
Byzantine chant molded the features of early Christianity with Hellenic and Oriental
traits, including the Syrian oktoechos, and achieved a brilliant and distinctive style that served as a
prototype for the chant of the Greek Orthodox Church. The eight echoi of the Byzantine oktoechos
were divided into four authentic and four plagal (derived) forms. The most common classification
of the Byzantine modes was in terms of typical initial and final notes of melodies in a given mode,
with the characteristic distinctions as follows (the orderly progression of notes in each series
should be observed).
Echos/Initial Note/Terminal Note
Authentic
I a' a' or d'
II b' or g' e' or b'
III c'' or a' f ' or c''
IV d'' or g' g' or d''
Plagal
I d' or g' d'
II e' or g' e'
III f ' or a' f '
IV g', a', or c'' g'
The above classification reflects only two of various characteristics (not all completely
clarified by modern scholars) that gave the modes their identity.
Even before the foundation of the Byzantine Empire, Armenia adopted Christianity as a
state religion (AD 303). Although the early Armenian chant did not survive, the arrangement of the
hymns of the Armenian Church in the comprehensive collection, known as the Sharakan, indicates
that Armenian chant used an oktoechos classification the modal characteristics of which seem to
have been defined by melodic formulas rather than by scalar distinctions.
Another variety of the oktoechos occurs in Russian Church chant. Although a concept of
eight echoi points to the Byzantine system, the Russian echoi show a different structure. The
melodic motives characteristic of the echoi are called popievki; but similar popievki could be
employed in more than one echos. The use of some popievki is limited to the beginning, the
middle, or the end of a chant. Occasionally, two popievki are merged into a compound popievka.
Source: "mode" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=118771&sctn=2> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Chants Mystique: Hidden Treasures of A Living.Tradition
Alberto Mizrahi & Chorale...
Polygram Special Markets 20340
[Synagogue music through the ages is here sung in very lush, almost "new age"
versions. Unlike the Hildegard Vision CD, however, which has no relation to any music
written by Hildegard, the music here is "real", and worth comparing with the more
scholarly versions on the Boston Camerata Sacred Bridge approach to the same material.]
The Sacred Bridge: Jews & Christians in Medieval Europe
Boston Camerata - Joel Cohen
Erato 45513
Program notes by Joel Cohen
Much of the music you are about to hear was produced in the saddest and most
shamefully cruel corners of old Europe - its ghettos. Yet the Jews and Christians, though forced to
live apart, were in many ways, both large and small, dependent on each other. Our program will
attempt to trace some of those ways through the music and poetry of pre-Enlightenment times.
In spite of the enforced segregation of the Jews, exchanges with the Gentile world were
frequent, continuous, and bilateral. The synagogue gave to the Early Christian church some of its
ancient melodies; the recitation formula of the psalm B'tset Yisrael ("When Israel went forth out of
Egypt"), for example, survives in the Gregorian chant repertoire as the tonus peregrinus. It is
thanks to a Christian that we have the oldest surviving example of written-down Jewish music, the
beautiful Eulogy of Moses. It was composed by Giovanni, a monk, who, converting to Judaism,
took the name Obadiah. Since he was a child of the Mediterranean world -- Sicily, then Egypt -we have imagined accompaniments of near-Eastern kind to this sketchily notated melody.
Jewish minstrels were apparently not uncommon during the Middle Ages, though only a
few have left traces of their activities. Two songs are attributed in French manuscripts to a
mysterious "Matthew the Jew". The conventions of courtly love -- an adoring trouvère, and his
distant, cruel Lady -- are deepened and darkened in Par grant franchise. Here, the poet's wounds
are real, his parting envoi nearly a curse. Like Matthew, the minnesinger Sueskint suffered from
his break with the Jewish community. In Wa Heb'uf, he vows to forsake courtly life and to return
to the Jewish fold..
If the Jewish musicians felt themselves to be different, their ways of being were
nonetheless infused and informed by the majority cultures in which they evolved. The JudaeoSpanish melodies we perform were collected only a few years ago in Morocco and the Balkans;
there, remnants of the Jewish comunity exiled from Spain in the fifteenth century clung tenaciously
to their Spanish heritage.
We have dared to juxtapose these songs and prayers with the Christian music of medieval
Spain. The scale patterns, the melodic profiles, and the spiritual intensity of these two repertoires
allow them to be heard together in neighborly good concord, just as Jews, Christians, and Moslems
managed to exist together for many centuries in the Iberian peninsula. Though separate in many
ways, the different peoples who created Spanish music were all contributing, consciously or not, to
the making of some uniquely precious musical dialects. From diversity came harmony and
wholeness, as they will come again someday on our troubled planet, when the nations finally cease
so furiously to rage.
Source: http://members.aol.com/boscam/sacbridg.htm
Sephardic Music
El Canto Espiritual Judeoespañol
Alia Musica, Miguel Sánchez
Harmonia Mundi "Ibèrica" 987015, 1997
[Liturgical songs and "mystical" poems from the Spanish Jewish tradition recorded in
a convent in Toledo.]
Secular Music from Christian and Jewish Spain 1450-1550
Hespèrion XX. Jordi Savall
EMI "Reflexe" CDM or 555 7 63 431 2 [2 CDs]
also Virgin Veritas 61591
[A two CD set. CD 1: Court Music and Songs from the Age of the Discoverers 14921553; CD 2: Sepahrdic Romances from the Age before the Expulsion of the Jews from
Spain 1492. This is a budget CD and contains minimal information, no texts, and no
translations. This recording was issued in 1976 on LP. The same ensembler has more
extensive selections of the music on CD 1 in :
*El Cancionero de la Colombina, 1451-1506
Música en el tiempo de Cristóbal Colón
Hespèrion XX - Jordi Savall
Astrée 8763
and
*El Cancionero de Palacio, 1474-1516
Música en la corte de los Reyes Católicos
Hespèrion XX - Jordi Savall
Astrée 8762.]
For many more suggestions see the discography at
http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/cds/era45513.htm
Early Christian Music
The history of modern western music can be traced directly to the music of the Christian
church of the early medieval period. Although annotated manuscripts only date from the
late Carolingian period, they already represent a developed tradition. The interesting
question, then, is where did early Christian music come from?
Like the Jewish communities from which they originated, Christians sang psalms
(although not, apparently, in the eucharistic liturgy until the 4th century), but from the
earliest days they also seem to have sung hymns, several of which are embedded in the
New Testament. The earliest Christian music to survive is a Greek hymn to the Trinity
found about a century ago among the Oxyrhynchus papyri. There is an agreement that it
represents some form of Egyptian musical tradition.
Part from that, we know that Christians deliberately rejected all forms of pagan music -music for the theater, ritual music, and music which used instruments and orchestras.
What was acceptable was monodic singing of psalms and hymns. The complex issues
presented by music are seen in Augustine's reaction to his own pleasure in musical
psalms.
Augustine on Listening to Psalms
At other times, shunning over-anxiously this very deception, I err in too great strictness; and
sometimes to that degree, as to wish the whole melody of sweet music which is used to David’s
Psalter, banished from my ears, and the Church’s too; and that mode seems to me safer, which I
remember to have been often told me of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, who made the reader of
the psalm utter it with so slight inflection of voice, that it was nearer speaking than singing. Yet
again, when I remember the tears I shed at the Psalmody of Thy Church, in the beginning of my
recovered faith; and how at this time I am moved, not with the singing, but with the things sung,
when they are sung with a clear voice and modulation most suitable, I acknowledge the great use
of this institution. Thus I fluctuate between peril of pleasure and approved wholesomeness;
inclined the rather (though not as pronouncing an irrevocable opinion) to approve of the usage of
singing in the church; that so by the delight of the ears the weaker minds may rise to the feeling of
devotion. Yet when it befalls me to be more moved with the voice than the words sung, I confess
to have sinned penally, and then had rather not hear music.
Source: Confessions [trans. Pusey.]
Musiques de l'Antiquité Grecque
Ensemble Kérilos - Annie Bélis
K617 069
Track 15: Oxyrhynchus Hymn
Musique de la Grèce Antique
Atrium Musicæ de Madrid - Gregorio Paniagua
Harmonia Mundi musique d'abord 1901015
Track 16: Oxyrhynchus Hymn
The Sacred Bridge: Jews & Christians in Medieval Europe
Boston Camerata - Joel Cohen
Erato 45513
Eastern Christian Music
Byzantine Music
With recordings of Byzantine music the name to look for is Lycourgos Angelopoulos and
the Byzantine Greek Choir [aka Choeur byzantin de grece]. There are both secular and
religious recordings available. Most of the surviving music is from quite late in Byzantine
history. The big question is about Authenticity of the music - in particular how much
modern performance has been affected by Turkish music (which is a subset of Persian
music). Most commentators suggest that the many disks by Halaris are to be disregarded.
Byzantine chant
Monophonic, or unison, liturgical chant of the Greek Orthodox church during the
Byzantine Empire (330-1453) and down to the 16th century; in modern Greece the term refers to
ecclesiastical music of any period. Although Byzantine music is linked with the spread of
Christianity in Greek-speaking areas of the Eastern Roman Empire, it probably derives mostly
from Hebrew and early Syrian Christian liturgies (see Syrian chant). Various types of hymns were
prominent, among them those called troparion, kontakion, and kanon. The music is unrelated to
that of ancient Greece and Byzantium.
Documents with Byzantine neumatic notation date only from the 10th century. Earlier,
there was in use an "ecphonetic" notation based on the accent marks of Greek grammarians from
Alexandria, Egypt, giving only a vague direction of upward or downward voice movement; the
intoned readings to which the signs were added were learned by oral transmission for centuries.
Byzantine neumatic notation in its earliest stage (Paleo-Byzantine; 10th-12th century) was
more specific than the ecphonetic signs but lacked precision in notating rhythms and musical
intervals. This imprecision was remedied in Middle Byzantine notation (developed late 12th
century), the principles of which are still used in Greek practice. It consists of signs called neumes.
Unlike western European neumes, they do not designate pitch; rather, they show the musical
interval from the previous tone. The pitch and length of the starting tone were shown by signs
called martyriai, abbreviations of well-known melodies that provided an initial intonation.
The notation in manuscripts from the 16th to the early 19th century is usually called NeoByzantine because of some stylistic features in music of that period. In the early 19th century the
traditional notation was viewed as too complex, and Archbishop Chrysanthos of Madytos
introduced a simplified version that spread through printing and is used in all Greek Orthodox
liturgical music books.
The melodies were formulaic: a composer usually set a text to a traditional melody, which
he then modified and adapted to the needs of the text; some melodic formulas were used
exclusively at the beginning of a chant, others at endings, and others in either place. There were
also transitional passages, some traditional and others apparently used by individual composers. A
few melodic formulas using one basic tone constituted the framework of a mode, or echos. Each
echos had its own formulas, though some formulas occurred in more than one echos.
Liturgical books containing texts and music included the Heirmologion (melodies for
model stanzas of kanon hymns); the Sticherarion (hymns proper for each day of the church year);
and the psaltikon and asmatikon (solo and choral parts, respectively, for kontakion and some other
solo choral chants). In the Akolouthiai, or Anthologion, were ordinary chants for Vespers, Matins,
funerals, and the three liturgies (of St. John Chrysostom, St. Basil, and the Preconsecrated
Offerings), as well as optional chants, some of which were usable as bridges at any point in the
liturgy, usually sung to single syllables or nonsense syllables.
The earliest composers were probably also poets. St. Romanos Melodos (fl. early 6th
century) is revered as a singer and as the inventor of the kontakion. John of Damascus (c. 645-749)
composed kanons, and legend credits him with the oktoechos classification, though the system is
documented a century earlier in Syria. The nun Kasia (fl. 9th century) is believed to have
composed several hymns; other prominent names are John Koukouzeles, John Glydis, and Xenos
Koronis (late 13th-mid-14th century).
Source: "Byzantine chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=18695&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
The Ison: The Standard View
Little can be authoritatively determined about the sound of singing in the early Byzantine
church. Ancient sources or manuscripts lead us to believe that, at the beginning of the second
Christian millennium, Byzantine chant was monophonic, tuneful, straight-forward, and generally
syllabic. Soon after a drone-like addition to the chant (called "ison"), which supplied a tonal
reference point for the melody, was documented in the singing books. Early Slavic chant, which
evolved from Byzantine chant after 988 AD, followed suit (probably without the ison, though some
reputable scholars contend there was an ison present in certain Slavic religious centers). Both
Byzantine and Slavic chant began to expand into complex forms of musical expression after the
twelfth century. For the Byzantine church, the kalophonic style of intensively melismatic singing
i.e. several notes over one syllable evolved. Znamenny chant for the Slavs also became melismatic
through a contrasting melodic system, and eventually developed by the seventeenth century into
indigenous polyphony.
Source: http://www.svots.edu/Faculty/Mark-Bailey/Articles/Lenten-Look-at-Liturgical-Music.html
The Ison: A More Complex View
Most Western scholars regard the ison, microtonic intervals, and augmented seconds of
Greek chant as late developments under Turkish influence. Western scholarship on Byzantine
chant, founded by Wellesz, Hoeg, and Tillyard, was based on their deciphering of the Middle
Byzantine neumatic notation. The neumes are taken to stand mostly for single notes, and the scale
is assumed to be diatonic.
Greek students of the chant have mostly disagreed with the Monumenta Musicae
Byzantinae school, holding that the chant in use today is essentially quite similar to that of a
thousand (or more) years ago. They espouse the "stenographic" theory--that the neumes represent
melodic figures rather than single notes. They are often reluctant to allow Turkish influence, and
prefer to think that the borrowing was in the reverse direction.
While the Greek position is questionable in various respects, it must also be allowed that
the Western approach has been rather prejudiced against the chant known from nineteenth- and
twentieth-century printed books and from living practice. In the past decade or two, the two sides
have been in fruitful discussion, and the former antagonism may now give way to something more
edifying. Some westerners, such as Pérès apparently think that the allegedly "Turkish" features
may be a good deal earlier. In fact, it is hard to prove the case either way. Some solid scholars of
Gregorian chant believe that certain Gregorian neumes may indicate microtonic intervals. An isonlike drone is employed in Georgian singing, and also in Latvian folksongs of the old variety--the
dainas. It is really hard to date aspects that are not clearly represented in the neumatic signs. [The
authentic sound of Gregorian is itself controversial--do we prefer the Solesmes sound, the updated
Solesmes of Caradine, the proportional rhythm of Blackley or the Deller Consort, the sound of
Binchois, of Reznikoff?] So the consensus that ison etc. are late developments is quite possibly
correct, but the opposite view cannot be ruled out.
Source: Stephen Reynolds [stephen.r@mailcity.com], email of 11/19/1999. [Edited and used by
permission.]
Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom
Lycourgos Angelopoulos, Greek Byzantine Choir,
Opus 111 OPS 30-78
[Be careful when buying the "Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom," since most CD's by
this name are (sometimes excellent) Slavonic chant or modern classical versions. This is
the Greek music one might here in an excellent modern Greek church, based on editions
of Byzantine chant made in the 18th century. The texts are given in English and French,
but not Greek.]
Ancient Voices - Vox sacra
Anonymous 4, Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès, Soeur Marie Keyrouz
Harmonia mundi HMX 290 608
Track: 8 Byzantine Chant
[Sister Keyrouz singing is always stunning, but I am not clear if female cantors would
have performed anywhere outside female monasteries?]
Ioannis Papadopoulos Koukouzelis: Mathimata [13th Cent.]
Lycourgos Angelopoulos, Greek Byzantine Choir
Harmonia Mundi/Jade JAD C129
[Koukouzelis was the dominant late Byzantine composer. The final 33 min track of a
Kratima is especially impressive - a vocal composition based on meaningless syllables.
The notes are very informative and well illustrated.]
Amazon.com reviews
A music fan , May 4, 1999
Very well presented interpretation of Koukouzelis. The Greek Byzantine choir again does an
amazing job of expressing the dynamic splendor of one of the most influential composers of
Byzantine music. Anyone interested in Byzantine music should add this CD to their collection.
A music fan from Volos, Greece , February 7, 1999
One of the most important composers of the 13th century. A very good rendition of some of the
most important works of Ioannis Papadopoulos Koukouzelis, undoubtedly the greatest composer
of Greek church music in the 13th century. Most pieces deal with words from St. John's
Apocalypose. Powerful, majestic interpretations, full of the splendor of the last years of the
Byzantine empire. A strong sense of the feelings of mankind facing God and eternity. One of the
best studio recordings of Greek church music (and, actually, one of the very few releases devoted
exclusively to Koukouzelis). Highly recomended.
Chant byzantin: Passion et resurrection/Byzantine Chant: Passion and Resurrection
Soeur Marie Keyrouz, choir of Saint-Julien le Pauvre
Harmonia Mundi HMC 901315
[Easter chants in both Greek and Arabic by Sister Keyrouz, one of the Great Voices n
this repetoire.]
*Byzantine Mass - Akathistos Hymn
Lycourgos Angelopoulos, Greek Byzantine Choir
Playasound (Fra) 65118
*Music of Byzantine Liturgy
Lycourgos Angelopoulos Ensemble
Le Chant Du Monde (Fra)
*Liturgy of Saint Basilius
Choir of abbey of Chevetogne
Art et Musique CH/CD 105389
Mysteries of Byzantine Chant
Mihail Diaconescu, Kontakion
Philips/Special Imports (Ger) 454057
[Greek and Romanian renditions of Orthodox liturgical music.from the 8th to 20th
centuries. The cover and title indicates it was designed to take advantage of the Chant
boom. The booklet gives original words and translations, which is useful, but this is a
disc of essentially modern performance.]
*Musica Deo - Chants liturgiques Byzantins de Grèce
Theodore Vassilikos Ensemble
Arion (Fra) 58427
*Byzantine Chant From the Greek
Arion (Fra);
*Byzantine Hymns
George Koros
FM Records (Gre);
Syrian Music
Syrian chant
Generic term for the vocal music of the various Syrian Christian churches, including Eastern
Orthodox churches such as the Jacobites and Nestorians, and the Eastern churches in union with
Rome--e.g., the Maronites (mostly in Lebanon) and the Chaldeans, who are dissidents from the
Nestorians. To these should be added some branches of nearly all of these groupings in the
province of Malabar, India.
Knowledge of Syrian liturgical music before the last century is very limited. Inferences
may be made about some older principles of musical performance, for Syrian influences on
neighbouring peoples were strong; Syrian practices, for example, spread among the Greeks in the
Byzantine Empire. Before its conquest by the Muslims (mid-7th century), Syria was one of the
earliest and most important Christian lands in the Middle East.
Although the responsorial chanting (alternation between a soloist and a choir) found in
Eastern and Western liturgies may have originated in Hebrew temple ritual, it is considered
probable that antiphonal singing (alternation between two choirs) is of Syrian origin, and Syrian
sources are among the earliest to document its existence. Syrian poetry and poetic forms also
influenced the development of Byzantine religious poetry, establishing patterns of poetic forms
that were emulated by the Greeks and other groups. Even the Byzantine oktoechos, a theoretical
concept of eight modes according to which melodies were classified (see echos), is now viewed as
an exportation from Syria, where it was known by the 6th century. It is probable that throughout
the Middle East there have been similar premises for musical composition and that the basic
approach to liturgical music was and is through a small number of melodic formulas. These serve
as melodic skeletons, as starting points for improvisation by singers. The concept of the melodic
formula is fairly elastic: it is not an unchangeable pattern but rather a theme that is subject to
variations in which the basic skeleton is always recognizable, even when numerous melodic
additions make immediate recognition difficult. Most of the singers are professional chanters,
frequently inheriting their positions from their fathers.
It is thought by some that the subtle tonal and rhythmic intricacies encountered in modern
performances of Syrian chant are remnants of a sophisticated musical tradition rooted in the early
centuries of Christianity; others view the same traits as elements of Turkish influence imported into
Syria in the late European Middle Ages.
Source: "Syrian chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=72616&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Aramean Music
Chants Chretiens Arameens
Esther Lamandier
Alienor AL 1034
[Esther Lamandier's voice is clear, and appreciated by many. This CD contains
Aramaic music from various periods, including several versions of the Lord's Prayer sung
in the language Jesus used on a daily basis.]
Église Syriaque Orthodoxe d'Antioche: Chants liturgiques de Carême et de Vendredi
Saint/ Liturgical Chants of Lent and Good Friday
Members of the Choire of St. George and St Ephraim, Alepp0 - Nouris Iskander
Inedit (Fra) - #260072
[The male and female singers chant unaccompanied music in an austere and
impressive manner -- there is no concession to "new age" or "world music" sensibilities.
It is interesting to compare this recording, by a choir from a still living community with
limited resources, to the high polish of recordings of Western music by groups such as the
Anonymous 4 or Hilliard ensemble. The recording has a short introduction to Syrian
Orthodoxy, Syrian music, and the eight modes. Parts of the texts are given in English and
French translation, but not the original.]
Maronite Music
Ancient Voices - Vox sacra
Anonymous 4, Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès, Soeur Marie Keyrouz
Harmonia mundi HMX 290 608
Track: 10: Maronite Chant
[Sister Marie Keyrouz' voice is quite stunning. The only problem -- one doubts the
music sounds or sounded as attractive as this in usual usage.]
*Christmas, Passion and Resurrection (Lebanon)
Soeur Marie Keyrouz, Choeur and ensemble instr. de la Paix
Harmonia mundi HMC 90 1350
Gesänge der Maronithischen Liturgie/Chants of the Maronitic Liturgy
Père Louis Hage, P.Paul Rouhana, Choir of University of the Holy Ghost, Kaslik,
Lebanon
Christophorus/Entree/Qualiton CHE 0078, [1982, 1996]
[A selection of chanted unaccompanied Aramaic songs from Maronite liturgies of
Christmas, the Passion, and Easter. The voices are not as beautiful as Sr. Keyrouz', but a
good sense of usage in church emerges. The liner notes are in German and (badly
translated) English, and are wildly inaccurate about the history of the Maronite Church.
The texts of the songs are given only in German translation -- but it is likely that more
listeners will be able to make out German than Aramaic.]
Melchite Music
Ancient Voices - Vox sacra
Anonymous 4, Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès, Soeur Marie Keyrouz
Harmonia mundi HMX 290 608
Track: 10: Melchite Sacred Chant
*Melchite Sacred Chants
Soeur Marie Keyrouz
Harmonia mundi HMC 90 1497
Armenian Music
Armenian chant
Vocal music of the Armenian Apostolic Church and the religious poetry that serves as its
texts. Armenia was Christianized quite early by missionaries from Syria and Greek-speaking areas
of the eastern Mediterranean and accepted Christianity as the state religion about AD 300. The
development of a distinctive Armenian liturgy was influenced by various factors. Toward the end
of the 4th century, the Armenian church proclaimed its independence from the archbishopric of
Caesarea Cappadociae (now Kayseri, Turkey), in Asia Minor. The great Armenian scholar Mesrop
Mashtots invented the Armenian alphabet about 401 and carried out important translations of
religious literature from Syriac and Greek into Armenian. The introduction of the new alphabet
stimulated a flourishing literature, an important part of which was religious poetry. The earliest
preserved examples date from the 4th century.
In the 12th century the catholicos (patriarch) Nerses IV Shnorhali ("the Gracious") is
credited with musical reforms of the chant. He is said to have simplified the texts of the religious
poetry and the melodies of the chant, bringing it closer to the style of Armenian folk music. Nerses
also wrote a number of sharakan (hymns). The final form of the collection of Sharakan, containing
nearly 1,200 hymns, was obtained about 1300 and has apparently remained unchanged.
About 1820 an Armenian from Constantinople (now Istanbul), Baba Hampartsoum
Limondjian, proposed another reform and modernization of the musical notation along the lines of
the contemporary notational reform in the Greek church (which allowed more precise indication of
pitch). In its present-day performance, Armenian chant consists of intricate melodies with great
rhythmic variety, and the melodies use many intervals not found in European music.
According to a long-standing tradition, the most reliable oral transmission of the chant
occurs in the religious capital of Armenia, Ejmiadzin, and in a few isolated monasteries. An
important centre for Armenian musical studies is the Armenian Catholic Monastery of San Lazzaro
in Venice (founded 1717), where the traditional Armenian melodies are said to be fairly well
preserved.
Source: "Armenian chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=9629&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
The Music of Armenia, Volume 1
Sacred Choral Music
Celestial Harmonies 13115
[Recorded in partly in a caves church at the Geghard monastery, and partly in the
Cathedral of Holy Echmiadzin, the CD presents a lengthy selection (75 mins.) of
Armenian sacred music in both ancient and more modern (i.e. Westernized) forms.
Useful liner notes are extensive, but there are no texts or translations. The more "ancient"
tracks -- e.g. 5 "Yekyalks" are compelling.]
*Arménie 1: Chants Liturgiques du Moyen Age
Ocora 559001
Coptic Chant
Coptic chant
Liturgical music of the descendants of ancient Egyptians who converted to Christianity
prior to the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. The term Coptic derives from Arabic
qibt, a corruption of Greek Aigyptios ("Egyptian"); when Muslim Egyptians no longer called
themselves by that name, it was applied to the Christian minority. Coptic, an Afro-Asiatic
(formerly Hamito-Semitic) language, was officially banned by the Arabs in 997 and survives today
only in the Coptic liturgy. It is assumed that the Coptic religious services have their roots in the
earliest layers of the Christian ritual of Jerusalem, with some strong admixtures of Syrian
influence. It appears also that there was a certain amount of Arabic influence, and some scholars
believe that the Coptic ritual may have exercised some influence on Muslim religious practices.
It is assumed but not verified that the Copts inherited a rich musical tradition. Only in
most recent times have musical manuscripts or liturgical books with developed musical notation
been used for this music. It has been transmitted only orally.
On the basis of present-day performances, much of the Coptic chant consists of melody
types, or melodic formulas that serve as starting points for improvisation by singers. Because it
would be difficult for a singer to memorize all the religious services, prompters whisper cues to the
singers, who then begin the appropriate melodies for a given service.
The Coptic ritual uses a few percussion instruments that resemble ancient Egyptian
instruments known from frescoes and reliefs. On this basis some scholars believe that the Coptic
liturgy preserves some ancient traits uncorrupted.
Source: "Coptic chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=26636&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
*Liturgy of the Coptic Orthodox
Christophorus (Ger) 77200
Full musical files of Coptic chant are online at
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/7261/copticmusic.htm
Ethiopian Chant
Ethiopian chant
Vocal liturgical music of the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians in eastern Africa. A musical notation
for Ethiopian chant introduced in the 16th century is called melekket and consists of characters
from the ancient Ethiopian language, Ge'ez, in which each sign stands for a syllable of text. These
characters seem also to serve as a cue for a specific melodic formula, or serayu. In performance, a
formula is embellished with improvised melodic ornaments. There are also apparently three
distinctly different manners of chanting: ge'ez, in which most melodies are performed; araray,
presumably containing "cheerful" melodies and used only infrequently in services; and ezel, used
in periods of fasting and sorrow. According to Ethiopian tradition, these forms were revealed in the
6th century to a chanter named Yared, who composed the entire body of hymns (since revised) that
is found in the six books of chants. The first known manuscripts, however, date to the 14th century.
The debtara, an unordained member of the clergy, is well versed in the Ethiopian church rituals, in
aspects of the liturgy, and in the scriptures; he is also trained to distinguish the subtleties of moods
and manners of performance. Although he is required to copy the whole body of liturgical chants
while a student, in the end he memorizes the melodies and, while singing, improvises along the
outlines of basic melodic formulas. The exact relationship of Ethiopian musical traditions to other
Middle Eastern cultures is unclear.
Source: "Ethiopian chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=33708&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
* Peter Jeffery with Kay Kaufman Shelemay. Ethiopian Christian Liturgical Chant: An
Anthology. 1: General Introduction; Dictionaries of Notational Signs. 2: Performance
Practice and the Liturgical Portions. 3: History of Ethiopian Chant. 3 vols., 1 compact
disc. Recent Researches in Oral Traditions of Music 1-3. Madison, Wisconsin: A-R
Editions. Volume 1 was published in 1993; volume 2 and the CD in 1995; volume 3 in
1997. The volume with the CD appears to cost $59
[http://www.areditions.com/rr/rrotm/otm001_003.html]
*Liturgie de l'Eglise Chretienne Orthodoxe Ethiopienne
Ocora 558 558/59
[Recorded in 1969 and released in 1980, and re-released in 1983. A web search turned
up this apparent CD reissue as ETHIOPIA - The Ethiopian Orthodox Church of
Jerusalem. 2 CD C 560027/28 at http://www.eyeneer.com/Labels/Ocora/catalog.html.
See also http://www.cin.org/archives/cinmusic/199811/0011.html. It is a 2 CD set of
recordings made in the Ethiopian monastery which sits on the roof of the Holy Sepulchre
in Jerusalem.]
Slavonic Music
Russian chant
Monophonic, or unison, chant of the liturgy of the Russian Orthodox church. Musical
manuscripts from the 11th to the 13th century suggest that, at first, chanting in Russia almost
certainly followed Byzantine melodies, which were adapted to the accentual patterns of the Old
Church Slavonic language. Russian manuscripts of this period are the only surviving sources of a
highly ornate type of Byzantine chant called kontakion and contain a complex Byzantine musical
notation that by then had disappeared in Byzantium. Russian sources may thus be crucial
documents for the reconstruction of one branch of Byzantine music and notation.
From the 14th century the musical notation in Russian manuscripts began to change its
meaning and form. It is usually presumed--but is not fully proved--that native Russian elements,
specifically folk tunes, began to enter Russian church music at this time. The first lists of signs
used as musical notation in Russia were compiled in the late 15th century. The lists show that by
then most technical terms were Russian and that Greek terms had begun to disappear. By the 16th
century, Russian chant apparently had no more links with its Byzantine prototypes, and melodies
became different in their outlines.
In the 17th century, music of Western origin began to be emulated by Russian musicians.
German influence became prominent in the 19th century, when various composers emulated the
Protestant chorale in Russian church music. As a reaction to this trend, early scholars studying the
history of Russian church music began to investigate the nearly forgotten traditional melodies still
used in some monasteries resisting the introduction of polyphonic music. The restoration of
Russian chant gained momentum in the early years of the 20th century and is best exemplified in
the works of Aleksandr Kastalsky and Pavel Chesnokov, who, although writing for multi-voiced
choirs, utilized supposedly traditional melodies and harmonized them in the style of Russian folk
music. Source: "Russian chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=1215&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Russian Medieval Chant: The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom
Patriarchal Choir of Moscow
Opus 111 OPS 30-120
[A rendition of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom in Russian monodic, or Znameny,
chant. The informative notes include examples of Russian notation and modern
transcriptions.]
Kiev Christmas Liturgy
Moscow Liturgic Choir, Father Amvrosy, 1992
Erato
[Beautifully sung, by a choir that performs both liturgically and in concert halls. Even
when singing ancient Kievan melodies, the interpretations are clearly affected by modern
Russian practice. The result is so beautiful, however, that this will be listedn to for more
than antiquarian reasons. Annoyingly the CD notes give neither texts or translations.]
Credo in unum Deum -- Dei Botschaft der Mönche -- Le message des Moines
Chor der Mönche aud dem Höhlenkloster Kiew (among others) 1996
KOCH Schwan 3-64-2
[A very oddly titled German disk of music by the Monastic Choir of Lavra of Kiev,
founded in 1051, and now restored to Orthodox religious life. The selections come from
a variety of seasons and office, and are wonderfully sung, but no texts are given (although
there are partial German and French translations.) Although the notes seem to claim that
some of the pieces are ancient, this is not an "early music" performance and the musical
goal is clearly the "saturation sound" of modern Orthodox Slavic music.]
Celestial Litanies - Ultimate Journey to Mystical Russian Soundscapes
Celestial Litanies
BMG/Melodiya 18540
[Includes some early Greek and early Slavonic chant as well as compositions by
Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninov.]
*Early Russian Plain-chant (17th c. Russia)
Patriarchal Choir of Moscow
Opus 111 OPS 30-79
*Ancient Orthodox Chants (Bulgaria, Greece, Ukraine)
Drevnerousski Choir
Chant du Monde LDC 288033
Pascha: Hymns of the Resurrection
St. Vladimir's Seminary Male Choir
St Vladimir's Seminary Press [1-800-204-BOOK]
[This varyingly available CD, by the choir of St. Vladimir's Seminary of the
Orthodox Church in America is not "medieval" in any sense. It presents the current
Easter music of the Russian Orthodox church in English versions. This music,
impressive in itself, derives from many sources, but a substantial part of it was composed
in the past 150 years. For English-speakers, however, the didactic nature of Orthodox
music is hardly apparent in Greek and Slavonic recordings -- but to miss the didacticism
is to miss much of the power of musical traditions which preserved a faith in political
(and educational) situations where preaching was either forbidden or ineffective. Far
more explicitly than much Western liturgical music, Orthodox traditions explain -repeatedly -- the dogmatic formulations of the Church.]
Islamic Music
There tradition of music in Islamic culture is extensive, and very diverse -- from Arab
cultures all the way to Indonesia. In most genres, however, the traditions were passed
down orally or from teacher to student: historical reconstruction is thus problematic.
Koranic cantillation (chanting or reading) is an important genre, but most people will
probably enjoy Qawwali more than anything else. The Mouwachaha music from
Andulusia is also interesting.
Nature and elements of Islamic music
Islamic music is characterized by a highly subtle organization of melody and rhythm, in
which the vocal component predominates over the instrumental. It is based on the skill of the
individual artist, who is both composer and performer and who benefits from a relatively high
degree of artistic freedom. The artist is permitted, and indeed encouraged, to improvise. He
generally concentrates on the details forming a work, being less concerned with following a
preconceived plan than with allowing the music's structure to emerge empirically from its details.
Melodies are organized in terms of maqamat (singular maqam), or "modes," characteristic melodic
patterns with prescribed scales, preferential notes, typical melodic and rhythmic formulas, variety
of intonations, and other conventional devices. The performer improvises within the framework of
the maqam, which is also imbued with ethos (Arabic ta'thir), a specific emotional or philosophical
meaning attached to a musical mode. Rhythms are organized into rhythmic modes, or iqa'at
(singular iqa'), cyclical patterns of strong and weak beats. (See mode.)
Classical Islamic music is the aristocratic music of the court and the upper class, which
underwent development and modification in the hands of gifted musicians throughout several
centuries. Rhythmic and melodic modes grew in number and complexity, and new vocal and
instrumental genres arose. In addition, a body of theoretical works grew up, influencing both
Islamic and--in some cases--European music. Its later popularization did not alter its intimate and
entertaining character.
Source: "Islamic arts" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=109486&sctn=2> [Accessed 17 July 1999].
The Music of Islam (Sampler)
Music of Islam (Celestial Harmonies Series)
Celestial Harmonies
[A really useful disk for people wanting to get an overview of types of Islamic music
for teaching. Serious investigators should buy the whole set.]
The Music of Islam: Volume 9: Mawlawiyah Music of the Whirling Dervishes
Music of Islam (Celestial Harmonies Series)
Celestial Harmonies
[Dervishes were members of a Turkish Sufi "Mevlevi" (or "Mawalawi" in Arabic)
order. Sufis are Islamic mystics who emphasize above all the love of God and the goal of
union with God. Mystical groups in various religions use physical practices to help attain
certain mental states -- for the Dervishes this consisted of a progressively more intense
whirling ritual dance called sema. In classical Ottoman music there exist a large number
of settings for this ceremony: on this recording the setting used was by the Sultan Selim
III (1760-1808 CE/1174-1223 AH), a member of the order. Although Kemal Atatürk
made an effort to ban this music in 1925, since 1946 it has been allowed in an annual
commemoration of the Death of Rumi, the great poet and founder of the order. In recent
years, Sema performers have toured the world. The recording has extensive notes on
Islam, the Sufis and Sufi music. Tracks 1-6 present a complete Sufi ritual, with a
number of other types of music on tracks 7-9. As modern fans of the great Pakistani Sufi
singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan will know (even though the Qawwali music he sings is
rather different), this music cannot create its effects quickly. It works slowly with gently
increasing intensity.]
*The Music of Islam [BOX SET - 17 CDS]
Celestial Harmonies
Amazon.com Reviews
from Celestial Harmonies, celestial@harmonies.com , June 3, 1998
Voted the Best Traditional World Music recording at the 1998 AFIM Indie Awards (Association
for Independent Music). Ten years in the making, THE MUSIC OF ISLAM series recorded in
Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Yemen, Pakistan, Indonesia, Iran and Qatar represents the most
comprehensive sound documentation available to Westerners today, of a world religion dating
back to 1/622. With nearly 80 minutes playing time, this recording is a complete introduction
(sampler) of the series, featuring one selection from each of the fifteen volumes, seventeen CDs
respectively. The musicians and reciters recorded in this series are masters of their chosen art,
regionally and worldwide, with numerous years of intense study (or a lifetime devotion to
studying) from a long lineage of great composers, reciters, mystics and spiritual leaders, such as
the world-famous Whirling Dervishes of Turkey and living legend Ustad Bary Fateh Ali Khan of
Pakistan. A perfect gift for world music lovers from novice to connoisseur, and a starting place for
those interested in exploring THE MUSIC OF ISLAM series.
Mouwachah - Arabo-Andalusian Songs
Aida Chalhoub, et al
Studia SM D 2669 SM 50
[Attractive attempt to render one form of medieval Iberian music (compare the
increasing numbers of Sephardic music recordings). It must be noted that, since Arabic
music was transmitted from teacher to student, the degree of "authenticity" is impossible
to assess.]
Western Christian Chant
Plainchant
The official monophonic unison chant, originally unaccompanied, of the Christian
liturgies. The term refers particularly to the chant repertories with Latin texts. i.e. those of the
major Westem Christian liturgies (Ambrosian, Gallican, Mozarabic and Gregorian and Old
Roman). and in a more restricted sense to the repertory of Gregorian chant, the official chant of the
Roman Catholic Church.
The origins of Christian liturgical chant lie in Jewish synagogue practice and in pagan
music at early church centres (Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome and Constantinople). By the 4th century
there were distinct families of Eastern and Western (Latin) rites, each with its own liturgy and
music. As political and liturgical unification began under Carolingian rule in the mid-8th century,
all the local Latin musical rites except the Ambrosian were suppressed in favour of the Gregorian.
Notation appears nowhere before the 9th century, precise pitch representation being found only a
century or two later. Of the Latin rites, only the Gregorian, Old Roman and Ambrosian survive
complete.
Each plainchant family has its distinctive modal idioms; in some repertories (GregorianOld Roman, Byzantine, Slavonic, Coptic) the modes are assigned numbers or names. The
Byzantine modal theory «Oktoechos» developed with a symmetrical arrangement of eight modes
and was adopted by the Gregorian repertory in the late 8th century. These use four final pitches (D,
E, F and G), with sub-forms in a higher range (authentic) and lower range (plagal) for each final.
Certain modes are preferred for certain liturgical categories, liturgical seasons or particular feasts.
In the Gregorian tradition tonaries from the 9th century onwards listed melodies by mode,
imposing the modal system only after the repertory had been fixed.
The forms or the chant repertory can be divided into psalmodic and non-psalmodic. There
are three main forms of psalmody: antiphonal, in which two halves of a choir sing psalm verses in
alternation with a refrain (antiphon); responsorial, in which one or more soloists alternate with the
choir in singing psalm verses and a refrain (respond); and direct, in which the cantors sing verses
without a refrain. Non-psalmodic forms include the strophic form of the hymn, in which a single
melody is repeated for all strophes; the sequence, in which there is repetition within each couplet;
the repetitive forms of the Kyrie and Agnus Dei; and the non-repetitive forms of the Sanctus,
Gloria and Credo. In the Mass, the chants of the Ordinary are all non-psalmodic and those of the
Proper are psalmodic. Recitation formulae are used for both psalmodic and non-psalmodic texts.
The syllabic psalm tones are the musical patterns based on mode that accommodate the recitation
of psalm verses. The beginning, middle and end of each verse are punctuated with small
intonation, flex, mediant and cadential formulae.
There are three melodic styles of chant: syllabic, in which each syllable of text is set to a
single note; neumatic, in which two to a dozen notes accompany a syllable; and melismatic, in
which single syllables may be sung to dozens of notes. The Christian liturgies are divided into the
Eucharistic Mass and the Divine Office, and it is the liturgy that determines the musical style of
plainchant. In general, the more solemn the occasion, the more florid the music, although the most
solemn chants are intoned by the celebrant. Each family of chant is characterized by a specific
melodic type: antiphons and psalms are normally set syllabically, introits, Sanctus and Agnus Dei
melodies are neumatic, and graduals, alleluias and offertories contain extensive melismas.
Chant composition involves the contrived selection of traditional modal materials, which may be
divided into cells, formulae and patterns. Cells are miniature melodic gestures, which either stand
alone or contribute to the larger stylized formulae; formulae are longer, more individual melismatic
elements; and patterns are flexible frameworks or pitches that accommodate whole phrases of text.
These melodic idioms are chosen and ordered according to established modal procedures.
Source: The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music
Origins of Chant [From The Gregorian Association (London, England)]
The Gregorian Chant repertory was developed for Latin texts in Charlemagne's (768-814
AD) Frankish kingdom, which encompassed modern France, Switzerland and Germany. We know
little of the Church singing used in these areas before this time, because no modern Western
system of music writing had yet been invented. Charlemagne wished the music of the Church in his
kingdom to be sung as in Rome. In the absence of written music, this may have caused some
difficulty, since it would have had to be learned orally, as a folk music tradition. There survives
another repertory of chant from Rome for the same liturgical texts, whose melodies are related to,
though variants of, the Frankish "Gregorian" chant, rather as two different variants of "the same"
folk song. This repertory is known as "Old Roman" and is thought to be related to the Roman
tradition from which cantors in the Frankish kingdom learned the Roman Chant. This "Old
Roman" version continued to be used in Rome for some centuries before being replaced by the
"Frankish-Roman" or "Gregorian" version. The Frankish chant is thought to have received the
name "Gregorian" after one of the Popes of that name, in order to give it greater authority, and to
ease its reception in the Frankish Kingdom. Surviving books which contain complete written
repertories of the chant with music do not appear before the tenth century, and are well established
in the eleventh. Some of the earlier notations give rhythmic details, but most do not give exact
pitches, and must be used as an aide-mémoire, in conjunction with a knowledge of the oral
tradition. Pitch-defined manuscripts begin to appear in the eleventh century, and are wellestablished by the twelfth. In these, the pitches can be read without a knowledge of the oral
tradition, but the rhythmic details cease to be recorded.
From the Council of Trent in the sixteenth century until the nineteenth century, there was
much re-edition of the chant. Notation began to record a new kind of measured rhythm, akin to
modern crotchets, quavers and dotted crotchets. Both rhythm and a revised text-underlay were coopted into ensuring that accented syllables received greater musical weight, and unaccented less.
This applied also to chant adapted into vernacular languages in churches of the Reformation.
France went further, so that "Gregorian" chants were often replaced by modern imitations, known
as "Neo-Gallican" chants. During this period both Gregorian and Neo-Gallican chants were
frequently accompanied by musical instruments, especially by the serpent. In the nineteenth
century, the Solesmes monks began to study the early sources again, and restored the melodies to
their pre-seventeenth century form. In the early twentieth century, the "restored" Editions of
Solesmes became the official versions of the chant used by the modern catholic church. At first,
Dom Joseph Pothier (1835-1923) advocated an "equalist" system, in which all notes were sung at
more-or-less the same speed. Soon after, Dom André Mocquereau (1849-1930) worked out a
rhythmic system which was added to the official Roman chant books, which understood the
melodies in terms of rhythmic groups of two or three notes, and in which some notes were doubled
in length. This system has been criticised for ignoring some of the early manuscripts' rhythmic
indications, and inserting others not present in the manuscripts. Many of the most popular chant
records, including the earlier recordings of Solesme under Dome Gajard, and those of the monks
of Santo Domingo de Silos, were recorded using this system. Some have suggested that the
earliest chant notation (of the post-Carolingian period) implies a "measured" system of Gregorian
rhythm (rather like modern crotchets and quavers). The most detailed of these theories (based
much more closely upon the written notation than Mocquereau's theory) was that of J. W. A.
Vollaerts (1901-56, published posthumously 1958-60). R. John Blackley in America has recorded
chant in accordance with this system, and in the past The Deller Consort recorded chant in this
style. In the 1960's, another monk of Solesmes, Dom Eugène Cardine, studied the earliest notation,
but disagreed with Vollaerts, preferring to conceive of the longer and shorter notes as rhythmic
"nuances". Nonetheless, Cardine's theories have served as the starting point for many different
sorts of performance, including some of great rhythmic complexity (for example those of the
Ensemble Gilles Binchois, in which the contrast between longer and shorter sounds is so great that
the word "nuance" hardly seems to provide an apt description).
Since the Second Vatican Council, the liturgical use of Gregorian Chant has been
challenged. The "received view" of liturgical history held by liturgists and clergy assumes that
liturgical singing was originally simple, and that "art music" later took over. This "received view"
is largely derived from the writings of Père Joseph Gélineau. The degree to which his views
represent objective history, or are mere polemic, is a matter of dispute, affecting views of the
history of Gregorian Chant. Thus the late chant scholar Helmut Hucke, supporting Gélineau's
ideas, regarded the florid graduals sung between the readings at Mass as a "new" song form which
"replaced" the ancient, simple responsorial psalm. On the other hand, Peter Jeffery would maintain
that we know little about what early liturgical singing was like, so that it is equally possible that
there is at least a continuity of development between early psalm-singing and the Gregorian
graduals. There are many "folk" and "popular" musical cultures which involve solo performance to
an audience, and whose melodic styles could be described as florid. Moreover, Eastern European
scholars of both chant and folk music (for example László Dobszay) have claimed to find links
between the chant and the older forms of folksong which survive in Eastern Europe. It is therefore
possible that florid, soloistic, as well as simple singing styles were used in early times, and it would
seem unlikely that the presence of what we may perceive as ornate melodic lines would have made
liturgical music seem remote from the people - indeed, such an argument probably reflects entirely
modern concerns, about the distinction between "popular" and "art" music, a modern idea of the
difference between "singing" and "saying", an assumption that liturgical "dialogue" is necessarily
only between clergy and people, and that everything sung must be sung by all. The last is of
doubtful modern relevance, since the modern musical scene is perhaps to a greater extent than ever
before about listening to pre-packaged musical products, as opposed to practical music-making.
Supporters of the chant have generally defended it by appealing to "musica sacra", a
concept which suggests that the chant is artistically superior to simple, "pastoral" music.
Opponents of the chant have based their opposition upon the same grounds. Another, and perhaps
more appropriate argument, is to say that the chant is a "cultic" music suited to a particular
purpose. That much of the repertory cannot be sung by everyone is not necessarily an argument
against its use; what is important is whether people in the modern world are capable of responding
to it. In recent times, "exotic" musics from all over the world have become freely available on
commercial recordings in the Western world; the dramatic increase of interest in non-Western
musics has even led to the invention of a new category of popular music, known as "World
Music". That Gregorian Chant could have found a place within this musical melting-pot would
have been unimaginable at the time of the Second Vatican Council. Should this trend continue, it
can only mean that competence in the understanding of a wider range of musical sounds and
structures will become increasingly widespread. Many are now responding to the chant through
very different routes, such as the classical music broadcasting and record market, and the
"ambient" music associated with modern youth dance culture. The agenda of the Vatican II
"modernisers" no longer appears particularly "modern" in this context. Despite this, the chant still
loses out, in a circularity of argument which suggests that the reaction against chant is held for
perhaps unconscious emotional reasons, rather than for the rational reasons consciously given. To
the arbiters of liturgical "appropriateness", there is a quasi-dogmatic belief in the irrelevance of the
chant in the "modern" world, not subject to rational analysis, which argues for its replacement with
a "modern" musical language for liturgical purposes, related to popular styles in use in the world
today; at the same time, the fact that the chant can be incorporated into new forms of popular
music outside the church and its liturgy is also dismissed as irrelevant, because such use of the
chant is unrelated to the church and its faith. But the latter surely misses the point: If it is an aim
of modern liturgy to include the "people's" music of the "modern" world, and if the chant has
become part of this, then it may be admitted to a modernised liturgy, not least because it is also
specifically designed to accompany liturgical action. It might therefore be suggested that the
largely clerical rejection of the chant in recent years resulted from a premature judgement,
stemming from a reductionist analysis of the possible range of meanings in the liturgy and its
traditional music. Religions are not built solely upon the public expression of rational ideas, or the
personalities of public religious figures, nor has the term "charismatic" always been associated
exclusively with styles of Christian worship which exhibit outward liveliness, but also with a
quieter, more contemplative spirituality. The chant functions at a level different from the merely
rational or personal, and does not tend towards religious frenzy.
Source: http://www.beaufort.demon.co.uk/chant.htm
Chant Recordings and Monastic Reality
Almost all modern chant in Roman Catholic monasteries (and Anglican ones, where they
still exist) derives from the reconstructions of the monks of Solesmes in the late 19th century -where the system of singing was imposed as uniform across the Church (which was never the case
in the middle ages) and which emphasized the delivery of a very smooth, beatless, line. In modern
monastic usage, the sound is often improved by resonant architecture, which provides the attractive
harmonics, and by "non-professional" variation in among the singers. The entire sound of a given
monastic choir might sometimes depend on the presence of one or two monks with good voices.
In practice, most of the time modern monks spend on the monastic office (by far the
larger amount of the time spent in choir) is spent chanting psalms. Psalm tones are, overall, rather
simple melodies that go on and one through the psalm. The more interesting and elaborate chants,
however, were reserved for antiphons, sequences, Mass propers and ordinaries, and the texts used
on major feast days. The famous CHANT recording is of this type, and there are many recordings
by the monks of Solesmes, not to mention many others made for monastery gift-shops.
All this makes a difference between what one hears on disk and what one will experience
when visiting one of the few monasteries which still use Latin chant. First it is the "exciting"
chants which are recorded most frequently -- but which o put a distance between "lived
experience" and what you will find on disk. Even recordings by monks use the best tracks or the
sounds of monks who are simply tired because of split sleeping schedules (now almost completely
abandoned).
A note on Ensemble Organum and the "ison"
[See also discussion above under Byzantine Music]
Some of the very best recordings below are by the French Ensemble Organum -- a group
which has explored all around the Gregorian (i.e.Carolingian) repertory -- and has some stunning
disks of Ambrosian, Beneventan, and "Old Roman" chant. Here's the problem -- the director of
the group, Marcel Pérès has taken seriously the Eastern origins of these forms of chant, and so
adopts a distinctly Eastern approach to these forms by working with the modern Greek cantor
Lycourgus Angelopoulos on many tracks. The means that Ensemble Organum uses to "orientalise"
is the ison -- under underlying "tone" so familiar in modern Greek music. The consensus among
most scholars is that the ison was a relatively late (possibly post-Medieval) addition to
Byzantine/Greek liturgical singing style, and this makes its used hard to justify for types of chant
which flourished in the 7th century.
Ambrosian Chant
Augustine describes the institution of chant in Milan
Not long had the Church of Milan begun to use this kind of consolation and exhortation,
the brethren zealously joining with harmony of voice and hearts. For it was a year, or not much
more, that Justina, mother to the Emperor Valentinian, a child, persecuted Thy servant Ambrose, in
favour of her heresy, to which she was seduced by the Arians. The devout people kept watch in the
Church, ready to die with their Bishop Thy servant. There my mother Thy handmaid, bearing a
chief part of those anxieties and watchings, lived for prayer. We, yet unwarmed by the heat of Thy
Spirit, still were stirred up by the sight of the amazed and disquieted city. Then it was first
instituted that after the manner of the Eastern Churches, Hymns and Psalms should be sung, lest
the people should wax faint through the tediousness of sorrow: and from that day to this the custom
is retained, divers (yea, almost all) Thy congregations, throughout other parts of the world
following herein.
Source: Augustine, Confessions [trans. Pusey]
Ambrosian chant
Monophonic, or unison, chant that accompanies the Latin mass and canonical hours of the
Ambrosian rite. The word Ambrosian is derived from St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan (374-397),
from which comes the occasional designation of this rite as Milanese. Despite legends to the
contrary, no Ambrosian-chant melodies can be attributed to Ambrose.
The Ambrosian Ordinary (chants of the mass having texts that do not change from day to
day) has some relationship to the Roman Gregorian Ordinary (the standard Roman Catholic liturgy
and chant): they each have a Kyrie and Gloria, except that the Kyrie is appended to the Ambrosian
Gloria (in the Roman Ordinary it precedes the Gloria); each has a Credo (called Symbolum in the
Ambrosian rite) and a Sanctus. For the breaking of the Communion breads, the Ambrosian rite
uses the Confractorium, a Proper chant (one having a text that varies during the church year),
whereas the Gregorian has the Agnus Dei, an Ordinary chant. The Ambrosian Ordinary chants are
generally but not always syllabic (one note per syllable). The festive Gloria has expressive
melismas (many notes per syllable) at the conclusion of syllabic phrases. Compared to the
Gregorian rite, the Ambrosian has few Ordinary chants. (See Proper of the mass.)
The late date of the Ambrosian-chant manuscripts (12th century) raises doubt concerning
the time of the origin of this chant. It is thought that the Ambrosian chant was established and
differed stylistically from Gregorian chant in the era of Charlemagne (d. 814), who unsuccessfully
endeavoured to replace the Ambrosian with the Gregorian liturgy. Gregorian melodies and texts
from this time and later are found integrated within the Ambrosian repertory. Ambrosian chants,
however, also include a primitive body of less uniform and theoretically unorganized chants that
remained apparently uninfluenced by the polished and systematized Gregorian repertory.
There are several traits native to the Ambrosian chants and not typically Gregorian.
Unlike the Gregorian chants, the Ambrosian are not stylistically uniform for any liturgical
category; e.g., Gregorian Tracts (a category of chant) have certain musical traits in common with
each other, but no such consistencies appear among Ambrosian chants. The Ambrosian chants are
not written in any mode (theoretical melodic and scale pattern), whereas a given Gregorian chant is
in one of the eight church modes. The Ambrosian psalm tones (formulas for intoning psalms) differ
from the Gregorian psalm tones in that the former have no middle cadence (stopping point) and
have a greater choice of reciting tones and terminations. Representative of Oriental influence are
the Ambrosian melodiae (freely interchangeable melismatic fragments) found in the responsories
(a type of chant) for Matins (a service of the canonical hours).
Source: "Ambrosian chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=6147&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Chants de l'Église Milanaise
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901295
[The distinctive feature of this disk is that Pérès takes Augustine seriously, and renders
the texts in a very Greek or eastern style - with the use of the ison (the underlying
sustained tone which is a such a feature of modern Greek Orthodox music.) It is highly
unlikely that the ison was used at this early a date, but its use does succeed in giving the
music an "Eastern" aspect which accords well with historical accounts of the chant's
introduction.]
Ambrosian Chant: Early Christian Chant of the Ambrosian Rite- In Dulci Jubilo
Alberto Turco, with female voices.
Naxos 8.553502
[Dealing with the same music as Pérès, Turco's version is very different -- and will not
seem very different from "Gregorian" chant to many listeners. The female voices are
somewhat dry and precise.]
*Ambrosian Liturgical Chants
László Dobszay, Schola Hungarica
Hungaroton/White Label (Hun) 12889
[For those who object to Ensemble Organum's use of the ison, this might be better
recording. Male and female choirs are used on different tracks. This recording does not
sound as western as Turco's, but does not go to Pérès' extremes in adding "Eastern"
flavor.]
Beneventan Chant
BeneventanChant
Beneventan chant is one of the oldest surviving bodies of Western music: the Latin (sometimes
intermixed with Greek) church music of southern Italy as it existed before the spread of Gregorian
chant. Dating from the 7th and 8th centuries it was largely forgotten after the Carolingian desire for
political and liturgical unity imposed 'Gregorian' chant throughout the realm.
See Thomas Forrest Kelly, BeneventanChant, Cambridge UP 1989
Chants de la Cathédrale de Benevento - Semaine Sainte & Pâques / Holy Week & Easter
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi HMC 90 1476
[Pérès again uses an Eastern or Greek approach to texts, an approach which is surely
justified by the use of both Greek and Latin texts in the Cathedral of Benevento. The
result is stunning.]
Ancient Voices - Vox sacra
Anonymous 4, Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès, Soeur Marie Keyrouz
Harmonia mundi HMX 290 608
Track: 7 Music from the Cathedral of Benevento (7-11th centuries)
[A track from Pérès' Benevento CD.]
*Beneventan Chants: Holy Saturday - Feast of the Holy Twelve Brothers / Beneventan
liturgikus enekek. Nagyszombat - A Tizenket Szent Testver uennepe
Janka Szendrei, László Dobszay, Schola Hungarica
Hungaroton HCD 31168
[For those who object to Ensemble Organum's use of the ison, this might be better
recording.]
Mozarabic Chant
Mozarabic chant
Liturgical music and text forming the eucharistic rite of the Roman Catholic church in
Spain in and before the 11th century. By the 5th century, Spain had its own religious and liturgical
traditions, which reached a full flowering under the Visigoths in the 6th and 7th centuries. The
term Mozarab, denoting Christians under Muslim rule, came into use after the Iberian Peninsula
was invaded by the Muslim Arabs (711) and eventually came to designate the Spanish liturgy
before, during, and after the Muslim domination, which began to decline in the late 11th century.
The earliest extant manuscripts of Mozarabic chant (8th-11th century) preserve the
musical notation and texts of the entire church year. The notation consists of neumes, or signs
showing one or more notes; but it lacks a musical staff, which alone could give the exact pitches of
the notes.
In the 11th century Pope Gregory VII, desiring to unify liturgical practice, suppressed the
Mozarabic rite in favour of the Roman. Only six parishes in Toledo and some monasteries were
allowed to continue using it. In the early 16th century, Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros
tried to revive the Mozarabic chant, but by this time the key to the transcription of the neumes had
been lost.
The Mozarabic liturgy contains one element found in no other liturgy of equal antiquity.
This is a Clamor (Shout) in the mass, added on feast days to the Psallendum, a chant that follows
the scriptural readings, in order to elicit religious fervour. Musically, Mozarabic chant contains not
only influences of Eastern church chant--such as the long melismata of the Alleluia (prolongations
of one syllable over many notes)--but it also has affinities to the Gallican (Frankish) and
Ambrosian (Milanese) rites and chants.
Source: "Mozarabic chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=55443&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Chant Mozarabe Cathédrale de Tolède (XVe siècle)
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès, dir.
Harmonia mundi HMC 90 1519
[The CD is based entirely on the chant books prepared at the end of the 15th century
for the "Mozarabic" chapel at the Cathedral of Toledo. Before that the chants had
survived orally in outlying churches of the diocese after the Gregorian chants were
imposed in the 11th century. Pérès argues that these 15th century documents reflect a
much older tradition -- going back to the "African church" -- while acknowledging the
problems of "accuracy." Part of his problem lies in the fact that while the full Mozarabic
mass and office chants were suppressed in the late 11th century, the music continued to
be used for other ceremonies and 21 such chants have survived copied into diastematic
notation (on a stave, rather than with less clear neumatic notation), but these chants do
not match those of the 15th century "salvage" effort.]
Old Roman Chant
Old Roman chant
Old Roman chant is a liturgical repertory of melodies which survives in manuscripts of
the 11th-13th centuries but can be traced to at least the 8th. It is no longer thought that 'Gregorian'
chant represents Roman chant in the time of Gregory (590-604) but that it originated in the
Frankish Empire circa 800, with the introduction of the Roman liturgy there; Old Roman chant was
the Roman version of this Gregorian chant. The Roman tradition continued to develop until the
11th century, absorbing certain Frankish elements; it was finally ousted by Gregorian chant in
Rome in the high Middle Ages. Standard melodic formulae and melismas are less clearly outlined
and less stable in some parts of the Old Roman repertory, and the melodic lines have less
flexibility than in Gregorian chant.
Source: The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music
Old Roman chant
Repertory of liturgical melodies written in Rome between the 11th and the 13th century
and discovered about 1890.
The earliest of the five manuscripts containing the chants (three graduals and two
antiphonaries) dates from 1071, although the Roman tradition of worship can be traced at least as
far back as the 8th century. The relationship between this repertory and the Gregorian poses some
complicated and, as yet, unresolved problems. Liturgically, the two traditions are almost identical;
the structure of the mass and the office are similar, and the texts given for the various services
rarely disagree. It is the musical settings that are obviously different, although, in some cases, the
Old Roman melody shares the same general contour of the corresponding Gregorian melody and
may even be regarded as a variation of that chant. When the melodies of the Old Roman tradition
were first published (Paléographie Musicale, 1891), they were described as a deteriorated and
distorted Roman version of the Gregorian melodies. Dom Andoyer held an opposite view,
however, writing (in 1912) that they were actually older than Gregorian and were simply preserved
in the Old Roman tradition. The question was again raised in 1950 by Bruno Stäblein, a German
musicologist, who held that the Old Roman tradition was sung at the time of Pope Gregory the
Great (reigned 590-604) and was therefore the authentic Gregorian chant, whereas the so-called
Gregorian body of song dated from the second half of the 7th century.
According to most recent theories, the two repertories represent variant rites developed in
different locales, rather than coming from different historical periods. Helmut Hucke of Frankfurt
University maintained that the Old Roman chant was the Roman rendition of Gregorian chant and
that the latter originated in the Frankish kingdom with the introduction of the Roman liturgy during
the empire of Pepin and Charlemagne. Hucke's position was supported by the late--and
incomplete--adoption of the system of eight psalm tones into Old Roman chant. This system,
related directly to the eight church modes, was first demonstrated in the Frankish empire (c. 800)
and is considered to be one of the achievements of the Carolingian Renaissance. Thus, it is very
probable that the Old Roman tradition, subjected to the powerful spread of Frankish culture, was
replaced by Gregorian chant in Rome during the High Middle Ages.
Source: "Old Roman chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=58402&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Chants de l'Église de Rome: Période byzantine? Chants of the Church of Rome:
Byzantine Period
Ensemble Organum, Marcel Pérès dir.
Harmonia Mundi HMC 901218
[The first of three Old Roman Chant recordings by Pérès.]
Messe de Saint Marcel Chants de L'Église de Rome (VIIe & XIIIe siècles)
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901382
[As with the Milanese and Benevento disks, Pérès assumes, with some grounding, that
Old Roman chant is best rendered with "Eastern" styling. The singing on the disk almost
demands that this chant be restored to liturgical use.]
Vêpres du Paques Chants de L'Église de Rome (VIIe & XIIIe siècles)
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès 1998
Harmonia Mundi
[The latest of Ensemble Organum's wonderful series of Old Roman Chant recordings.
This one presents the Vespers for Easter Day. The notes to this disk directly address the
issue of the use of the ison. Pérès argues that the "organum" -- a sustained note given to
bass voices -- is "not an imitation of the Byzantine ison but one of the forms of vocal
organum found in Roman chant since the 9th century and described by Guido d"Arezzo
in the 12th century." In fact this disk does sound less "Byzantine" than the other The
singing on this disk is as accomplished as others in the series. Full texts and translations
are given.</p>
*Old Roman Liturgical Chants: Mass of the 2nd Sunday after Michaelmas.
Janka Szendrei, Schola Hungarica
Hungaroton/White Label (Hun) 12741
[Nothing to object to here -- but this approach emphasizes Old Roman chant as variant
from of Carolingian "Gregorian" chant, and is less impressive as modern music that
Ensemble Organum's three recordings.]
*A Pilgrimage to Rome: Old Roman Chants
Janka Szendrei, Lászlo Dobszay, Schola Hungarica
Hungaroton HCD 31574
[For those who object to Ensemble Organum's use of the ison, this might be better
recording.]
Gallican Chant
Gallican chant
Music of the ancient Latin Roman Catholic liturgy in the Gaul of the Franks from about
the 5th to the 9th century. Scholars assume that a simple and uniform liturgy existed in western
Europe until the end of the 5th century and that only in the 6th century did the Gallican church
develop its own rite and chant with Oriental influences.
Because of the desire of Rome to have a unified liturgical practice in the West, the
Frankish kings Pepin III (d. 768) and Charlemagne (d. 814) suppressed the Gallican rite in favour
of the Roman. Although no known manuscripts of Gallican chant have survived, some authentic
remnants of it are found in the repertory of Gregorian chant in the liturgy for Good Friday, among
them the "Improperia," "Crux fidelis," and "Pange lingua." These chants embedded in the Roman
liturgy help to illustrate the theory that the Gregorian chant that has come down to modern times is
a synthesis of Roman and Frankish elements. Certain characteristics stand out from surviving
examples of Gallican chant. There is a pull in the chants toward cadences on C; motifs are
frequently built on the notes C-D-E or C-E-G; and E is often used as a reciting note.
Source: "Gallican chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=36585&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Chant grégorien - Répons et monodies gallicanes
Deller Consort - Alfred Deller, dir.
Harmonia mundi "Musique d'abord" HMA 190 234
[Includes a number of Gallican chants contained within the "Gregorian corpus."]
Alleluias & Offertoires des Gaules
Iegor Reznikoff
Harmonia mundi "Musique d'Abord" HMA 190 1044
[Sung by one voice, this was one of the earliest efforts to break away from the
Solesmes method. The pacing is extraordinarily slow.. Liner notes suggest that because
the pieces chosen are from an office for St. Martin, they represent Gallican survivals
within the overall Gregorian Corpus. ]
Carolingian Chant aka Gregorian or Plain Chant
Gregorian chant [From The Gregorian Association (London, England)]
Gregorian Chant is thought to be the 8th-9th century Frankish (in modern terms, French
and German) version of the Roman chant. The chant as sung in Rome was not written down until
some time after the Frankish version, and was later replaced in Rome by the Frankish version. The
Old Roman version, as recorded in writing, is another dialect of "the same" chant as the Frankish
"Gregorian" Chant. Among reasons for the differences may be that the transplantation of a Roman
musical culture to the Frankish kingdom was not easy, and that the Roman chant may itself have
continued to develop after it was transmitted to the Frankish Kingdom, before it was finally written
down.
Source: Source: http://www.beaufort.demon.co.uk/disco.htm
The Gregorian Modes
see The Eight "Gregorian" Modes at http://www.beaufort.demon.co.uk/modes.htm
Gregorian chant
[Note this account is fine, except that its theory of origins in the pontificate of Pope Gregory I is
now outmoded -- see above.]
Monophonic, or unison, liturgical music of the Roman Catholic Church, used to
accompany the text of the mass and the canonical hours, or divine office. Gregorian chant is named
after St. Gregory I the Great, pope from 590 to 604. It was collected and codified during his reign.
Charlemagne, king of the Franks (768-814), imposed Gregorian chant on his kingdom, where
another liturgical tradition--the Gallican chant--was in common use. During the 8th and 9th
centuries, a process of assimilation took place between Gallican and Gregorian chants; and it is the
chant in this evolved form that has come down to the present.
The Ordinary of the mass includes those texts that remain the same for each mass. The
chant of the Kyrie ranges from neumatic (patterns of one to four notes per syllable) to melismatic
(unlimited notes per syllable) styles. The Gloria appeared in the 7th century. The psalmodic
recitation, i.e., using psalm tones, simple formulas for the intoned reciting of psalms, of early
Glorias attests to their ancient origin. Later Gloria chants are neumatic. The melodies of the Credo,
accepted into the mass about the 11th century, resemble psalm tones. The Sanctus and Benedictus
are probably from apostolic times. The usual Sanctus chants are neumatic. The Agnus Dei was
brought into the Latin mass from the Eastern Church in the 7th century and is basically in neumatic
style. The concluding Ite Missa Est and its substitute Benedicamus Domino usually use the melody
of the opening Kyrie.
The Proper of the mass is composed of texts that vary for each mass in order to bring out
the significance of each feast or season. The Introit is a processional chant that was originally a
psalm with a refrain sung between verses. By the 9th century it had received its present form:
refrain in a neumatic style--a psalm verse in psalm-tone style--refrain repeated. The Gradual,
introduced in the 4th century, also developed from a refrain between psalm verses. Later it
became: opening melody (chorus)--psalm verse or verses in a virtuosically embellished psalmodic
structure (soloist)--opening melody (chorus), repeated in whole or in part. The Alleluia is of 4thcentury Eastern origin. Its structure is somewhat like that of the Gradual. The Tract replaces the
Alleluia in penitential times. This chant is a descendant of synagogue music.
The sequence flourished primarily from about the 9th century to the 16th. In its modern
form the texts are sacred poems with double-line stanzas having the same accentuation and number
of syllables for each two lines. The melody of the first line was repeated for the second line of the
stanza, a new melody being given to the next stanza; the music is syllabic. The Offertory originally
consisted of a psalm and refrain, but by the 12th century only the refrain remained. The music is
quite melismatic. Peculiar to the Offertory is repetition of text. The Communion is, like the
Offertory, a processional chant. The music is neumatic in style.
The canonical hours consist of eight prayer services: Matins, Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext,
None, Vespers, and Compline. Each includes antiphons or refrains, short texts that precede or
follow each psalm and are set mostly in syllabic chant; psalms, with each set to a psalm tone;
hymns, usually metrical and in strophes or stanzas, and set in a neumatic style; responsories, which
follow the lessons of Matins and the chapter, a brief lesson of the other hours, and have the form
response-psalm verse-partially or entirely repeated response. The responsory is related to the form
and style of the Gradual.
Source: "Gregorian chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=38778&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Solesmes Method
Solesmes [From The Gregorian Association (London, England)]
The centre from which modern theories of mediæval chant performance have emanated is
undoubtedly the Abbey of Solesmes in France. It is the monks of Solesmes who have provided the
official chant books of the Catholic Church throughout the twentienth century. The earlier, and
now largely discredited, rhythmic theory of Dom. André Mocquereau is generally represented by
the earlier recordings listed below which are directed by Dom. Joseph Gajard. More recent
recordings are directed by Dom. Jean Claire, whose direction is more likely to be informed by the
more recent rhythmic theories of Dom Eugène Cardine. The reinterpretation here is subtle, unlike
some of the more radical attempts by others to give practical form to Cardine's ideas.
When record companies recently decided to create a taste-public for the chant by re-marketing preexisting recordings in a new way, they lighted in particular upon recordings made by the monks of
Santo Domingo de Silos between the 1950's and the early 1980's. They are therefore examples of
early twentieth century Solesmes style, using the outmoded rhythmic system of Dom. André
Mocquereau.
Source: Source: http://www.beaufort.demon.co.uk/disco.htm
Chant: The Benedictine Monks of Santo Domingo de Silos
Ismael Fernandez de la Cuesta & Francisco Lara
EMI Angel 55138
[The most famous "chant" album of all! Don't let musical snobs suppress your
enjoyment of this disk. The 20 man choir sings beautifully in the Solesmes style, which if
nothing else formed the basis of all modern scholarship on chant, and has enthralled
visitors to Catholic monasteries for the past century.]
Paschale Mysterium: Gregorian Chant
Aurora Surgit (female vocal ensemble), Alessio Randon, soloist and dir.
Naxos 8553697
[A budget CD that takes chant from various eras to create what might be a program for
the modern "renewed" Catholic Easter vigil. Most of the tracks are with female voices.
The Exsultet -- with Randon's voice -- is especially impressive.]
Ego sum Resurrectio: Gregorian Chant for the Dead
Aurora Surgit (female vocal ensemble), Alessio Randon, soloist and dir.
Naxos 8553192
[Another collection of chant from various eras organized around the needs of the
modern Catholic liturgy. (Of course, the chances a modern Catholic would receive a
funeral with music of this quality are virtually nil in a guitar-happy age.) Texts are given
in Latin only. Randon's voice is just right for this type of disk -- rounded, more confident
than on Solesmes-style recordings, but not operatic.]
*In Passione et Morte Domini: Gregorian Chant for Good Friday
Nova Schola Gregoriana, Alberto Turco, dir.
Naxos 8.550952
Tenebrae of Good Friday
Choir of the monks of Saint-Pierre de Solesmes - Dom Jean Claire 1991/1993
Solesme S834
[Solesmes is the center of current Catholic monastic studies on plainchant. This
recording of the three nocturnes and lauds of Good Friday is well documented, with texts,
translations and comments for each track. Especially notable are the two great hymns by
Venatius Fortunatus (6th Century), Pange Lingua and Vexilla Regis. The performances
by a monastic choir is strikingly different from those by professional choirs. Although
not an "early music" recording, the sound here is less overtly "new age" than that of the
much pushed Chant recording from Silos.]
*Gregorian chant
Choir of the monks of Saint-Pierre de Solesmes
Accord 20088a (4 CDs)
Advent - Gregorian Chants
Orchestra: Capella Gregoriana
Laserlight 12350
Gregorian Christmas - Chants and Motets
László Dobszay, Schola Hungarica
Laserlight 14107
[The disk -- focused on Christmas music -- includes both chant and polyphony so it is
not strictly "Gregorian." As a recording by one of the most renowned ensembles for the
interpretation of chant, it is available at a ludicrously low price. The singing is
accomplished, but there are no useful notes or texts.]
Musique et poésie à Saint-Gall: Séquences et tropes du IXe siècle
Ensemble Gilles Binchois - Dominique Vellard 1996
Harmonia Mundi "Documenta" 905239
[The Monastery of Saint-Gall, on Lake Constance in Modern Switzerland, was the
origin of the first new development after the stablization of "Gregorian" chant under the
Carolingians. The opportunity for innovation was in the use of tropes and sequences.
"Tropes" were phrases added on to standard Gregorian texts, and "Sequences" were much
longer pieces sung after the Alleluia. In the case of Saint-Gall we know the composer of
many of new pieces -- the monk Notker of St. Gall (c.840-912)(also known for a life of
Charlemagne) was responsible for a series of sequences in completed in 884. Other
named composers on this recording are Tuotilo (d.c.913) and Ratpert (d.c.890). SaintGall's musicians also began to notate chant with a new level of detail, known as the SaintGall neumes, and the manuscripts now represent some of the oldest examples of complex
musical notation. It was now possible to express longer and shorter notes, and which
notes were emphasised. The CD has informative notes, Latin texts, and translations. The
singing of the male voices on this most interesting disk is up to the group's high
standards. Note that the historical interest of this recording requires that the notes and
texts be read, otherwise it will sound just like other Gregorian recordings. ]
Revisionist Method
[From The Gregorian Association (London, England)]
Examples of the "proportional" theory of Vollaerts and Gregory Murray (in which long and short
notes are sung in a binary relation to each other, as if modern crotchets and quavers) will be found
in the recordings of the Deller Consort. Bolder attempts at interpreting the rhythm of the earliest
manuscripts are made by Reznikoff, the Schola Hungarica, the Ensemble Gilles Binchois and the
Ensemble Organum. Reznikoff's performances are solo - this can be partly justified by suggestions
that at least some of the more ornate chants were originally intended to be sung soloistically. In
many of the Schola Hungarica's performances, the notion that melismatic style (many notes to one
syllable) should be sung more lightly than syllabic style is in evidence. Their style could be
described as slightly "percussive", as opposed to the smooth "liquidity" of the Ensembles Gilles
Binchois and Organum. The latter two groups, particularly Gilles Binchois, make a dramatic
contrast between the faster and slower rhythms indicated in the manuscripts, with the result that the
style sounds quite unlike the romantic, "classical" style of the monks of Solesmes, and perhaps
suggests non-Western singing styles alive in the world today. (The Ensemble Organum has
sometimes been criticised for an anachronistic tendency to retain rhythmic nuances implied by
mediæval chant notation in performances of the much later chant of eighteenth century France!)
Source: Source: http://www.beaufort.demon.co.uk/disco.htm
Adorate Deum: Gregorian Chant from the Proper of the Mass
Nova Schola Gregoriana - Alberto Turco
Naxos 8.550711
[Turco continues the work of Eugène Cardine. This disk covers four selections for
each part of the Mass proper.]
Review by Robert Maxham: http://www.classical.net/music/recs/reviews/n/nxs50711a.html
You can never step in to the same river twice. While Gregorian chant is a deposit of Latin
liturgical music in many historical strata, it gave the impression to uninitiated listeners of at least
my generation of being a unified, undifferentiated corpus. And back in the years when the ultimate
source seemed to be that massive monolith, the Liber usualis, many of us were uninitiated listeners,
with only a vague understanding of how those serene, hypnotic melodies in the Liber actually
corresponded to the manuscripts from which they were drawn. Of course, we knew from history
books that there were other ways of interpreting the archaic-looking neumes than the official
Solemnes method set forth in the Liber's preface, but at that time the chant was a part of our daily
lives, and its very pervasiveness in the official form precluded much experimentation. But not
investigation. While parish choirs were singing, theorists debated the merits of various hypotheses
purporting to represent the original rhythmic structure of the multiform neumes (the official
doctrine held that they were all more or less equal, with some more equal than others). Now that
the church has practically abandoned its treasure-house of liturgical monody (and polyphony),
there is room for more experimentation in performance. It hasn't taken musicologists long to fill
that room with singing.
The present disc, featuring performances following the teachings of Dom Cardine, makes
a strong case for his artistic, if not academic, premises. Including selections of Introitus, Gradualia,
Versus alleluiatici, Offertoria, and Communiones--all texts from the proper, or changeable, parts of
the Mass--Alberto Turco, a lecturer in Gregorian chant in the Pontifical Ambrosian Institute of
Sacred Music in Milan, has assembled a showcase for this alternative performance style. Those of
us who remember Gregorian chant as ethereal wisps of melody floating serenely above the
liturgical action at the altar, or as a dry musicological exercise (in a doctoral seminar, I traced
skeletal introit melodies through their varied reincarnations in manuscripts of diverse geographical
origin) these performances breathe new life into the ancient, mummified body that we all revered
out of duty but only occasionally loved. The recent spate of such alternative performances has now
revealed to everyone how multiramified the Gregorian tree really was, and how much of the
changing historical river was concealed beneath the smooth flow in the liturgical books.
Turco strongly differentiates the melismatic (heavily ornamental) sections from the
syllabic (one note per syllable) ones. The former are characterized by coherent rhythmic groupings
and resonant quasi-drones. The latter are sung in the old, familiar style. But it is the melismatic
chant that dominates this collection--and provides such a fresh perspective on this music. Of
course, the chant still seems incomplete when severed from the liturgical action, but no style of
performance can remedy that.
Turco's "Nova Schola Gregoriana," recorded in the reverberant acoustic ambience of the
Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin in Mantua, give warm, heartfelt erformances of the
repertoire they have chosen. These adjectives could hardly ever have been used in praise of a
Solemnes performance, which, despite its French provenance, always somehow conjured the
aridity of a cassocked Vatican bureaucrat. The all-male choir recreates the monastic matrix of
these ageless chants, which seem youthful once again in their new idiom.
This is another stunning release by Naxos, which should appeal to absolutely everyone. It
is a journey of the soul to the origins, and we all need such a journey. Urgently recommended.
Music for Holy Week, *Vol I and Vol II
Schola Antiqua - John Blackley 1989
L'oiseau Lyre 417 324-2 [Vol I]
L'oiseau Lyre 425 114-2 [Vol II]
[A multi CD set of music performed in "proportional rhythm." The extensive and
interesting notes to the set argue that, while in the 11th century and later chant books
clearly defined pitches are undifferentiated in length, the neumes of the 9th and 10th
century were differentiated into longs and shorts in a two-to-one proportion. Volume II
of the set includes music of Palm Sunday (CD 1) and of the Paschal Vigil (CD 2).
Especially interesting is the presentation of a complete Paschal Vigil play from the MS
Engleberg 314 of 1371. In all honesty, this is not as endearing as the "smoother" method
of chant performance, but the singing is well-done and the recording is a significant
addition to a collection.]
Tenth-Century Liturgical Chant in Proportional Rhythm: Masses for Christmas Day and
Easter Sunday
Schola Antiqua / John Blackley
Nonesuch cassette 9 71348-4
*Les Tons de la Musique: Gregorian Chant
Ensemble Gilles Binchois - Dominique Vellard
Harmonic 8827
Varieties of Gregorian Chant
Regional chants
As well as a set of chant melodies in universal use, there were also regional or national
variations in the practice of chant.
*Columba, Most Holy of Saints - Scottish Medieval Plainchant
Cappella Nova - Alan Tavener, dir.
ASV Gaudeamus CD GAU 129
Sarum chant
Liturgical chant of the Sarum Use, the medieval church rite centred at Salisbury, Eng. The
name derives from the Latin name for Salisbury, Sarisberia.
Gregorian chant was carried to England in 596 by Roman teachers who accompanied St.
Augustine to Canterbury. A centre was established at Wearmouth Abbey to teach the Gregorian
chants to those who came from every part of England. The first bishop of Salisbury was St.
Osmund, a Norman, appointed in 1078. He compiled a missal, the liturgical book for the mass, and
a breviary, the liturgical book for the canonical hours, both of which closely followed Roman
usage but allowed for a Sarum Use conditioned by Norman traditions and Gallican, or Frankish
rite, influences. The Sarum Use spread from its home in the south of England to much of Scotland
and Ireland and influenced neighbouring uses of York, Lincoln, Bangor, and Hereford.
The Sarum chants resemble Gregorian ones in the use of free rhythm, modes (scale
patterns and associated melodic traits), psalm tones (formulas for intonation of psalms), musical
form, and the addition of tropes (musical and textual interpolations) to the chants of the mass and
hours. The Sarum chants utilize a smaller range, have a more formal structure, and use more
transposition (change in pitch level) than do the Gregorian chants. Composition of several new
Alleluia verses and hymns continued as late as 1500.
Sarum chants were used in the polyphonic (multipart) pieces of many 15th- and 16thcentury composers in England and on the Continent; for example, those by Walter Frye (fl. c.
1450), Johannes Regis (d. 1485), and Josquin des Prez (d. 1521). The Sarum Use was abolished in
England in 1547 during the Reformation. In 1833 leaders of the Oxford Movement stimulated new
settings of Anglican chant in an effort to return to original Anglican ceremonies, and they
encouraged a revival of Gregorian and especially Sarum chant.
Source: "Sarum chant" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=67512&sctn=1> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Sarum Chant: Missa in gallicantu
Tallis Scholars - Peter Phillips, 1988
Gimell 454 917
[The Missa in gallicantu was the "mass at cock crow" on Christmas morning. This
recording comprises the full setting of the Sarum rite plus four other Christmas hymns
from the corpus. The disk notes are informative and provide both texts and English
translations. The singing is impressive, but, although Sarum ritual chants and melodies
form a distinct corpus, the music will sound simply "Gregorian" to most ears.]
The Miracles of St. Kentigern - Scottish Medieval Plainchant
Cappella Nova - Alan Tavener 1997
ASV Gaudeamus CD GAU 169
[The recording presents the contents of a secular (i.e. non-monastic) office for St.
Kentigern (aka Mungo)(February 13), the patron saint of Glasgow, from the Sprouston
Breviary (MS Edinburgh NLS Adv.18.2.13B). The notes state that, while music for local
saints may reveal regional melodic material, in the case the MS follows the Sarum use
dominant in England. The texts of this recording, presented here in Latin and English,
include both proper responsaries, collects, and (for Matins) a series of readings about the
childhood miracles of Kentigern.]
My Fayre Ladye: Tudor Songs and Chant: Images of Women in Medieval England
Lionheart, 1997
Nimbus 5512
[The CD includes a number of types of late medieval English music, with a number of
tracks based on the Processionale ad Usum Sarum printed in 1502, and on the Eton
choirbook. Texts and English translations are given, but beware the new-agey and
inaccurate "introduction." The singing style emphasizes "spirituality" and is clearly post
Chant!]
Sibyl Song [adapted from various online reviews]
The Song of the Sibyl was a widespread kind monophonic chant on the topic of prophecy., and was
one of the medieval church's most mystic ceremonies. It was performed widely in Spain, as
elsewhere, as part of the Christmas ceremonies. After the Council of Trent it was suppressed by
the widespread adoption of the 1568 Roman breviary. However, it continued to be (and still is)
sung as part of the Christmas ceremonies in the Cathedral at Mallorca. The "Sybil" in these
ceremonies was a boy-singer who was brought out dressed as a woman.
El cant de la Sibil-la: Mallorca - València, 1400-1560
[aka El Cant de la Sibil.la III]
Montserrat Figueras / La Capella Reial de Catalunya - Jordi Savalli
Alia Vox 9806
[A real "hear and buy" disc. There are two versions of the Song of the Sybil here -from a mid- 15th century Mallorcan choirbook and, for the Valencian reconstruction,
mid- 16th century harmonisations, together with verses from a Barcelonian source of
1560. ]
Amazon.com review.
GrahamSBJ@yahoo.com from Islington, London , June 3, 1999
Take this to a desert island and you'll never be alone. Two realisations of the chant, of which the
first is worth the price of admission by itself. Whether or not the purists would approve, this is a
stunningly beautiful record. I took it down to our old stone cottage in Northern Cyprus (all stone
archways and cool terraces) and nothing could have been more appropriate. I bought it after
hearing a two minute extract on Radio 3 (and, BTW, the presenter was enthusing - good
'Gramophone' review too). You should buy it also.One of the finds of the year. If, for instance, you
like Anonymous4, you'll love it. And, like all the Allia Vox titles, it is superbly packaged.
*Cant de la Sibilla
Montserrat Figueras / La Capella Reial - Jordi Savall
Astrée 8705
*El Canto de la Sibila Galicia-Castilla
Montserrat Figueras, La Capella Reial de Catalunya, Jordi Savall, dir.
Auvidis/Fontalis ES 9900
*Barcelona Mass / Song of the Sibyl
Obsidienne - Emmanuel Bonnardot
Opus 111 30-130
"Unofficial" Uses of Chant
[From The Gregorian Association (London, England)]
There are various "unofficial" additions to be mentioned. Gregorian Chant was essentially
a variant of the Roman chant, a foreign import subjected to local variation. However, there were
more explicit attempts to preserve pre-Gregorian local chant styles in the Frankish kingdom.
Longer texts were added to ornate, melismatic Gregorian melodies, resulting in pieces of simpler,
syllabic style - known as "Prosulæ". New texts commenting rhetorically on the official chant texts,
set to their own music, were interpolated between the phrases of the official chant - called
"Tropes". Long melismatic replacement-melodies were sometimes added to the end of alleluias known as "Sequences". These could sometimes be texted - the results were known variously as
"Sequences" or (more helpfully) "Proses". The Prose/Sequence came to be independent of the
alleluia and its replacement-melody. (Many of the well-known songs by abbess Hildegard of
Bingen are a highly individual variety of this genre.) None of these additions remains in use, with
the exception of a few of the later Proses.
Other uses for Gregorian Chant are in Liturgical Processions and Drama. An important
part of mediæval liturgical life, processions have recently fallen into desuetude, apart from the
Palm Sunday procession, which is retained as part of the re-enactment of Christ's Passion during
Holy Week. Liturgical processions are usually enacted in association with another liturgical event,
e.g. after a celebration of Divine Office, or before a Mass. Similar genres of chant are used as for
other liturgical celebrations: Antiphons, Great Responsories, Hymns, Proses. Processional
antiphons are often more ornate than those sung in conjunction with psalms and canticles at the
Divine Office. Processions have not altogether disappeared. The Solesmes monks found it
worthwhile as recently as 1983 to reissue the Processionale Monasticum of 1893.
The term "liturgical drama" encompasses several different strands. The simplest dramata
are simply short ceremonies performed in choir by clergy as an elaboration of, or insertion into, the
Mass or Divine Office e.g. the Visitatio Sepulcri, which is a re-enactment of the visit to the tomb
of the Marys, and of their dialogue with an angel. Others seem to be an elaboration of a liturgical
procession, e.g. the Epiphany play of The Three Kings. Finally, there are other plays which bear
less relation to the chant and to the liturgy e.g. The Play of Daniel, which may have arisen as an
attempt by reformers to curb the horseplay which had become customary during the Christmas
liturgy in Cathedral cities in the later Middle Ages.
Source: http://www.beaufort.demon.co.uk/chant.htm
Le Jeu des Pèlerins d'Emmaus, Drame liturgique du Xiie sircle/A Liturgical Drama XII
C: Pilgrims at Emmaus
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901347
Donnersöhne - Sons of Thunder: Music for St. James the Apostle: Codex Calixtinus
[c.1140]
Vox Iberica I
Sequentia - Benjamin Bagby / Barbara Thornton
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77199
[Stylistically, the music is typical of French conducti of the 11th & 12th century.]
Codex Las Huelgas: Music from The Royal Convent of Las Huelgas (13th/14th cent.)
Vox Iberica II
Sequentia, 1989
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77234
[The women's convent of Las Huelgas, founded in 1187, was one of the most
important women's religious houses in Europe. Although the manuscript basis of this CD
dates to c.1300, it contains music from various periods.]
El Sabio: Songs for King Alfonso X of Castile and Leon (1221-1284)
Vox Iberica III
Sequentia, 1991
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77234
[Songs mostly from the collection of over 400 Cantigas de Santa Maria, collected for
Alfonso X "The Wise."]
*In Gottes Namen fahren wir - Pilgerlieder aus Mittelalter und Renaissance
Odhecaton, Ensemble für alte Musik, Köln
FSM 97 208
Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179)
Primarily because of feminist scholarship in both history and musicology there
has been an explosion of interest in Hildegarde. She was one of the most
productive female writers in the middle ages, and as feminist scholars have been
keen over the past 15 years or so to go beyond a model of scholarship which looks
simply at the history of women's oppression, to one which looks at women's
agency in the past. Hildegarde, whose writing directly addresses issues of gender
and godliness, could not fail to generate interest and excitement.
See Hildegard Discography: http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/composers/hildegard.html
See Hildegard of Bingen http://www.uni-mainz.de/~horst/hildegard/ewelcome.html
Hildegard: Heavenly Revelations
Oxford Camerata - Jeremy Summerly
Naxos 8.550998
Hildegard: Canticles of Ecstasy
Sequentia - Barbara Thornton
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77320
*A Feather on the Breath of God
Sequences and Hymns by Abbess Hildegard of Bingen
Gothic Voices - Christopher Page
Hyperion 66039
[The 1981 recording that began the modern popularity of Hildegard's music, and of the
group Gothic Voices.]
Hildegard von Bingen - 11,000 Virgins
Anonymous 4
Harmonia mundi HMU 90 7200
*Hildegard von Bingen - Laudes de Sainte Ursule
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia mundi HMC 901626
[Avoids new age interpretations!]
"New Age" Hildegard of Bingen
Vision - The Music of Hildegard von Bingen
Richard Souther with Emily van Evera & Sister Germaine Fritz (OSB)
Angel CDC 7243 5 55246 21
[A very well-known "new age" interpretation. It is worth comparing specific tracks to
more realistic versions. It might, however, make you want to go out and buy crystals to
wave at whales.]
Illumination - Hildegard von Bingen: The Fires of the Spirit
Richard Souther with Emily van Evera & Sister Germaine Fritz (OSB)
Sony SK 62853
[ditto.]
Post Medieval Gregorian Chant
Ancient Voices - Vox sacra
Anonymous 4, Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès, Soeur Marie Keyrouz
Harmonia mundi HMX 290 608
Track: 6: Plainchant from the Cathedral of Auxerre
[A track from the Pérès effort to document the distinct chant of Auxerre in the 17th
century. One of Pérès' most important insights is that the all too common discussion of
"purity" about liturgical chant -- and the need for "reform" - is a discourse of politics
and/or theology not music. Chant practices were always changing and there was no
perfect time.]
Alternate Vocalization
Chant Corse: Manuscrits franciscains des XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles
Ensemble Organum
Harmonia Mundi 901495
[This disk focuses on orally transmitted monodic chant from Corsica and uses local
vocalists, whose knowledge was salvaged just in time. The interesting aspect of this
phenomenon is the vocalization techniques of the singers. In reconstructions of medieval
chant, the melody is usually quite ascertainable, and sometimes the rhythm, but there is
no way of knowing what vocalization techniques were used, and certainly not if the very
smooth vocalization in most modern Chant recordings was the norm.]
Early Polyphony
Development of polyphony
At the same time that the Gregorian repertory was being expanded by the interpolation of
tropes and sequences, it was being further enriched by a revolutionary concept destined to give a
new direction to the art of sound for hundreds of years. This concept was polyphony, or the
simultaneous sounding of two or more melodic lines. The practice emerged gradually during the
Dark Ages, and the lack of definite knowledge regarding its origin has brought forward several
plausible theories: it resulted from singers with different natural vocal ranges singing at their most
comfortable pitch levels; it was a practice of organists adopted by singers; or it came about when
the repetition of a melody at a different pitch level was sung simultaneously with the original
statement of the melody. Whatever motivated this dramatic departure from traditional monophony
(music consisting of a single voice part), it was an established practice when it was described in
Musica enchiriadis (c. 900), a manual for singers and one of the major musical documents of the
Middle Ages. To a given plainsong, or vox principalis, a second voice ( vox organalis) could be
added at the interval (distance between notes) of a fourth or fifth (four or five steps) below. Music
so performed was known as organum. While it may be assumed that the first attempts at polyphony
involved only parallel motion at a set interval, the Musica enchiriadis describes and gives
examples of two-part singing in similar (but not exactly parallel) and contrary movement--evidence
that a considerable process of evolution had already taken place. (See polyphony, singing, "Musica
enchiriadis", plainsong, vox principalis, vox organalis, organum.)
The next major source of information was the Micrologus, written in the early 11th
century by the Italian monk and musical theorist Guido of Arezzo. This work documented
principles that were crucial to the further development of polyphony. Rhythmic independence was
added to melodic independence, and the added voice might sing two or more tones to one in the
original plainsong. During the half century after Guido's death, developments came more rapidly as
the plainsong chant became the lower rather than the upper voice. After the emancipation of the
organal part, vox organalis, its ultimate freedom was reached in the organums of the monastery of
Saint-Martial in Limoges, France, where the plainsong part was reduced to the role of sustaining
each tone while the organal part indulged in free melismata (groups of notes sung to a single
syllable), either improvised or composed. This new style was called organum purum.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=6> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
The Notre-Dame school
Early in the 12th century the centre of musical activity shifted to the church of Notre-Dame in
Paris, where the French composer Léonin recorded in the Magnus Liber Organi ("Great Book of
Organum") a collection of two-part organums for the entire church year. A generation later his
successor, Pérotin, edited and revised the Magnus Liber, incorporating the rhythmic patterns
already well-known in secular music and adding more than one part to the cantus firmus (the
"given" or preexisting plainsong melody). When metre was applied to the original plainsong as
well as to the vox organalis, the resulting form was called a clausula. Then, when words were
provided for the added part or parts, a clausula became a motet. At first the words given to the
motet were a commentary in Latin on the text of the original plainsong tenor (the voice part
"holding" the cantus firmus; from Latin tenere, "to hold"). Later in the 13th century the added
words were in French and secular in nature. Finally, each added part was given its own text,
resulting in the classic Paris motet: a three-part composition consisting of a portion of plainchant
(tenor) overlaid with two faster moving parts, each with its own secular text in French. At the same
time another polyphonic form, the conductus, was flourishing. It differed from a motet in that its
basic part was not plainsong and that all parts sang the same Latin text in note-against-note style.
The conductus gradually disappeared with the rise of the motet, which apparently served both
liturgical and secular functions.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=7> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
The Age of Cathedrals: Music from the Magnus Liber Organi
Theatre of Voices - Paul Hillier, 1995
Harmonia Mundi USA 907157
[Works by Leonin and Perotin, along with some tracks from St. Martial of Limoges in
Aquitaine, all pointing to the emergence of polyphony. The disc comes with a deluxe set
of notes, including texts, translations, and color photographs of the manuscript basis of
the music. ]
Polyphonie Aquitaine du XIIe siècle [St. Martial de Limoges]
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901134
Paris 1200: Perotin & Leonin - Chant and Polyphony from 12th Century France
Lionheart, 1997
Nimbus 5547
[Pleasant enough singing, although far from robust, and rather too "relaxing." Texts
and translations are given. The introduction by Jeffry Johnson is obtuse beyond measure
-- from its reifications of what "medieval people" thought and did, to its use of completely
non-contextualized numbers. The music here is genuine, but the underlying intent seems
to reflect the commercial success of the New Age versions of Hildegard of Bingen's
music.]
Perotin
Hilliard Ensemble - Paul Hillier, 1988
ECM New Series 1385
[One of the most famous and respected recordings of music from Notre Dame in the
crucial early years of the 13th century. As with some Ensemble Organum recordings, the
Hilliard Ensemble added underlying drones to some songs, although there is much doubt
that this was ever done in practice.]
Philippe Le Chancelier - School of Notre Dame
Sequentia, 1986
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77035
[Music of Philip the Chancellor, c. 1165-1236, who was active in Paris around the
same time as Leonin and Perotin, and chancellor of Notre Dame in 1217. About 80-90
Latin songs can be attributed to him, of various genres.]
École Notre Dame: Mess du Jour de Noël
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi "musique d'abord" 1901148
[This early attempt at the Notre Dame repertory was well received. The more recent
effort -- devoted to music for the Virgin, and sung in an "Eastern" style -- has been
rejected by many scholars.]
Le jeu des pèlerins d'Emmaüs: Drame liturgique du XII siècle
Ensemble Organum / Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901347
Religious Orders and Music
Music was such an important part of medieval worship that various religious orders manifested
their charisisms in the music they used. The Cistercians tried to purify and simplify standard
Gregorian melodies, and in doing so evolved their own tradition. The Dominicans typically sang
faster than other orders -- supposedly to allow more time for study. Franciscans in contrast, were
sedulous in adhering to Roman norms for music in church, but did sponsor a certain amount of
para-liturgical music.
Cistercians
Chant Cistercien: Monodies du XIIe siècle
Ensemble Organum / Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901392
[Cistercians were concerned with "purity" and simplicity, and modified the standard
Gregorian Chant in what they thought were "purer" ways -- e.g. by limiting the range of
the melodies.]
Chants des voûtes cisterciennes: Les Anges et la Lumière
Ensemble Venance Fortunat - Anne-Marie Deschamps
L'Empreinte digitale 13073
[Sung in part by a joint male/female choir, which must limit the authenticity of the
disc.]
*Mystic Chants from Cistercian Abbeys - Chants mystiques des abbayes cisterciennes
Ensemble Venance Fortunat - A.-M. Deschamps, dir.
L'Empreinte digitale ED 13 106
Les Saints Fondateurs de l'Ordre Cistercien
Schola de l'Abbaye d'Hauterive and Choeur des Ambrosiennes 1988
Studio SM D2655
[The abbey choir of Hauterive (in Switzerland) and the professional Gregorian choir of
Dijon joined to sing the Lauds, Mass, and Vespers of the founding saints of the Cistercian
order (Robert de Molesme, Alberic, and Etienne Harding) on the 900th anniversary in
1998. The recording represents the "living musical tradition" of Hauterive and combines
music from the Cistercian version of the mass of St. Benedict's day, a vesper's hym ste to
a medieval melody in the 17th century, and texts adapted in the 20th century from a 12th
century exordium from Citeaux. Texts are given in Latin with facing French translation.
English translations of none-standard texts are given later in the accompanying notes.]
Dominicans
*Dominican Liturgical Chant/ Chant Gregorien - Liturgie Dominicaine
Père André Gouzes/ French Choir of Dominican Monks
Bmg/Milan/Jade - 91009
[The Dominicans developed a complete rite of their own, for both the mass and the
office, as well as in singing style. Perhaps the most notable feature is that things move
faster -- so that the friars can return to study.]
*O spem miram: Ufficio e Messa per S.Domenico secondo il canto dell'Ordine dei
Predicatori - secolo XIII
Ensemble Cantilena Antiqua - Stefano Albarello
Symphonia 96145
Franciscans
Laudario di Cortona: Un mystère du XIIIe siècle - A Medieval Mystery - Ein
Mysterienspiel des 13. Jahrhunderts
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia mundi HMC 901582
[Franciscans stuck very closely to standard Roman chant (i.e. the Carolingian or
Gregorian chant), but did develop a whole slew of new popular devotions. The Laudario
of Cortona is a manuscriot containing settings for a paraliturgical Christmas celebration
in 13th-century Umbria (compare the Song of the Sibyl in Mallorca). Pérès uses his
Corsican singers to give a "popular" edge to these texts. The result is an immediately
attractive recording. This version by Ensemble Organum, has recieved the highest praise
of those available. For other suggestions see
http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/cds/acn34.htm]
Saint Francis and the Minstrels of God
Altramar medieval music ensemble
Dorian Discovery DIS-80143
[Music taken from the Laudario di Cortona, with a specific focus on St. Francis. The
CD begins with a setting of the Canticum creatorum by St. Francis.].
Saints, Pilgrimage and Music
"Gregorian" Chant comprised a complete corpus of music for all the seasons of the Church's year,
including the many saints' days. The music of the Mass and the Divine Office scarcely makes
manifest, however, the massive importance of the cult of saints in medieval Christianity. Saints
inspired not only chant but also polyphony and an array of para-liturgical music. Collected here
are recordings that focus on the cult of saints and associated practices such as pilgrimage. The
recordings are arranged according to the time the saint in question lived.
*Opéra Sacré Médiéval - Daniel Medieval Sacred Opera
Ensemble Venance Fortunat - Anne-Marie Deschamps 1996
L'Empreinte digitale ED 13 052
Ludus Danielis - The Play of Daniel
The Harp Consort - Andrew Lawrence-King 1997
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77395
[The Play of Daniel formed part of the post-Christmas celebrations at Beauvais
Cathedral in the 13th century (see other recordings here about the Feast of Fools). The
play was presented can be understood, at least according to the extensive notes, as a sort
of medieval opera -- combining a variety of characters, dramatic staging, and roles for
both soloists and chorus. The performers faced the problem that the manuscripts present
a simple melodic line, with no indication of when the performers used instruments,
polyphony, clapping, and so forth -- although descriptions make it clear that all these
were part of the production. In this recording, choices are made to convey the ecstatic
and "ludus" aspect of the play. Some of the other recordings just stick to the manuscripts,
but in this case that would not be more "real" than the well-articulated effort here. The
disk is well packaged, with notes, texts, stage directions, and translations.
There are a number of other recordings of this play -- see the list at
http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/cds/dhm77395.htm ]
*Anonymous from Beauvais - Ludus Danielis: Liturgical Drama of the XII Century
Clemencic Consort - René Clemencic 1976
Aura Classics 184
*Les Trois Marie - Jeu liturgique du manuscrit d'Origny-Sainte-Benoîte
Ensemble Venance Fortunat - Anne-Marie Deschamps 1989
Studio SM 12 17 46 [CD]
*Les Trois Maries - Jeu liturgique médiéval d'Origny-Sainte-Benoíte
Académie Internationale de Sées - Bernard Gagnepain 1993
Koch/Schwann 3-1425-2
Donnersöhne - Sons of Thunder: Music for St. James the Apostle: Codex Calixtinus
[c.1140]
Vox Iberica I
Sequentia - Benjamin Bagby / Barbara Thornton
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77199
[Stylistically, the music is typical of French conducti of the 11th & 12th century.]
Miracles of Sant'Iago: Medieval Chant and Polyphony for St. James from the Codex
Calixtinus
Anonymous 4
Harmonia Mundi 907156
[Anonymous 4 perform medieval music with utter beauty and scholarly concern, but it
is unlikely the music was ever heard in the middle ages in the form of four perfectly
blended female voices. This recording focuses on the cult of St. James at Compostela,
has a useful introduction, and provided Latin texts and translations.]
*Missa sancti iacobi: Solemn mass for the feast of the passion of Saint James of
Compostella according to the Codex Calixtinus c. 1140
Choeur Le Feu de Jésu 1990
McGill 750 0037-2
*Le grand livre de saint Jacques de Compostelle: Intégrale des polyphonies du Codex
Calixtinus
Ensemble Venance Fortunat - Anne-Marie Deschamps 1993
l'empreinte digitale 13023
*Ultreia ! Sur la route de Saint-Jacques-de-Compostelle - A pilgrimage to St. James of
Compostella
Ensemble de musique ancienne Polyphonia Antiqua - Yves Esquieu 1982
Pierre Verany PV 7 90 042 [CD]
*Sur les Chemins de Saint-Jacques - On the Roads to Saint James
Ensemble Amadis 1998
Jade 74321 64760-2
*Saint-Jacques de Compostelle: Le Chemin de Compostelle
Aurore 1999
Suisa CD 840
*The Pilgrimage to Santiago
Disc #1: Navarre and Castile
Disc #2: Leon and Galicia
New London Consort, Philip Pickett 1989
L'oiseau Lyre 433 148-2
*Hildegard von Bingen - Laudes de Sainte Ursule
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia mundi HMC 901626
[Avoids new age interpretations!]
Hildegard von Bingen - 11,000 Virgins
Anonymous 4
Harmonia mundi HMU 90 7200
*Aines: Mistero Provenzale Medioevale
Ensemble Cantilena Antiqua - Stefano Albarello, dir.
Symphonia SY 99 165
[The Mystery of St. Agnes from manuscript, Chigi C.V. 151, from the end of the 14th
century.]
Chants épiques et populaires de Chypre/ Epic and Popular Songs from Cyprus
Ensemble cypriote de musique ancienne/Cypriot Early Music Ensemble -- Michaël
Christodoulides 1982
Arion 64182
[A recording of different types of traditional Cypriot songs with the claim that they
represent a melding of Middle-Easten, Byzantine, and Western Medieval traditions to
produce "Kypraphony" (a "Cypriot Voice") which is neither oriental nor the same as
continental Greek voices. This music is an especially interesting to the Court music of
the two Ars Nova albums noted below. The CD includes an Akritic "Tale of the
Saracen," local epic songs, a love song, "The Legend of St. George," "Myroloyi" -- a
song of lamentation, and another Akritic song, "The Tale of the Crab." The notes
summarize the music and the stories of the songs, but do not give either texts or
translations.]
*Legends of St. Nicholas
Anonymous 4 1999
Harmonia Mundi (Fra) 907232
*Les Miracles de Saint Nicolas
Ensemble Venance Fortunat - Anne-Marie Deschamps 1991
L'Empreinte Digitale 13013
Plays of Saint Nicholas /Szent Miklos-jatekok
(St. Nicholas and the three girls, St. Nicholas and Getron's son, St. Nicholas and the
robbed merchant, excerpts from the Mass and Vespers of St. Nicholas)
Schola Hungarica -- Laszlo Dobszay and Janka Szendrei 1987
Hungaroton HCD 12887-88 (2 CDs)
[This is a most useful recording, and contains both a number of Nicholas plays as well
as the excerpts for the mass and vespers of St. Nicholas. The notes explain both the
background of liturgical plays, and the rise of the cult of St. Nicholas. The play music
here derives from a notated manuscript known as Orleans 201, but which was originally
written in Blois around about 1200. The celebration of the feast (December 6th) was an
all day affair, and the various playlets were arranged to occur at various times before or
during specific offices. Music on the disk for the liturgy is taken from somewhat later
manuscripts, although all in the Plainchant idiom -- the Passau Antiphonal, a 15th century
Gradual and some late medieval Hungarian manuscripts. The texts are given in Latin and
English.]
*La Nuit de Saint Nicholas
La Reverdie / I Canto Gregoriani 1998
Arcana A 72
Adémar of Chabannes: Apostolic Mass for Saint Martial
New York's Ensemble for Early Music -- Frederick Renz 1999
Ex Cathedra EC-9002
[An altogether remarkable recording. Adémar of Chabannes (989-1034) was an 11thcentury monk, historian and composer who tried to pull off an act of stupendous forgery.
He claimed, contrary to public knowledge, that St. Martial (a 3rd century bishop) was one
of the apostles. To effect this claim, he composed an "Apostolic Mass" that just happens
to still exist in Adémar's own hand (Paris. Bib Nat. MS latin 909), making it the earliest
autograph musical composition we have. The local bishop and abbot seem to have
cooperated in the project and the mass was first sung on Sunday, 3rd August 1029.
Unfortunately for Adémar, the liturgy was disrupted by a travelling monk Benedict of
Chiusa, who denounced the liturgy as offensive to God. Adémar was forced to leave
town, and spent the rest of his life forging evidence about Martial's "apostolic" status. In
the long run he was successful -- by the late 11th century Martial was indeed venerated in
SW France as an apostle. In a very direct way, this Mass shows the power of liturgy to
affect worship.
Adémar composed his Mass and office largely from the standard "Gregorian"
music for St. Martial, as well as texts and music for Apostolic feasts, but he also added
some of his own compositions, especially in the tropes (extended musical items added to
existing liturgical texts). The recording comes with extensive notes by James Grier, Latin
texts and English translations, not to mention a photograph of Adémar's manuscript. The
Ensemble for Early Music sing the chant without flaws.
For more on this most interesting figure see the standard work on Adémar by
Richard Landes -- Relics, Apocalypse, and the Deceits of History: Adémar of Chabannes,
989-1034 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).]
*Historia Sancti Emmerami: The Regensburg Office in Honour of St. Emmeram
Schola Hungarica - Janka Szendrei & Lazló Dobszay 1996
Calig CAL 50 983
*Columba, Most Holy of Saints - Scottish Medieval Plainchant
Cappella Nova - Alan Tavener 1992
ASV Gaudeamus CD GAU 129
The Miracles of St. Kentigern - Scottish Medieval Plainchant
Cappella Nova - Alan Tavener 1997
ASV Gaudeamus CD GAU 169
[The recording presents the contents of a secular (i.e. non-monastic) office for St.
Kentigern (aka Mungo)(February 13), the patron saint of Glasgow, from the Sprouston
Breviary (MS Edinburgh NLS Adv.18.2.13B). The notes state that, while music for local
saints may reveal regional melodic material, in the case the MS follows the Sarum use
dominant in England. The texts of this recording, presented here in Latin and English,
include both proper responsaries, collects, and (for Matins) a series of readings about the
childhood miracles of Kentigern.]
*Historia Sancti Eadmundi: De la liturgie dramatique au drame liturgique
La Reverdie 1996
Arcana A 43
*Officium Sancti Willibrordi
Choir of Echternach and others 1998
K617 (Fra) 7087<
[A recording of the proper parts of the anniversary liturgy of this important
missionary.]
*Erik den Heliges Historia - The Historia of St. Erik
Schola Hungarica, Malmö College of Music, The Lund Cathedral Boys' Choir - Janka
Szendrei & Lazló Dobszay 1994
Musica Sveciae MSCD 103
*Memoria Sancti Henrici : Medieval Chant for the Patron Saint of Finland Keskiaikaisia liturgisia sälmiä Suomen
kansallidsyhimyksen elamästä ja ihmetöistä
Cetus noster, Köyhät ritarit
Ondine 874-2
Memory of Thomas Becket: Matutinum, Laudes, Misa, Vesperae
Schola Hungarica -- Laszlo Dobszay and Janka Szendrei 1983
Hungaroton HCD 12458-2
[[The office of St. Thomas Becket sung by male and female voices. An interesting
aspect is that the vita of the saint is read in Hungarian! The Latin texts are give, and the
Hungarian is translated into English. There are notes for every track.]
Les Saints Fondateurs de l'Ordre Cistercien
Schola de l'Abbaye d'Hauterive and Choeur des Ambrosiennes 1988
Studio SM D2655
[The abbey choir of Hauterive (in Switzerland) and the professional Gregorian choir of
Dijon joined to sing the Lauds, Mass, and Vespers of the founding saints of the Cistercian
order (Robert de Molesme, Alberic, and Etienne Harding) on the 900th anniversary in
1998. The recording represents the "living musical tradition" of Hauterive and combines
music from the Cistercian version of the mass of St. Benedict's day, a vesper's hym ste to
a medieval melody in the 17th century, and texts adapted in the 20th century from a 12th
century exordium from Citeaux. Texts are given in Latin with facing French translation.
English translations of none-standard texts are given later in the accompanying notes.]
Saint Francis and the Minstrels of God
Altramar medieval music ensemble
Dorian Discovery DIS-80143
[Music taken from the Laudario di Cortona, with a specific focus on St. Francis. The
CD begins with a setting of the Canticum creatorum by St. Francis.].
*O spem miram: Ufficio e Messa per S. Domenico secondo il canto dell'Ordine dei
Predicatori - secolo XIII
Ensemble Cantilena Antiqua - Stefano Albarello
Symphonia 96145
*Hildegard - Saints
Sequentia - Barbara Thornton & Benjamin Bagby 1996
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77378 (2 CDs)
[Saints include: Boniface, Disibodus, Maximus, Ursula, Matthew, Holy Widows,
Eucharius.]
The Feast of Fools - La Fête des Fous - Das Narrenfest
New London Consort - Philip Pickett 1990
L'Oiseau Lyre "Florilegium" 433 194-2
[The "Feast of Fools" or "Feast of the Ass", was a "turning the world upside down"
feast held during the Christmas season (often on New Year's day, or the Feast of the
Circumcision) in which the lower clergy and choir members took on the functions of their
superiors. This could involved wearing masks, dressing as women, and singing rude
songs, or using burning shoe-leather as incense. On occasion, plainchant would be
screeched or sung backwards or interspersed with animal noises. Note that many of the
texts were quite conventional, but could be read with more than one (lascivious) meaning.
This recording uses the basic "Office of the Circumcision" from Beauvais Cathedral
along with texts from other sources such as the Carmina Burana. Most of the music is of
various later medieval provenance (i.e. not plainchant) and appreciation of the recording
probably requires that the texts and translations be followed. As a joke, this feast is no
longer side splitting, but as a social document it retains interest.]
*La Fête de l'Âne - Traditions du Moyen-Age
Clemencic Consort - René Clemencic 1979
Harmonia mundi HMC 90 1036 [CD]
Harmonia Mundi "Suite" HMT 7901036 [CD]
[Adapted from "Officium Circumsionis" - London, Brit. Museum, Egerton 2615 &
other sources.]
Le Jeu des Pèlerins d'Emmaus, Drame liturgique du Xiie sircle/A Liturgical Drama XII
C: Pilgrims at Emmaus
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901347
*In Gottes Namen fahren wir - Pilgerlieder aus Mittelalter und Renaissance
Odhecaton, Ensemble für alte Musik, Köln
FSM 97 208
On the way to Bethlehem: Music of the Medieval Pilgrim
Ensemble Oni Wytars / Ensemble Unicorn 1994
Naxos 8.553132
[An interesting and hugely enjoyable, if historically dubious, recording. The conceit is
that of the overland journey of crusaders and pilgrims to Bethlehem and the sort of music
they would have heard on the way. Thus English, French and, German art songs are
mixed with traditional music performed on "period-similar" instruments. The music in
question is Croatian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Turkish, and Syrian music.]
*Cantus Mariales: Chants sacrés du Moyen-Âge à la Vierge Marie - Sacred Chants to
the Virgin Mary from the Middle Ages
Abbaye Bénédictine de Saint-Benoît-du-Lac - Dom André Saint-Cyr 1995
Analekta AN 2 8101
Analekta "Fleur de Lys" FLX 2 3054
The Crusades and Music
Music of the Crusades - Songs of love and war
The Early Music Consort of London - David Munrow, dir.
London/Decca "Serenata" 430 264-2DM
Amazon.com review by paul.doherty@info-com.com, April 27, 1999
Beauty and Violence: Music of the Crusades.
In 1094, when Pope Urban II urged the princes of Christendom to reclaim the Christian
shrines of the Holy Land, it is unlikely that he envisaged the response. It initiated a series of
crusades noted less for their ultimate success, but rather their unmitigated savagery, directed not
just at the Islamic peoples of the middle east but at Christians and Jews as well. It is, then, perhaps
a surprise that such an era could arguably produce some of the most beautiful music ever written.
David Munrow has managed to capture the essence of the times in this selection of faithfully
reproduced music from the High Middle Ages. The music does not always directly pertain to the
Crusades themselves (though many do) but is rather a backdrop to the times. In Chanterai por mon
corage, for example, a wife left behind by her husband, sings of her sadness at being left by her
husband who has taken the cross. In it, she sings:
De ce sui molt deceue,
Quant ne fui au convoier,
Sa chemise qu'ot vestue,
M'envoia por embracier.
What saddens me is that I did not,
accompany him when he left. He sent,
me the shirt that he was wearing,
that I might hold it in my arms.
This touching image is in deep contrast to the refrain of "help the pilgrim for whom I tremble, for
the Saracens are treacherous" which is the chorus of this song and brings out the more ugly side of
this conflict of cultures.
Using traditional instruments, sopranos, tenors and counter-tenors, this album plunges the
listener into this time of love and war. Songs such as Li Noviaus Tens, written by the troubadour
Chatlelain de Coucy are pure and simply love songs, hypnotic and sincere. It is interesting,
however, to note that even a song with such a haunting melody and vocals (performed by the
masterful counter-tenor James Bowman) still gives way to warlike imagery:
De mil sospirs ke ji li doi par dete,
Ne me veut ele un seul quite clamer,
Ne fausse Amors ne lait ke s'entremente,
Ne ne m'i lait dormir ne reposer,
S'ele m'ocit, mains avra a garder,
E m'en sai vengier fors au plorer,
Car cui Amors destruit et desirete,
Ne s'en set ou clamer.
I owe her a thousand sighs and she,
Demands them all. Love, the,
Traitor, does not allow her to let,
Me sleep and rest. If she kills me,
Love will have less captives to,
Look after. I can only avenge,
Myself with tears, for the one that,
Love ruins and strips of his,
Resources does not know who to turn to.
Violence, it seems, permeates even into love.
The chivalry and heroism of the crusaders as perceived by the composers of these songs is in
evidence as well. In Fortz Chausa Es, Guacelm Faidit sings of the death of King Richard I Coeur
de Lion; especially of his valour and power. This reputation was earned on his (particularly
bloodthirsty) sojourn in the Holy Land, where he spent time sacking cities and massacring their
inhabitants in the name of God. Ironically, Faidit neglects to mention that Richard died in 1199
besieging a castle not in Palestine, but in France held by soldiers of the King of France, with whom
he left to go on crusade with nine years earlier. In fact, in David Munrow's collection, there is a
song of Richard's, supposedly composed whilst imprisoned by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry
VI. Again, the lyrics of this ballad are less about the crusades rather than the effects on Richard's
life, including loneliness, suffering and despair.
David Munrow has produced in Music of the Crusades an album of sublime character,
reaching out across centuries to capture our hearts and minds in a world far removed from the one
in which they were composed. They prove the majesty, spirituality and violence of mankind and,
perhaps more importantly, they show that the kings, princes and people of the middle ages share a
common humanity with us looking back from the turn of a new millennia.
Crusaders in nomine domini
Estampie, Münchner Ensemble für frühe Musik - Michael Popp, dir.
Christophorus CHR 77 183
[The CD has a theme with one track following from the other. It is based on Crusade
texts (which are given in original language and German translation), but the music is very
modern and New Age-y (compare the "Hildegard" recordings by Richard Souther.) It
cannot be used in class to indicate anything about crusade era music. On the other hand,
some listeners may enjoy the renditions, phony as they are.]
Jerusalem: Vision of Peace: Songs and Plainchants of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
Gothic Voices - Christopher Page
Hyperion 67039 1998
[The entire CD focuses on the crusades, with extensive notes, texts and English
translation. Three of the tracks (5, 12, 16) are explicitly anti-Semitic, one relates to the
loss of Jerusalem to Saladin (14, and another stresses the crusade as a pilgrimage (7).
Tracks 9-11 are from a graduale of 1128-30 written in the workshop of the Holy
Sepulcher and used for the Mass of Easter Day in that Church - the central reason for the
existence of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. The disk contains a quite beautiful
rendition of the plainchant Te Deum -- the great Latin chant for victory.]
Montségur: La tragédie cathare
La Nef - Sylvain Bergeron
Dorian 90243
[As the disk notes say, no information on Cathar music survives, so this is an "original
musical realization" for voice and early instruments based on medieval sources and
reflecting the idea of "opposition": Good v. Evil: North v. South; Crusaders v. a Martyred
people; the Church of Rome v. the Perfecti. The disk notes are informative and texts are
given both in original form and with English translation. One commentator was extremely
negative about the recording -- "Dreadful. The music is mediocre; the notes extremely
misleading and are of the Grail/Templar-myth variety, with very little relationship to fact.
This is not history but rather fantasy - it belongs in a class with the book Holy Blood,
Holy Grail."]
*Croisade - Musiques vocales et instrumentales
Alfons X (El Sabio), Conon de Béthune, et al.
Orchestra: Concert dans l'Oeuf, La Compagnie Medievale, et al.
Solstice 155
Chants épiques et populaires de Chypre/ Epic and Popular Songs from Cyprus
Ensemble cypriote de musique ancienne/Cypriot Early Music Ensemble -- Michaël
Christodoulides 1982
Arion 64182
[A recording of different types of traditional Cypriot songs with the claim that they
represent a melding of Middle-Easten, Byzantine, and Western Medieval traditions to
produce "Kypraphony" (a "Cypriot Voice") which is neither oriental nor the same as
continental Greek voices. This music is an especially interesting to the Court music of
the two Ars Nova albums noted below. The CD includes an Akritic "Tale of the
Saracen," local epic songs, a love song, "The Legend of St. George," "Myroloyi" -- a song
of lamentation, and another Akritic song, "The Tale of the Crab." The notes summarize
the music and the stories of the songs, but do not give either texts or translations.]
Ars Antiqua
New religious musical forms
The social circumstances of the age determined that composers would devote their efforts
to the mass, the motet, and the chanson (secular French song). During the first half of the 15th
century, the mass became established as a unified polyphonic setting of the five main parts of the
Ordinary of the mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei), with each movement based on
either the relevant portion of plainsong or, reflecting the dawning Renaissance, a secular song such
as the popular "L'Homme armé" ("The Armed Man") and "Se la face ay pale." Still reflecting
medieval practices, the preexisting melody (or cantus firmus) was usually in the tenor (or lowest)
part and in long, sustained tones, while the upper parts provided free elaboration. Dufay's nine
complete settings of the mass, compared with Machaut's single setting, give a clear indication of
the growing importance of the mass as a musical form. The motet became simply a setting of a
Latin text from Scriptures or the liturgy in the prevailing polyphonic style of the time. It was no
longer necessarily anchored to a plainsong tenor; the composer could give free reign to his
invention, although some did, of course, resort to older techniques.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=11> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Ars Antiqua
(Medieval Latin: "Ancient Art"), in music history, period of musical activity in 13thcentury France, characterized by increasingly sophisticated counterpoint (the art of combining
simultaneous voice parts), that culminated in the innovations of the 14th-century Ars Nova. The
term Ars Antiqua originated, in fact, with the Ars Nova theorists, some of whom spoke of the
"Ancient Art" with praise, others with contempt. All of them, however, agreed upon a marked
difference between the two styles, a difference rooted primarily in the profound rhythmic
innovations of the Ars Nova. Those theorists limited the Ars Antiqua to the latter part of the 13th
century, while modern music historians have broadened the term to encompass the entire century.
The authorship of most of the music of the Ars Antiqua is anonymous. Nevertheless, three
important figures emerge from the general obscurity: Pérotin (flourished late 12th century), who
succeeded the famed Léonin at the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris and who composed the
earliest known music for four voices; Franco of Cologne (flourished mid-13th century), a theorist,
whose Ars cantus mensurabilis ("The Art of Measured Song") served to organize and codify the
newly formed mensural system (a more precise system of rhythmic notation, the direct ancestor of
modern notation); and Pierre de la Croix (flourished last half of 13th century), whose works
anticipate the Ars Nova style by virtue of their rhythmic fluency.
The most important form to originate in the Ars Antiqua is the motet, which retained its
popularity for centuries. The essence of this form is its simultaneous presentation of more than one
text. It seems to have begun with the addition of a new text to the upper voice(s) of a sacred
polyphonic composition, the slower moving lower voice retaining its original sacred text. The next
text--in Latin, like the original text--at first complemented or amplified the meaning of the original
words. Later, the language of the added text changed to French while the sentiments became more
worldly, resulting in compositions in which the sacred Latin text of the lower voice is accompanied
by one or more secular French texts in the upper voice(s).
Source: "Ars Antiqua" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?xref=18294> [Accessed 17 July 1999].
Messe de Tournai c. 1330
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901353
Reissued as: Harmonia Mundi Suite 7901353
Guillaume de Machaut - Messe de Nostre Dame & Perotinus Magnus and Philippe Le
Chancelier - Musique à Notre Dame de Paris
Deller Consort & Members of the Collegium Aureum - Alfred Deller, dir.
Deutsche Harmonia mundi (EMI) "Editio Classica" 555 (or CDM) 7 69 479-2
*Perotin and the Ars Antiqua
The Hilliard Ensemble
Hilliard Live HL 1001
*Codex Bamberg
Camerata Nova / Ensemble Chominciamento di Gioia - Luigi Taglioni
Stradivarius 33476
Ars Nova
Ars Nova
(Medieval Latin: "New Art"), in music history, period of the tremendous flowering of
music in the 14th century, particularly in France. The designation Ars Nova, as opposed to the Ars
Antiqua of 13th-century France, was the title of a treatise written about 1320 by the composer
Philippe de Vitry. Philippe, the most enthusiastic proponent of the "New Art," demonstrates in his
treatise the innovations in rhythmic notation characteristic of the new music.
These innovations, which were anticipated to a degree in the music of Pierre de la Croix
(flourished last half of 13th century), are marked by the emancipation of music from the rhythmic
modes (dominated by triple metre) of the preceding age and by the increased use of smaller note
values. An important opponent of Philippe de Vitry's progressive ideas was the theorist Jacques de
Liège, whose Speculum musicae ("The Mirror of Music") extolls the virtues of the older masters of
the Ars Antiqua.
Some of the earliest examples of works in the new style may be found in the Roman de
Fauvel (c. 1315), a narrative manuscript that contains compositions from both the Ars Nova and
the Ars Antiqua. The most important composers of the Ars Nova are Philippe de Vitry and the
composer and poet Guillaume de Machaut, whose work forms a substantial proportion of the
surviving repertory. The production of polyphonic secular music, represented by the ballade,
virelai, and rondeau, increased decidedly in the 14th century.
The term Ars Nova, specifically applicable to the French music of the 14th century, has
been used less discriminately by a number of writers who refer to "Italian Ars Nova," which is also
known as Italian trecento music. The most important theorist of this school was Marchettus of
Padua, whose treatise Pomerium (in the early 14th century) outlines certain rhythmic innovations
in Italian notation of the time. The most important composers of 14th-century Italy are Jacopo da
Bologna, Francesco Landini, and Ghirardello da Firenze.
Source: "Ars Nova" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=9751&sctn=1> [Accessed 17 July 1999].
Ars Nova
When the influential treatise Ars Nova ("New Art") by the composer Philippe de Vitry
appeared early in the 14th century, the preceding epoch acquired its designation of Ars Antiqua
(Old Art), for it was only in retrospect that the rapid developments of the century and a half from c.
1150 to c. 1300 could appear as antiquated. De Vitry recorded the innovations of his day,
particularly in the areas of metre and harmony. While 13th-century music had been organized
around the triple "modal" rhythms derived from secular music and a harmonic vocabulary based on
"perfect" consonances (unison, fourth, fifth, octave), the New Art of the 14th century used duple as
well as triple divisions of the basic pulse and brought about a taste for harmonious intervals of
thirds and sixths. (See Ars Nova, "Ars Nova", Vitry, Philippe de, Ars Antiqua.)
The musical centre of 14th-century Italy was Florence, where a blind organist, Francisco
Landini, and his predecessors and contemporaries Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna, and
Lorenzo and Ghirardello da Firenze were the leading composers of several new forms: madrigals
(contrapuntal compositions for several voices), ballatas (similar to the French virelai), and caccias
(three-voice songs using melodic imitation).
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=8> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Machaut, Guillaume de
b. c. 1300,, Machault, Fr. d. 1377, Reims
Machaut also spelled MACHAULT French poet and musician, greatly admired by
contemporaries as a master of French versification and regarded as one of the leading French
composers of the Ars Nova musical style of the 14th century. It is on his shorter poems and his
musical compositions that his reputation rests. He was the last great poet in France to think of the
lyric and its musical setting as a single entity.
He took holy orders and in 1323 entered the service of John of Luxembourg, king of
Bohemia, whom he accompanied on his wars as chaplain and secretary. He was rewarded for this
service by his appointment in 1337 as canon of Reims cathedral. After the King's death, he found
another protector in the King's daughter, Bonne of Luxembourg, wife of the future king John II of
France, and in 1349 in Charles II, king of Navarre. Honours and patronage continued to be
lavished by kings and princes on Machaut at Reims until his death.
In his longer poems Machaut did not go beyond the themes and genres already widely
employed in his time. Mostly didactic and allegorical exercises in the well-worked courtly love
tradition, they are of scant interest to the modern reader. An exception among the longer works is
Voir-Dit, which relates how a young girl of high rank falls in love with the poet because of his
fame and creative accomplishments. The difference in age is too great, however, and the idyll ends
in disappointment. Machaut's lyric poems also are based on the courtly love theme but reworked
into a deft form with a verbal music that is often perfectly achieved. His influence--most
significantly his technical innovations--spread beyond the borders of France. In England, Geoffrey
Chaucer drew heavily upon Machaut's poetry for elements of The Book of the Duchesse.
All of Machaut's music has been preserved in 32 manuscripts, representing a large part of
the surviving music from his period. He was the first composer to write single-handedly a
polyphonic setting of the mass ordinary, a work that has been recorded in modern performance. In
most of this four-part setting he employs the characteristic Ars Nova technique of isorhythm
(repeated overlapping of a rhythmic pattern in varying melodic forms).
Machaut's secular compositions make up the larger part of his music. His three- and fourpart motets (polyphonic songs in which each voice has a different text) number 23. Of these, 17 are
in French, 2 are Latin mixed with French, and 4, like the religious motets of the early 13th century,
are in Latin. Love is often the subject of their texts, and all but 3 employ isorhythm. Machaut's 19
lais (see lai) are usually for unaccompanied voice, although two are for three parts, and one is for
two parts. They employ a great variety of musical material, frequently from the popular song and
dance. Of his 33 virelais (see virelai), 25 consist solely of a melody, and they, along with the bulk
of his lais, represent the last of such unaccompanied songs composed in the tradition of the
trouvères. The rest of his virelais have one or two additional parts for instrumental accompaniment,
and these are typical of the accompanied solo song that became popular in the 14th century. The
polyphonic songs he wrote, in addition to his motets, consist of 21 rondeaux and 41 of his 42
ballades. The wide distribution of his music in contemporary manuscripts reveals that he was
esteemed not only in France but also in Italy, Spain, and much of the rest of Europe.
Source: "Machaut, Guillaume de" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?idxref=395321> [Accessed 17 July 1999].
French
Nova Cantica: Latin Songs of the High Middle Ages
Dominique Vellard & Emmanuel Bonnardot
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77196
Le Roman de Fauvel
Clemencic Consort - René Clemencic 1975
Harmonia Mundi HML 590 994 [CD-Book]
Harmonia Mundi "musique d'abord" HMA 190994
[The Roman de Fauvel (1301-16) -- Part I probably and Part II certainly written by
Gervais du Bois, and both were revised into an elaborate manuscript by Raoul Chatillon
du Pesstain -- was a "multimedia" satire on the court of France under Philip IV and Philip
V. The manuscript consists of pictures, text to be spoken, and a series of motets. The
story focuses on fawn-colored ass -- symbolizing wickedness -- and its adventures. This
recording includes a good deal of the spoken text as well as the music. The "musique
d'abord" edition gives a very sketchy introduction, and the texts only in Latin and
French.]
*Le Roman de Fauvel
The Boston Camerata / Ensemble P.A.N. - Joel Cohen 1991
Erato 96392
[The Boston Camerata recording was the soundtrack of a Video of the Roman de
Fauvel. Notes are considerably more useful that the Clemancic Consort "musique
d'abord" edition.
See discussion at http://members.aol.com/boscam/revfauv.htm]
Guillaume de Machaut: Motets and Music from the Ivrea Codex
The Clerks' Group - Edward Wickham 1998
Signum 011
[The recording is program of early-14th century motets and mass movements from
two important manuscript sources: the Ivrea Codex, a manuscript of c.1380-90 that
preserves musci from the first half of the century, making it a major source for the period
of the Ars Nova style of composition that began c.1310; the music of Guillaume de
Machaut, most of whose motets come from c.1320-50. The program intersperses the Ivrea
music with Machaut's motets, for no clear reason, and is well performed. Texts and
translations are given, as well as a short informative introduction.]
Italian
Il Solazzo - Music for a medieval banquet
The Newberry Consort
Harmonia mundi HMU 90 7038
German
Das Moosburger Graduale, 1360/ The Moosburg Gradual of 1360: Christmas Cantiones
Capella Antiqua München,-dir. Konrad Ruhland, 1977, 1980
Sony "Seon" SBK 63 178
[Now a classic recording of German music of the period.]
Ars Subtilior
Codex Chantilly
Airs de Cour du XIVe siècle
Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès
Harmonia Mundi 901252
Amazon.com review.
The Chantilly Codex is the pivotal music document of the 14th century and one of the monuments
of medieval music. Many of the shadowy greats of early French composition--including Solage,
Cordier, and Andrieu--are represented here. The music of the ars subtilior--the subtle art--is
eccentric, whimsical, extravagant; it contains the widest diversity of emotion. The Ensemble
Organum, directed by Marcel Pérès, performs these works with stylistic deftness. --Joshua Cody
Febus Avant!
Music at the Court of Gaston Febus (1331-1391)
Huelgas Ensemble - Paul Van Nevel
Sony Vivarte 48195
Music from the Court of King Janus at Nicosia (1374-1432)
Huelgas Ensemble - Paul Van Nevel, 1993
Sony Vivarte 53976
[Instrumental and vocal music of the Ars Subtilior was developed in the French court
in Cyprus. It survived in one manuscript, now in Turin.]
The Island of St. Hylarion: Music of Cyprus: 1413-1422
Ensemble Project Ars Nova 1991
New Albion 038
[The Cypriot manuscript of c.1413-22 (Turin. Bib.Naz. J.II.9) is the focus of this
recording as also the one above. The manuscript represents the output of one royal
chapel's musical resources at one period and is a witness to the efforts of King Janus to
develop polyphonic music for his court. It contains several mass cycles, offices for St.
Hylarion and St. Anne, 41 motets, 43, virelais, and 21 rondeaux. Apart from the Latin of
the liturgical texts, many of the works are in French. The singing and musicianship of the
recording is admirable, although Amazon.com customers seem to see it as "soothing" in
the style of Chant! ]
Neo-Medieval - Medieval improvisations for a Postmodern Age
Hesperus, 1996
Dorian Discovery DIS-80155
[In this recording Hesperus, whose members are also involved with the Folger
Consort, rejects the "Historically Informed Performance" (HIP) paradigm, The group
seeks, instead, to "create a living tradition" using what has been left from the middle ages.
The tracks are mostly instrumental.]
*Ars Subtilior
Pickett, New London Consort
Linn Records (Sco) 39
Troubadours, Trouvères, and Minnesingers 1100-1300
Monophonic secular song
Secular music undoubtedly flourished during the early Middle Ages, but, aside from
sporadic references, the earliest accounts of such music in the Western world described the music
of the goliards; these people were itinerant minor clerics and students who, from the 7th century
on, roamed the land singing and playing topical songs dealing with love, war, famine, and other
issues of the day. The emergence in France of a fully developed secular-musical tradition about the
beginning of the 12th century is evidence that the art had been evolving continuously before that
time. Partially motivated by the attitude of chivalry engendered by the Crusades, a new life-style
began among the nobility of southern France. Calling themselves troubadours, they circulated
among the leading courts of the region, devoting themselves to writing and singing poetry in the
vernacular. The troubadour movement flourished in Provence during the 12th and 13th centuries.
About the middle of the 12th century, noblemen of northern France, most notably Adam de La
Halle, took up the pastime, calling themselves trouvères. In Germany a similar group known as
Minnesingers, represented by Walther von der Vogelweide, began their activities about 1150 and
continued for almost a century after their French counterparts had ceased composing. Late in the
13th century the burgher class in Germany began imitating the aristocratic Minnesingers. Calling
themselves Meistersingers, they flourished for more than 500 years, organizing themselves into
fraternities and following strict rules of poetry, music, and performance. The most famous of them,
Hans Sachs, was immortalized in the 19th century in Richard Wagner's opera Die Meistersinger
von Nürnberg. Relatively little is known of similar secular-musical activities in Italy, Spain, and
England. Closely associated with the entertainments of the aristocratic dilettantes were the
professional musicians of the peasant class called jongleurs and minstrels in France, Gaukler in
Germany, and scops and gleemen in England.
The musical style that had been established by the troubadours--which was monophonic,
of limited range, and sectional in structure--was adopted by each of the succeeding groups. Of
particular significance in view of its influence on polyphonic music was the metric system, which
is based on six rhythmic modes. Supposedly derived from Greek poetic metres such as trochaic
(long-short) and iambic (short-long), these modes brought about a prevailing triple metre in French
music, while German poetry produced duple as well as triple metre. A great variety of formal
patterns evolved, in which musical structure and poetic structure were closely related. The most
characteristic was the ballade, which was called Bar form in Germany, with an AAB structure.
This type, along with the rondeau (song for solo voice with choral refrain) and the similar virelai
(an analogue of the Italian ballata), was destined to become a favoured form employed by
composers of polyphony such as Guillaume de Machaut, the universally acknowledged master of
French music of the Ars Nova period. Machaut also continued the composition of motets,
organizing them around recurrent rhythmic patterns (isorhythm), a major structural technique of
the age. The beginnings of an independent instrumental repertory during the 13th century are
represented by the estampie, a monophonic dance form almost identical in style to the vocal
secular music.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=9> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
Troubadour
Lyric poet of southern France, northern Spain, and northern Italy, writing in the langue
d'oc of Provence; the troubadours, flourished from the late 11th to the late 13th century. Their
social influence was unprecedented in the history of medieval poetry. Favoured at the courts, they
had great freedom of speech, occasionally intervening even in the political arena, but their great
achievement was to create around the ladies of the court an aura of cultivation and amenity that
nothing had hitherto approached. Troubadour poetry formed one of the most brilliant schools that
ever flourished, and it was to influence all later European lyrical poetry.
The word troubadour is a French form derived ultimately from the Occitanian trobar, "to
find," "to invent." A troubadour was thus one who invented new poems, finding new verse for his
elaborate love lyrics. Much of the troubadours' work has survived, preserved in manuscripts known
as chansonniers ("songbooks"), and the rules by which their art was governed are set out in a work
called Leys d'amors (1340). The verse form they used most frequently was the canso, consisting of
five or six stanzas with an envoy. They also used the dansa, or balada, a dance song with a refrain;
the pastorela, telling the tale of the love request by a knight to a shepherdess; the jeu parti, or
débat, a debate on love between two poets; the alba, or morning song, in which lovers are warned
by a night watchman that day approaches and that the jealous husband may at any time surprise
them. Other forms were frameworks for a lyrical conversation between two or more persons
discussing, as a rule, some point of amorous casuistry or matters of a religious, metaphysical, or
satirical character.
Troubadour songs, put to music, are monophonic (consisting solely of unharmonized
melody) and comprise a major extant body of medieval secular music. Somewhat fewer than 300
melodies survive. Set to a remarkable variety of poems, they display a certain consistency of style
yet are far more varied than was once suspected. Some of the melodies were composed by the
poets themselves. The Provençal "life" of the troubadour Jaufré Rudel states that he wrote many
songs "with fine melodies but poor texts." Evidently the writer thought the melodies were by Jaufré
and that his distinction lay therein.
Many of the melodies, however, were not by the poet. According to a contemporary
account, Raimbaut de Vaqueyras wrote his famous poem "Kalenda maya" ("The Calends of May")
to a dance tune played by some vielle (fiddle) players at Montferrat (now Monferrato, Italy). At
least four troubadour songs are based directly on Latin sacred melodies. Several troubadour
melodies are slightly different in form from the poem to which they are attached, and it must be
assumed that these were originally composed for another poem, perhaps in another language.
Conversely, many troubadour melodies were appropriated from songs in French and German. Even
when a melody was written expressly for its poem, it is possible that the poet devised it with the
help of a more experienced musician. Most of the poems have attributions, for the poets valued
their originality. For the music, however, anonymity was the rule; authorship was a subsidiary
consideration.
Source: "troubadour" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?thes_id=389798> [Accessed 19 July 1999].
Trouvère
Also spelled TROUVEUR, any of a school of poets that flourished in northern France
from the 11th to the 14th century. The trouvère was the counterpart in the language of northern
France (the langue d'ol) to the Provençal troubadour, from whom the trouvères derived their highly
stylized themes and metrical forms. The essence of trouvère rhetoric lies in the combination of
traditional themes and the use of established forms in which to express them. The audience gained
pleasure from familiarity with these clichés rather than from the poet's originality. It is thus perhaps
the least characteristic trouvères, such as Rutebeuf (flourished 1250-80), generally considered the
last and greatest of the trouvères, who are most appreciated today.
Communication between northern and southern France was facilitated and encouraged by
the Crusades, and a number of trouvères, such as the Châtelaine de Coucy and Conon de Béthune,
took part in them. The trouvères, however, developed a lyric poetry distinct from that of the
troubadours, and, unlike the latter, they did not prize obscurity of metaphor for its own sake. Their
poetry is sometimes satirical and sometimes (as in the case of Colin Muset) concerned with the
pleasures of the good life; but the basic theme remains that of courtly love, in which the poet
describes his unrequited passion for an inaccessible lady.
Trouvère lyrics were intended to be sung, probably by the poet alone or with instrumental
accompaniment provided by a hired musician. Although originally connected with feudal courts,
around which the trouvères traveled looking for patronage, their poetry was not just popular with
aristocratic circles, and they tended increasingly to find their patrons in the middle classes. Half the
extant trouvère lyrics are the work of a guild of citizen poets of Arras. Many of the trouvères, such
as Gace Brûlé (late 12th century), were of aristocratic birth; Thibaut de Champagne (1201-53) was
king of Navarre. But others, including Rutebeuf, were of humble origin. See also jongleurs.
The songs of the trouvères were monophonic (consisting solely of melodic line). Their
exact mode of performance is not known. The form of the instrumental accompaniment is
unknown, but it almost certainly included preludes, postludes, and interludes.
The trouvères used a variety of musical forms, some for any of several of the various
poetic categories and some linked to the type of the verse. Four broad categories can be discerned:
musical forms based on multiple repetitions of a short phrase, as in a litany; dance songs with
refrains; songs based on pairs of repeated lines; and through-composed songs (i.e., using no
repetition).
Compositions with no repetition within the stanza include the vers and the chanson. In the
chanson, however, a short initial section is repeated, and a piece of the opening section may recur
at the end. Most surviving trouvère music is written in a notation that indicates the pitch of the
notes but not their relative duration or accentuation, an omission that has given rise to much debate
as to rhythmic interpretation in the edition of the songs for modern performance.
Source: "trouvère" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?thes_id=389829> [Accessed 19 July 1999].
Minnesinger
German MINNESÄNGER, or Min< e ty="s">nesinger, any of certain German poetmusicians of the 12th and 13th centuries. In the usage of these poets themselves, the term
Minnesang denoted only songs dealing with courtly love (Minne); it has come to be applied to the
entire poetic-musical body, Sprüche (political, moral, and religious song) as well as Minnesang.
The songs of courtly love, like the concept, came to Germany either directly from
Provence or through northern France. The minnesingers, like their Romance counterparts, the
troubadours and trouvères, usually composed both words and music and performed their songs in
open court, so that their art stood in an immediate relationship to their public. Some were of
humble birth; at the other end of the social scale were men such as the emperor Henry VI, son of
Frederick I Barbarossa. Most, however, were ministeriales, or members of the lower nobility, who
depended on court patronage for their livelihood; from the vicissitudes of such an existence come
many of the motifs in their poetry.
In form the music follows, in the main, the tripartite structure taken over from the
Provençal canso: two identical sections, called individually Stollen and collectively Aufgesang,
and a third section, or Abgesang (the terms derive from the later meistersingers); the formal ratio
between Aufgesang and Abgesang is variable. The basic aab pattern was subject to much variation
(see Bar form).
On a larger scale was the Leich, analogous to the French lai. It was an aggregation of
short stanzas (versicles), typically couplets, each line of which was sung to the same music and
each versicle having its own music. The Leiche were often several hundred lines long, and many
incorporated religious motifs (such as the veneration of the Virgin Mary), which are also found in
the shorter lyrics. Musical unity in both the Leich and the shorter forms was often achieved by the
recurrence and variation of brief motifs or even entire phrases.
Some of the early songs were probably sung to troubadour melodies, because their texts
closely resemble Provençal models. Yet the German songs, in the main, differ in general musical
character from the Romance songs. For example, the melodies are more often basically pentatonic
(based on a five-tone scale). Popular song and Gregorian chant are other musical roots of the style.
The poems of the earliest minnesinger known by name, Kürenberger (fl. 1160), show only
a tint of the troubadour, for his realistic verses show a proud, imperious knight with a woman
pining for his love. But by the end of the century the courtly love themes of the troubadours and
trouvères had taken control. In the 12th century the poetry of the Thuringian Heinrich von
Morungen is marked by intensity of feeling and moral involvement, and the Alsatian Reinmar the
Elder gives the courtly love lyric such an expression of social ideals that he was taken by his
contemporaries as the most representative poet of "pure" Minnesang.
Walther von der Vogelweide, one of the greatest lyric poets of the European Middle
Ages, absorbed much of his teacher Reinmar's craftsmanship, but he went far beyond the artificial
conventions with which the Minnesang had been governed by introducing an element of practical
realism, both in his love poetry and in his Sprüche. By the time of Neidhart von Reuenthal, a
Bavarian squire (d. c. 1250), the knight had turned his attention from the ladies of the castle to the
wenches of the villages; Neidhart's melodies likewise have a certain affinity with folk song.
Whereas poets like Ulrich von Lichtenstein strove to keep the conceits of chivalry alive,
others--among them Reinmar von Zweter, the Marner, and Konrad von Würzburg (mid-13th
century)--cultivated didactic poetry, which Walther von der Vogelweide, building on the work of
earlier poets, had already raised to a high level. At the end of the 13th century stands Frauenlob
(Heinrich von Meissen), who, by his versatility, his power of rhetoric, and his technical refinement,
points to the stylized art of the later meistersingers.
Source: "minnesinger" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?thes_id=461088> [Accessed 19 July 1999].
Troubadour Songs and Medieval Lyrics
Hillier / Stubbs / Kiesel
Hyperion 66094
[An austere presentation.]
Music of the Troubadours
Ensemble Unicorn & Oni Wytars - Michael Posch, dir.
Naxos 8.554257
[Hugely enjoyable, the songs are sung with instrumental accompaniment, and a certain
freedom of interpretation.]
Lo gai saber (Troubadours et Jongleurs 1100-1300)
Camerata mediterranea - Joël Cohen 1990
Erato 2292-45 647-2
Some tracks are available on the Boston Camerata's web site
http://members.aol.com/boscam/gaisaber.htm
[A splendid program of Troubadour songs, with useful notes, texts and translations.
Anne Azéma's singing is especially noteworthy, bit each of the soloists brings something
special: Azéma is a well-known early music specialist; François Harismandy is an opera
singer, and Jean-Luc Madier an Occitan folk-singer. Cohen himself sings on track 8. The
ensemble singing on track 13 shows the various voices especially well. Since there are
many more Troubadour texts than melodies, this recording uses some known melodies
for texts with no known melody.]
*The Sweet Look and the Loving Manner: Trobairitz love lyrics and chansons de femme
from Medieval France
Sinfonye - Stevie Wishart
Hyperion 66625
[There were about 20 female troubadors (called trobairitz) and two female trouvères.
This disk explores their works--along with the chanson de toile and chanson de femme songs written from a woman's point of view. Sadly only one song survives with a melody
-- A chantar m'er by the Comtessa de Dia. To provide music for the other lyrics,
Sinfonye uses the medieval practice of contrafactum, i.e., fitting existing melodies (from
songs written by male troubadours) with the new texts (by the trobairitz).]
Music for the Lion-Hearted King [c.1200]
Gothic Voices - Christopher Page
Hyperion 66336
[12th century conducti - mostly French -- recorded in commemoration of the
coronation of Richard the Lionheart.]
Minnesänger und Spielleute/ Minnesong and Minstrels
Studio der frühen Musik - Thomas Binkley 1988 [rec'd 1966, 1968]
Teldec "Das Alte Werk - Reference" 8.44015 ZS
[A CD combination of two LP recordings: Minnesänger und Spruchdichtung/ Music
and Prosody (ca.1200-1320) (tracks 1-14) and Musik der Spielleute/ Music of the
Minstrels (tracks 15-23). The first part presents songs from the High-German composers
of the 13th century - Walther Von der Vogelweide, Niedhart von Reuntal, Reinmar von
Brennenberg, Wizlaw and others - a period defined by the notes as the "golden age of
courtly poetry." Genres include "Spruchdichtung" -- songs sung by itinerant professionals
about subjects such as God, Mary, princes, ethics, politics, but rarely Minne or "love"; the
Minnesang (love song) refers instead to the love poetry written by noblemen of southern
German courts. Walther's Palästinalied -- "Nu alrest lebe ich mir werde" ("Now my life is
elevated") -- possibly composed for the crusade of 1228, is among the songs. The singing
is splendid, although perhaps the voices sound a little operatic! Notes and texts, plus
source information, are given from tracks 1-14. No information is given about the five
instrumental tracks at the end of the CD.]
*Minnesänger & Meistersinger - Minnesinger and Meistersinger: Lieder um Konrad von
Würzburg - Songs around Konrad von Würzburg
A. von Ramm, S. Jones, T. C. Nelson, C. Schmid-Cadalbert
Christophorus "musica practica" CD 74 542
Sumer is Icumen in: Medieval English Songs
Hilliard Ensemble - Paul Hillier
Harmonia Mundi 901154
Medieval English Music: Anonymes des XIVe et XVe siècles
The Hilliard Ensemble 1982
Harmonia Mundi "musique d'abord" HMA 90 1106
[Twelve Latin and two English songs from the late middle ages. The notes stress the
eminence of the English "contenance" in the 14th century, and the relatively conservative
In comparison to the Netherlands and France) nature of English music in the 15th
century. There are no texts or translations with the recording.]
English Songs of the Middle Ages
Sequentia
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77019
*Alfonso X El Sabio: Cantigas de Santa Maria
Ensemble Unicorn
Naxos 8.553133
[There are many recordings of this repertoire.]
Carmina Burana
Boston Camerata - Joël Cohen 1996
Erato 14987
[The Benediktbeuren manuscript (c.1230) provides some of the most well-known
medieval poems, although they are better-known more for the 20th-century setting by
Carl Orff than with the original melodies. The manuscript contains hundreds of Latin
poems, and not all have musical settings. The texts are notable for their worldliness and
satirical eye. Although the manuscript is 13th century, the monodic settings that survive
are somewhat conservative compared to what was happening in France at the same
period. The notes to this recording are excellent, point to the choices made in
interpretation, and the limitations of the material available.
See http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/cds/hmu335.htm for a list of other recordings and
background.]
*Carmina Burana
Clemencic Consort - René Clemencic 1974
Harmonia Mundi 90335
[A classic recording.]
Regional Musics
Crossroads of the Celts
Altramar
Dorian 93177
[A serious effort to identify and recreate medieval Irish music -- as opposed to modern
"Celtic" music. The notes are excellent, and honest about the difficulty of locating
genuine medieval Celtic melodies. For more discussion see
http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/cds/dor93177.htm]
*Insula Feminarum: Résonances médiévales de la Féminité Celte
La Reverdie
Arcana A 59
Edda: Myths from Medieval Iceland
Sequentia
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77381
[This is "reconstructed" music -- based in extensive study, but with not annotated
manuscripts to work on.]
*Chanterai: Music of Medieval France
Sonus Ensemble
Dorian Discovery 80123
[Contains at least one crusade song -- Guiot de Dijon's <i>Chanterai pour mon
Coraige</i>[also on the <i>Jerusalem: Vision of Peace</i> CD.]
Moyen-Age Catalan - de l'art roman à la renaissance
Ars musicae de Barcelone - Eric Gispert 1970
Harmonia mundi "Musique d'Abord" HMA 190 051 [CD]
[A wide-ranging selection of Catalan music from the 12th century school of Ripoll to
the 16th century. Texts and music from various manuscripts are sung, as are selections
from the Mass of Barcelona and Sibyl chant. These days, as an older recording, it is
issued in combined sets -- which means that the good price is spoiled by minimal notes
and no texts.]
Other/Collections
*Songs & Dances of the Middle Ages
Sonus Ensemble
Dorian Discovery 80109
*Agricola: Fortuna desperata: Secular Music of the 15th Century
Ensemble Unicorn - Michael Posch
Naxos 8.553840
Ancient Voices - Vox sacra
Anonymous 4, Ensemble Organum - Marcel Pérès, Soeur Marie Keyrouz
Harmonia mundi HMX 290 608
[A very useful, and cheap, survey of Harmonia Mundi's CD issues.]
Musica humana
Anonymous 4; Ensemble Discantus; Ensemble Gilles Binchois; Choeur byzantin de
Grèce; Ensemble Organum; Musica Nova; Crawford Young & John Fleagle; Gothic
Voices; Hilliard Ensemble; Houria Aiumlchi; Yann-Fanch Kemener; Ozan Firat; Kalenda
Maya; FrançoiseAtlan
Empreinte digitale (L') ED 13 047
Anges/ Angels
Ensemble Venance Fortunat - Anne-Marie Deschamps, dir. Ensemble Lyrique
ibérique
L'Empreinte digitale ED 13 050
Renaissance Music
The Renaissance period
The term Renaissance, in spite of its various connotations, is difficult to apply to music. Borrowed
from the visual arts and literature, the term is meaningful primarily as a chronological designation.
Some historians date the beginning of the musical Renaissance at about 1400, some with the rise of
imitative counterpoint, about 1450. Others relate it to the musical association with Humanistic
poetry at the beginning of the 16th century, and still others reserve the term for the conscious
attempt to recreate and imitate supposedly classical models that took place about 1600. (See
Renaissance art.)
The court of Burgundy
No one line of demarcation is completely satisfactory, but, adhering to commonly
accepted usage, one may conveniently accept as the beginning of the musical Renaissance the
flourishing and secularization of music at the beginning of the 15th century, particularly at the
court of Burgundy. Certainly many manifestations of a cultural renaissance were evident at the
time: interest in preserving artifacts and literature of classical antiquity, the waning authority and
influence of the church, the waxing Humanism, the burgeoning of urban centres and universities,
and the growing economic affluence of the states of western Europe. (See Burgundy.)
As one manifestation of their cultivation of elegant living, the aristocracy of both church
and state vied with one another in maintaining resident musicians who could serve both chapel and
banqueting hall. The frequent interchange of these musicians accounts for the rapid dissemination
of new musical techniques and tastes. Partly because of economic advantages, Burgundy and its
capital, Dijon, became the centre of European activity in music as well as the intellectual and
artistic focus of northern Europe during the first half of the 15th century. Comprising most of
eastern France and the Low Countries, the courts of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold attracted
the leading musicians of western Europe. Prime among them was Guillaume Dufay, who had spent
some time in Rome and Florence before settling in Cambrai about 1440. An important
contemporary of Dufay was Gilles Binchois, who served at Dijon from about 1430 until 1460. The
alliance of Burgundy with England accounted for the presence on the Continent of the English
composer John Dunstable, who had a profound influence on Dufay. While the contributions of the
English to the mainstream of continental music are sparsely documented, the differences in style
between Dufay and his predecessor Machaut are partially accounted for by the new techniques and,
especially, the richer harmonies adopted by the Burgundian composers from their English allies.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=10> [Accessed 19 July 1999].
Burgundian school
Dominant musical style of Europe during most of the 15th century, when the prosperous
and powerful dukes of Burgundy, particularly Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, maintained
large chapels of musicians, including composers, singers, and instrumentalists. Among the chapel
members in the 15th century were Nicolas Grenon, Jacques Vide, Gilles Binchois, Pierre Fontaine,
Robert Morton, Hayne van Ghizeghem, and Antoine Busnois. Although Guillaume Dufay, the
most illustrious Burgundian composer, was probably never a regular member of the chapel, he was
associated with the ducal court at Dijon as a musician and chaplain.
Despite Dufay's developments in the mass as a musical genre, the polyphonic chanson, or
secular song, is the most characteristic expression of the Burgundian school. Its clear musical
structure is based on the stanza patterns of the ballade, rondeau, and virelai, written in the
traditional fixed forms of French poetry. Early in the 15th century, composers shifted their
attention from the intricate and lengthy ballade to the simpler and more concise rondeau. This shift
reflects the general tendency toward greater simplicity, brevity, and naturalness in the Burgundian
chanson. Typically, the chanson is dominated by the vocal top part, in which the melodic interest is
greatest. Of the two lower parts, the instrumental tenor is the most important, for it provides the
main harmonic support for the soprano. Gilles Binchois (c. 1400-60) was the consummate master
of the chanson; he composed more than 50 examples, most of them rondeaux.
Source: "Burgundian school" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=18426&sctn=1> [Accessed 19 July 1999].
The Franco-Flemish school
A watershed in the history of music occurred about the middle of the 15th century. The
fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the end of the Hundred Years' War at about the same time
increased commerce from the East and affluence in the West. Most significant musically was the
pervasive influence of musicians from the Low Countries, whose domination of the musical scene
during the last half of the 15th century is reflected in the period designations the Netherlands
school and the Franco-Flemish school. These musicians travelled and resided throughout Europe in
response to their great demand at princely courts, including those of the Medici family in Florence
and the Sforzas in Milan. Further dissemination of knowledge resulted from the invention and
development of printing. (See Franco-Netherlandish school.)
The leading composers, whose patrons were now members of the civil aristocracy as well
as princes of the church, were Jean d'Okeghem, Jakob Obrecht, and, especially, Josquin des Prez.
D'Okeghem, born and trained in Flanders, spent most of his life in the service of the kings of
France and was recognized by his contemporaries as the "Prince of Music." Obrecht remained near
his birthplace in the Netherlands, going occasionally to Italy in the retinue of Duca Ercole I (Duke
Hercules I) of Ferrara. More typical of the peripatetic Netherlanders was the career of Josquin, the
most influential composer of the period. After training at St. Quentin, he served the Sforza family
in Milan, the papal choir in Rome, Ercole I, and King Louis XII of France before returning to his
native Flanders in 1516. These three composers and several contemporaries hastened the
development of the musical techniques that became the basis of 16th-century practice and
influenced succeeding developments. (See Ockeghem, Jean d', Obrecht, Jakob, Josquin des Prez.)
Rather than the three parts typical of most Burgundian music, four parts became standard
for vocal polyphony in the late 15th century. The fourth part was added below the tenor, increasing
the total range and resulting in greater breadth of sound. The presence of the four parts also
allowed for contrasts of texture such as the "duet style" so characteristic of Josquin, when the two
upper parts might sing a passage alone and be echoed by the two lower parts alone. The emergence
of the technique of imitation (one voice repeating recognizably a figure heard first in another
voice) as the chief form-generating principle brought about more equality of parts. At the same
time "familiar style," in which all parts move together in chords, provided a means of textural
contrast. The great variety of rhythmic techniques that evolved during the 14th and early 15th
centuries made possible a wide range of expression--from quiet tranquillity for sacred music to
lively and spirited secular music. Knowledge of the musical practices comes not only from the
thousands of surviving compositions but from informative treatises such as the 12 by the composer
Johannes Tinctoris (1436-1511), one of which, Terminorum musicae diffinitorium (c. 1475), is the
earliest printed dictionary of musical terms.
The chief forms of vocal music continued to be the mass, the motet, and the chanson, to
which must be added other national types that developed during the 15th century--the villancico
(secular poetry set for voice and lute or for three or four voices) in Spain and the frottola (a simple,
chordal setting in three or four parts of an Italian text) in Italy. The emergence of the frottola in
northern Italy led to the development of the Renaissance madrigal, which impelled that country to
musical supremacy in Europe.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=13> [Accessed 16 July 1999].
The Renaissance in Music (National Public Radio Milestones of The Millennium)
Guillaume Dufay to Tallis and beyond.
Sony/Columbia 60992
Amazon.com Review
Unlike some "greatest-hits" samplers, this well-chosen selection can serve a purpose for even some
fairly advanced music lovers who still don't know this period well. Annotator David Fallows ties
things together with perceptive commentary, and the performances chosen (most of them from
stylistically enlightened recordings) are all quite fine. The uncredited programmer hasn't hesitated
to emphasize great names (Dufay and Josquin Des Prez) or to include stylistically weird material
(Solage's incredibly dissonant Fumeux fume). Only a few minutes after Solage, we get the
gorgeous euphony of Tallis' Spem in alium! It's a pity that no texts are included, or that there isn't
any bouncy dance music, but this is still a fine single-disc introduction to the period. The timing is
about as long as possible. --Leslie Gerber
Renaissance Masterpieces
Oxford Camerata - Jeremy Summerly
Naxos 8.550843
[A survey disk, with works by Ockeghem, Josquin?, Palestrina, Lassus, Victoria, Byrd,
King João IV of Portugal, and others.]
Vox Neerlandica 1
Netherlands Chamber Choir - Paul van Nevel, dir., 1996
NM Classics 92064
[Program of music by Low Countries composers from the 14th to 17th centuries.]
Walter Frye
Hilliard Ensemble, 1992
ECM New Series 1476
[Walter Frye (fl.c.1440-c.1475) was an English composer whose works survive in
various places. Little is known about him, but some of his compositions survive in
continental manuscripts.]
Henry VIII and His Six Wives: Music from the Film Soundtrack
The Early Music Consort of London - David Munrow, dir.
HMV CSD A9001 [LP], Angel 4XS-36895 [Cassette]
[No notes with the cassette. A mix of music, some by Henry VIII.]
*Two Renaissance Dance Bands, etc
Composer: Tylman Susato, Thomas Morley, et al.
David Munrow and The Morley Consort, Early Music Consort of London
Testament (UK) 1080
*Court & Dance Music from the Renaissance & Early Baroque
Facoli, Rogers, Normiger, Booke, &
Bis (Swe) 126
*A Golden Treasury of Renaissance Music
Composers: Josquin Des Préz, Antoine Brumel, et al.
James Wood and New London Chamber Chorus
Amon Ra (UK) 65
*Music of the Italian Renaissance
Shirley Rumsey
Naxos 8.550615
*Music of the Spanish Renaissance
Shirley Rumsey
Naxos 8.550614
*Francesco Canova da Milano: Lute Music
Fantasias, Ricercars and Duets
Christopher Wilson
Naxos 8.550774
Reformation Music
Reformation Music
As a result of the upheaval in the church caused by the Reformation, new forms derived from
established models appeared in Protestant worship: the German Lutheran chorale (hymn tune,
arranged from plainsong or a secular melody), the chorale motet, English anthems (Anglican form
of motet) and services, and the psalm tunes in Calvinist areas.
Source: "music, history of" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://www.eb.com:180/bol/topic?eu=115603&sctn=17> [Accessed 17 July 1999].
Psaumes de la Réforme
Claude Goudimel / Paschal de l'Estoquart / Jan Sweelinck
Ensemble Claude Goudimel - Christine Morel
Naxos 8.553025
[Psalm singing was characteristic of Reformed (i.e. Calvinist) congregations. This disk
presents the kind of settings one might hear in a French church.]
Musik der Reformation/ Music of the Reformation
Schreier, Grüss, Capella Fidicinia
Berlin Classics 9120
[There are pluses and minuses to this album. Peter Schrier's tenor voice is beautiful,
and the settings of Lutheran hymns (this is all German music) avoid later harmonizations.
But the songs are sung as if they were lieder (art songs), and that simply does not convey
the importance of congregational participation. For classroom use, modern renditions of
Ein Feste Burg by the American Boychoir or the Mormon Tabernacle Choir might
succeed in conveying more of the elan. To get the full flavor of congregational hymns,
however, it is probably best to by recordings of non-professional group singing. Hymns
don't sound right unless somebody is out of tune.]
Amazon.com review
pcstratman@juno.com from St. Louis, Michigan , November 3, 1998
The best Reformation collection! This recording is a must for the Reformation history buff, the
church musician, or anyone interested in music history. These early Lutheran Chorales were
foundational to Michael Praetorius, Schuetz, and Bach. Music of the Reformation has the hymns in
their original rhythmic forms and with period instrumentation. The period instrumental settings are
delightful. Peter Schrier's tenor voice is clear and crisp. The hymns are inspiring. The recording is
fresh-- even though the music is almost 500 years old!
*Martin Luther und die Musik/ Martin Luther and the Music
Klebel, Musica Antiqua Wien
Qualiton 25
*Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott: Musik der Reformation
Luther / Walter / Müntzer
Mitglieder des Dresdner Kreuzchores / Capella Fidicinia - Hans Grüß
Berlin Classics 0091192 (2 CDs)
*Salve festa dies: Musik der Reformationszeit
Bläser-Collegium Liepzig
Raum Klang RK 9501
*Chants of the Reformation in Hungary
Sandor Berkesi/Debrecen College Cantus
Hungaroton/White Label (Hun) - #12665
[Hungarian Reformation hymns.]
*Tugend und Untugend (Virtue and Vice): German Secular Songs and Instrumental
Music from the Time of Luther
Convivium Musicum / Ensemble Villanella - Sven Berger
Naxos 8.553352
Catholic Reformation Music
Palestrina (Italy) and Lassus (Flanders) (both died. in 1594) were prolific Catholic
composers. Palestrina, in particular is credited with "saving" polyphony in Catholic
usage. Some of the late medieval compositions had made the words of the liturgy
undecipherable -- an aspect which upset not only Protestant commentators, but the
Catholic reformers at the Council of Trent. Palestrina succeeded in writing polyphonic
music in which every word is clear.
Palestrina, Missa hodie Christus natus est, Stabat Mater/ Lassus, Missa "Bell' Amfitrit'
altera"
Jeremy Summerly, Schola Cantorum Oxford
Naxos 550836
Lassus: Missa pro defunctis / Prophetiae Sibyllarum
Hilliard Ensemble, 1993
ECM 1658
[Missa pro defunctis (1587) and Prophetiae Sibyllarum (c. 1555). ]
Victoria: Tenebrae Responsories
Pro Cantione Antiqua - Bruno Turner
Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 77056
[A classic version, although there are other more modern disks.]
Byrd: Masses for 3, 4, and 5 Voices, Ave Verum
Hillard Ensemble
EMI Reflexe 102333
William Byrd: Motets and Masses for Four Voices
w/ Edwards / Sheppard / Tallis / Taverner
Theatre of Voices - Paul Hillier, 1994
ECM New Series 21512
[Presents Byrd's music, written for recusant Catholics in England, as "vocal chamber
music," likely to have been performed with only one singer per voice.]
Renaissance Masterpiece Volume III - Paris: Eustache du Caurroy
The Choir of New College, Oxford - Edward Higginbottom
Collins Classics 14972
[Du Caurroy (1549-1609) was a major composer of the French Renaissance and this
recording contains a well performed selection of his music. Of most interest for historical
reasons, however, are tracks 2-8 which contain a setting of the Requiem mass (written
1606) and which was first performed at the funeral of the assassinated king, Henry IV.
This setting was then performed at the funerals of subsequent French kings of the
absolutism period. As such it is a remarkable example of an early modern musical piece
with an extended period of performance.]
*Du Caurroy: Requiem des Rois de France
Doulce Mémoire - Denis Raisin Dadre
Astrée 8660
[Another recording of the Du Caurroy Requiem.]
Tallis
Allegri
Early Modern Vernacular Music
The Art of the Bawdy Song
Baltimore Consort, and The Merry Companions, 1992
Dorian 90155
[The music is not especially wild, and would not work at an English soccer match, but
the lyrics are as bawdy as one would want them to be.]
How the World Wags: Social Music for a 17th century Englishman
The City Waites - Douglas Wootton, dir.
Hyperion CDA 66008-2
Reissued as budget Helios 55013
*The Musitians of Grope Lane: Music of Brothels and Bawdy Houses of Purcell's
England
The City Waites - Douglas Wootton
Musica Oscura 070969
*Low and Lusty Ballads: The Elizabethan Underworld
The City Waites - Douglas Wootton, dir.
Sound Alive SA-MT 006
Columbus and Music: Origins of Latin American Music
Music in the Time of Columbus
Grupo de Música "Alfonso X el Sabio"
London 436 11602
1492 - Music From the Age of Discovery
Waverly Consort - Michael Jaffee, 1992
EMI Reflexe 54506
[Has some non-Medieval electronic variations at the end, but much of it is very good;
includes music relevant to the end of the Reconquista and Columbus' voyages, which
were partly inspired by a desire to revive and continue crusading.]
*El Cancionero de la Colombina, 1451-1506
Música en el tiempo de Cristóbal Colón
Hespèrion XX - Jordi Savall
Astrée 8763
*Music from the Time of Columbus
Picket, New London Consort
Linn Records (Sco) 7
*Música en tiempos de Velázquez
Ensemble La Romanesca - José Miguel Moreno
Glossa 920201
*Ave Maris Stella: Music to the Blessed Virgin from Seville Cathedral (c.1470-1550)
Orchestra of the Renaissance - Richard Cheetham
Almaviva 0115
*A Royal Songbook - Spanish Music from the time of Columbus
Naxos - #553325 /
Nueva España: Close Encounters with the New World, 1590-1690
Boston Camerata - Joel Cohen
Erato 45977
[An earlier program than the now famous SAVAE Guadaloupe recording. Cohen and
the Boston Camerata play music from the new on period instruments. Compositions
inlcude ones by both Spanish and native composers - including a chant in honor of the
virgin Mary in Quechua (the language of the Incas).]
Guadalupe: Virgen De Los Indios
SAVAE: San Antonio Vocal Arts Ensemble 1998
Iago 210
[This disk has been a sensation since it was played on NPR in December 1998. It
combines music written in the early Baroque style by *native* Aztec and Nahua
composes -- especially Tomás Pascual -- with indigenous percussion instruments. The
result is guaranteed to interest students.]
El Milagro de Guadaloupe
SAVAE: San Antonio Vocal Arts Ensemble 1999
Iago 214
[A follow-up to the earlier recording. This recording includes the "Teponazcuicatl"
(procession of the drum) -- the Aztec procession announcing the miracle of Guadaloupe.
Translations of the texts, but not the original texts, are provided.]
Amazon.com reviews [of the first recording]
The San Antonio Vocal Arts Ensemble hits a high mark with this recording of indigenous Mexican
and Central American homages to the Virgin of Guadalupe. Historically, the Virgin Mary is said to
have appeared to Nahua Indian Juan Diego in 1531, prompting a flush of visual arts, crafts, and
musical compositions. These 18 pieces reach back to the mid-16th century, and to approximate the
period's likely fusion of formal, through-composed Spanish practices with indigenous
improvisatory methods, SAVAE has scripted percussion and flute accompaniment to the
European-tinged vocals. Culled from cathedral archives, the vocal parts are as richly reverential as
almost any comparable work from continental Europe, centering their tones in the lower register
and proceeding at loosely articulated intervals. The added instruments work well as nuance,
accentuation, and contrasts: the clay flutes--used only occasionally--create at once an airiness and
timbrally scouring undertones. The percussion (mostly log and clay drums) is similarly deep-toned
and wispy, providing an often gently propulsive rhythmic framework. In many cases, these
compositions have never before been recorded. Add to this historical value the mix of national
styles, and this package is downright vital to Latin American music enthusiasts and early-music
cognoscenti alike. --Andrew Bartlett
The label, Ben Tavera King , October 28, 1998
"GUADALUPE - VIRGEN DE LOS INDIOS"
SAVAE (SAN ANTONIO VOCAL ARTS ENSEMBLE)
Walk into a church where the vocal group SAVAE performs and step back 400 years to a
turning point in the history of the Western Hemisphere and the Catholic Church.
The seven-member group specializes in the music of Colonial Mexico and recently
released a CD, "Guadalupe - Virgen de Los Indios," featuring music written by native Aztec,
Nahua, and Spanish-Mexican composers honoring the Virgin of Guadalupe in the decades
following her appearance to the Nahua Indian Juan Diego on a hill outside Mexico City on
December 12, 1531.
Even though much of the music honoring the Virgin of Guadalupe on the CD (released by
San Antonio-based Talking Taco/Iago Records), hasn't been performed for more than 400 years, it
is in the process of being welcomed back into the contemporary liturgical music of the Catholic
Church.
The connection with contemporary Catholic audiences is due to the popularity of the
Virgin of Guadalupe with Hispanic Catholics. The appearance of the Virgin in the form of an
Indian woman sparked the conversion of thousands, and later millions, of Native Americans to
Catholicism throughout Latin America.
The Virgin of Guadalupe is venerated in Catholic churches throughout the U.S. and Latin
America. "The appearance of the Virgin foretold the fusion of two cultures--Spanish Catholic and
Native American. Millions have found and continue to find their faith through this divine gesture
of acceptance," explains SAVAE's director Christopher Moroney. Prior to the Virgin's appearance
there had been few conversions to Catholicism by the native peoples of Mexico.
The music featured by SAVAE (San Antonio Vocal Arts Ensemble), in concert and on its
CD reflects the cultural fusion between Europeans and Indians that occured in the period following
the Spanish conquest of the Americas.
The vocals sound like the sacred music heard in European Cathedrals during the
Renaissance, but the rhythms and percussion instruments are unmistakeably pre-Columbian-pitched rocks, log drums, rattles and clay ocarinas. The Dallas Morning News described SAVAE's
sound as "spiraling, echoing harmonies of sacred music...with a percussive, rhythmic urgency."
"There's something special about this music. It's extremely old, but it has a contemporary
sound that speaks to modern audiences," says Laura Dankler, of World Library Publications,
which is considering publishing several of the songs included on the CD to be distributed to
Catholic parishes throughout the U.S. The Illinois-based company is the largest publisher of
Catholic music in the U.S.
The story behind the discovery of much of the music on "Guadalupe - Virgen de Los
Indio" stretches back to the early 1960s and two Maryknoll Fathers, Edward F. Moore and Daniel
P. Jensen, who happened to be working in Santa Eulalia, a small village in Northwestern
Guatemala.
"Going through old manuscripts in the village church the two priests came across a
collection of musical manuscripts in a deer-skin binding," explains Christopher Moroney. "The
binding still had the deer's hair on it and turned out to be a manuscript written by Tomás Pascual,
an Indian who had converted to Christianity and who was the Chapelmaster at the church in
Huehuetenango, Guatemala."
The manuscripts eventually found their way to Denton-based musicologist Sheila Raney
Baird at North Texas State University and later surfaced in the Lilly Library of Indiana.
However, the existence of the music remained a secret among musicologists until Dr.
Oscar Garcia-Landois, a Mexican musicologist studying at the University of Texas at Austin
happened to attend a SAVAE concert where they performed music from their debut CD, "Native
Angels" (Talking Taco/Iago Records), which also features music
of Colonial Latin America.
"He told us about the transcriptions made by Baird and that set us out discovering works
by other Mexican composers," Moroney said. The search led them to the works of Don Hernando
Franco, an Aztec noble who converted to Catholicism, and other composers with similar
backgrounds who mastered European-style composition.
However, the "missing link" between contomporary audiences and the ancient
manuscripts was the use of pre-Columbian instruments, such as the log drum (teponatzli) and clay
flute (ocarina), with the European-style singing. SAVAE found that link in the 16th century writing
of a native Tepanec drummer, Don Francisco Placido, who was a devotee of the Virgin of
Guadalupe. Placido wrote about the instruments and rhythmic patterns that are used on the CD in a
manuscript entitled "Canticos Mexicanos."
The ancient music and contemporary devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe come together
during SAVAE's concerts at Catholic churches throughout the U.S. "It's extremely touching as a
musician to talk to people after the concerts," says Moroney. "People come up with tears in their
eyes saying how much the music means to them. Even though many of the songs are in Nahuatl,
the language of the Aztecs, the emotion and message of the music still reaches the people--four
centuries after it was written."
The Les Chemins du Baroque series constitutes a wonderful survey of early music in the
post-Conquest Americas.
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 1: Lima La Plata - Missions Jésuites
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 025
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 2: Mexico-Versailles - Vêpres De l'Assomption
Grande Écurie et Chambre du Roy - Jean-Claude Malgoire
K617 026
Les Chemins du Baroque, 3: Mexico - Messe De l'Assomption
Vocal Ensemble de Mexico / La Fenice - Yvan Reperant
K617 024
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 4: Zipoli: Vêpres de San Ignacio
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 027
Les Chemins du Baroque, 5: Torrejon y Velasco: Musique à la Cité des Rois
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 035
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 6: Zipoli l'Américain
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 036
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 7: Zipoli l'Européen
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 037
Les Chemins du Baroque, 8:Araujo: L'Or et l'Argent du Haut Pérou
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 038
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 9: Corse - Missa Corsica in Monticellu
A Cumpagnia - Nicole Casalonga
K617 043
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 10: Mexique - Orgue de Tlacochahuaya
Dominique Ferran
K617 049
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 11: Mexique - Orgue historique de Cholula
Francis Chapelet
K617 048
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 12: Rubino: Vespro per lo stellario della beata Vergine
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 050 (2 CDs)
Les Chemins du Baroque, 13: Québec - Le Chant de la Jérusalem des terres froides
Studio Ancien de Montréal - Jackson
K617 052
[This disk documents early music in Quebec.]
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 14: Autour du livre d'orge de Mexico
Gustavo Delgado Parra & Ofelia Castellanos
K617 059
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 15: Musique Baroque a la real audiencia de Charcas
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 064
*Les Chemins du Baroque, 16: San Ignacio - L'opéra perdu des missions jésuites de
L'Amazonie
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 065
Volumes 1,4,6,and 8 have been reissued in a 4 for 1 set, but with out the excellent album
notes of the regular series, as:
*Musiques Sacrées Missionnaires
De la cordillere des Andes a l'Amazonie
Ensemble Elyma - Gabriel Garrido
K617 070/4 (4 CDs)
Volumes 2, 3 & 12 are have been reissued as a 4 for 1 set:
*Offrandes a la mère du Baroque Universel
K617 074/4
*Musica Sacra do Brasil
Rio de Janeiro - Minas Gerais - Sao Paulo
Orchestra & Choir Vox Brasiliensis Sao Paulo - Ricardo Kanji
K617 096
Jerusalem: Matins for the Virgin of Guadalupe
Chanticleer
Wea/Atlantic/Teldec - #21829
[Liturgical music from the 18th century.]
The Tonal Period 1600 and after
Baroque: Classical: Romantic
No CD's are listed, since the full development of the key structure and instrumentation of
modern Western serious music marks a major transition in Western music history -indeed one of the clearest breaks between "medieval" and "modern" periodization.
________________________________________________
BOOKS [Best to start with those marked with *]
Sources
Boethius, d. 524. De institutione musica as Fundamentals of Music. Translated by Calvin
M. Bower; edited by Claude V. Palisca. New Haven : Yale University Press,
c1989.
Godwin, Joscelyn, ed. The Harmony of the Spheres: A Sourcebook of the Pythagorean
Tradition in Music. Rochester VT: Inner Traditions International, c1993.
Godwin, Joscelyn. Music, Mysticism, and Magic: A Sourcebook. London; New York:
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.
Useful translations of excerpts.
*Strunk, Oliver, ed. Source Readings in Music History. Rev. ed. New York : Norton,
c1998. [1st ed. 1950]
Includes the musical section of Cassiodorus's Institutiones, the "harmonics"
section ofAristides Quintilianus; all of Cleonides, Gaudentius, andSextus
Empiricus's Against the Musicians; the musical section of Isidore of Seville's
Etymologiae. and treatises ranging from the 9th-century _Musica enchiriadis_
through the Speculum musicae.
Secondary Literature
*Abraham, Gerald. Concise Oxford History of Music. London: Oxford University Press,
1985.
Anderson, Warren D. Music and Musicians in Ancient Greece. Ithaca NY: Cornell
University Press, 1994.
Belis, Annie. Les musiciens dans l'antiquité. Paris: Hachette, 1999.
Comotti, Giovanni. Music in Greek and Roman Culture. Translated by Rosaria V.
Munson. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991
Conomos, Dimitri E. Byzantine Hymnography and Byzantine Chant. Brookline MA:
Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 1984
*Farmer, Henry George. A History of Arabian Music to the XIIIth Century. London:
Luzac Oriental, 1967, 1994, repr. Weatherhill, 1996.
Godwin, Joscelyn, ed. Harmonies of Heaven and Earth: The Spiritual Dimension of
Music from Antiquity to the Avant-garde. London: Thames and Hudson, c1987.
Haik-Vantoura, Suzanne. The Music of the Bible Revealed: The Deciphering of a
Millenary Notation. Translated by Dennis Weber. Berkeley CA: BibalPress; San
Francisco CA: King David's Harp, 1991. 2nd rev, edition. D & F Scott 1991.
*Hiley, David. Western Plainchant: A Handbook. London: Oxford University Press,
1993. [The standard work in English.]
Hoppin, Richard H. Medieval Music . The Norton Introduction to Music History. New
York: W.W. Norton, 1978.
[General survey. Uses somewhat obscure examples.]
Jefferys, Peter. Re-envisioning Past Musical Cultures. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1992
Landels, John G. Music in Ancient Greece and Rome. London: Routledge, 1999
[$85.00!]
Levy, Kenneth. Gregorian Chant and the Carolingians. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1998.
*Manniche, Lise. Music and Musicians in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum
Press, 1991. [The books that forms the basis for Michael Aethertons' modern
reconstructions.]
McGee, Timothy J. The Sound of Medieval Song: Ornamentation and Vocal Style
According to the Treatises. Latin translations by Randall A. Rosenfeld. London:
Oxford University Press, 1998
McGuickin, John A. At the Lighting of the Lamps : Hymns of the Ancient Church.
Harrisburg PA: Morehouse, 1997. [Greek and Latin texts with translations.]
*McKinnon, James, ed. Antiquity and the Middle Ages: From Ancient Greece to the 15th
Century Music and Society Series, Vol 1. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall,
1990. [A collection of relatively thorough articles.]
*McKinnon, James, "The Book of Psalms, Monasticism, and the Western Liturgy," in
The Place of the Psalms in the Intellectual Culture of the Middle Ages. Edited by
N. van Deusen,. 43-58. Albany NY: SUNY Press, 1999
Mathiesen, Thomas J. Apollo's Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the
Middle Ages. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999).
In an internet post, Dr. Mathiesen noted that "with the exception of the volume by
Zaminer and Riethmueller, all of [the other books] approach the topic from the
perspective of the classicist... my own new book on the subject [is] written from
the perspective of a musicologist....Among other things, it includes a bibliography
of 1622 items.]
Riethmuller, Albrecht and Frieder Zaminer, eds. Die Musik des Altertums. Laaber :
Laaber-Verlag, c1989.
Schueller, Herbert M. Idea of Music: An Introduction to Musical Aesthetics in Antiquity
and the Middle Ages, Early Drama, Art, and Music Monograph Series, 9.
Kalamazoo MI: Western Michigan University, 1988.
Stolba, K Marie. The Development of Western Music: A History. Brief 3rd edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1998. With Recorded Examples to Accompany The
Development of Western Music: An Anthology, VolumeI (From Ancient Times
through the Classical Era). 3rd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Tardo, Lorenzos. L'Antica melurgia bizantina nell'interpretazione della Scuola
Monastica di Grottaferrata. Grottaferrata, 1938.
[See especially pp. 390-95 on the ison.]
Tillyard, Henry Julius Wetenhall. Byzantine Music and Hymnography. London: The
Faith Press, 1923. repr. AMS Press, 1976.
*Wellesz, Egon. A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography. 2nd. ed. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1961. [The standard work.]
Wellesz, Egon. Ancient and Oriental Music, New Oxford History of Music, Vol.1.
London: Oxford University Press, 1957, repr. 1979.
*West, M.L. Ancient Greek Music. London: Oxford University Press, 1992. [Discusses
each piece of surviving music, gives a transcription in modern notation, Greek
lyrics and prose translation.]
INTERNET
Commercial Sites: Many short samples from the CDs listed here can be heard at
http://amazon.com or http://www.cdworld.com. These websites also sell the CDs, and it
is worth looking at both -- CDworld seems to be cheaper while Amazon delivers more
quickly.
The Early Music FAQ: http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/
A misnamed site that is far more than a FAQ. This is the net location with the
most extensive and useful information about Ancient, Medieval, and Renaissance
music. Its CD search engine lets you call up the vast majority of the CD's here,
with track listings, short reviews, and links to places to purchase the CDs..
Greek Music: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/hellenistic/
Coptic Chant: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/7261/copticmusic.htm
Byzantine Music: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/byzmusic.html
Gregorian Chant Links: http://comp.uark.edu/~rlee/otherchant.html
NPR Milestones of Millenium Program on Chant
http://www.npr.org/programs/specials/milestones/990121.motm.chant.html
-With a rather pietistic and non-too accurate commentary by Fr. J.F. Weber, a
Catholic priest.
NPR Milestones of Millenium Program on the Renaissance in Music
http://www.npr.org/programs/specials/milestones/990217.motm.renaissance.html
The New Republic (February 27, 1995) FINDING GOD AT TOWER RECORDS,
by Katherine Bergeron
http://www.thenewrepublic.com/magazines/tnr/archive/1995/02/022795.6.html
Music 2115: Survey of Music from Antiquity to c. 1750
Prof. John R. Howell
Marvin Carlson
13
Space and Theatre
Marvin Carlson
Theatre as an artistic and cultural activity has been the subject of academic speculation
ever since the Greeks, but it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century
that European and American scholars institutionalized a field of theatre studies. A
significant part of this new field’s self-definition involved a clear splitting away from
traditional literary studies, within which theatre had previously had its academic
home.
The entire Western tradition, from the Greeks onward, considered the drama
primarily as a branch of literature—the other basic divisions being the epic and the
lyric. Traditionally theatre scholarship was based upon the literary text (Artistotle’s
indifference to spectacle is an early and notorious example of this bias) and the actual
process of the physical realization of this text, while not entirely ignored, was a matter
of considerably less interest.
Two pioneering theatre scholars presented a radical challenge to this orientation
at the turn of the nineteenth century, Brander Matthews in the United States and Max
Hermann in Germany. Their new perspective, which was bitterly resisted by many of
their colleagues in both countries, was not to reject the study of literary drama, but
to insist that such study was incomplete unless one went beyond the literary text to
consider the physical conditions of performance, the spatial realization of that text.
Thus it is no exaggeration to say that the foundation of modern theatre studies was
grounded upon a spatial reorientation—from the linear reading of drama to the threedimensional staging of it. Matthews, who in 1899 was named the first professor of
dramatic literature in an English-speaking university, was particularly interested in
a spatial concern, the shape of historic theatres and the relation of that space to the
plays presented in them. In his 1910 A Study of the Drama, he stated this fundamental
principle in these terms: “It is impossible to consider the drama profitably apart
from the theatre in which it was born and in which it reveals itself in its completest
perfection” (Matthews 3). The scale models of historical theatres built to illustrate
performance spaces by Matthews and his students may still be seen at Columbia
University in New York. In a very fundamental way, the new orientation introduced by
Herrmann and Matthews still serves as the most widely accepted model for historical
research in theatre, as may be seen in a very recent articulation of the aims of the
discipline by one of its leading scholars, Robert D. Hume. In a survey article on the
“Aims, Materials, and Methodology” of theatre history in his period of specialization,
1660-1800, Hume observes: “I would suggest that one crucial function of the theatre
historian is to demonstrate how production and performance circumstances affected
the writing and public impact of plays” (11). One could hardly ask for a clearer or
more concise statement of the Herrmann/Matthews project.
14
Focus
Although the establishment of theatre studies as a discipline offered a new
methodology and new sources of investigation, its object for most of the twentieth
century remained essentially the same as that of the tradition of dramatic literature in
which it was grounded. That object was to provide a fuller and deeper understanding
of the largely European works of the traditional canon. Theatre studies maintained a
consistent, if unacknowledged position as an adjunct to literature and its basic goal
to provide a better understanding of the dramas of canonical literary figures like
Shakespeare, Schiller, and Molière. This is why the single spatial investigation in the
field of theatre history that has inspired by far the most scholarship is the question of
what exactly was the physical stage upon which Shakespeare worked. John Cranford
Adam’s 1942 The Globe Playhouse was a leading early example, but books or essays
on the subject are now legion, encouraged of course by the recent physical re-creation
of an imitation of the theatre near its original site in London.
Although the interest of Matthews and Herrmann was focused on a particular
physical space, that where the play was presented, it must not be forgotten that theatre
has always involved a great many other spaces, some physical and some imaginary.
The fictional character in drama, like fictional characters in epic or lyric literature, is
situated in an evoked space, sometimes referred to as the “imaginary world” of the
fiction, and which is conjured up in the mind of the reader as a part of the receptive
process. The “imaginary world” of the dramatic character is phenomenologically
more complex in actual staging because a part of it, often a tiny part but always a part
central to the dramatic action, is present as a real space visible to the audience, while
the rest, like the entire imaginary world of the novel or poem, is traditionally evoked
primarily through language.
Within the theatre, this linguistically evoked world is normally referred to as
“off-stage” space, although that term is not widely found in theatrical theory. In the
early days of semiotics, Kier Elam calling this space diegetic space, following Plato
and Aristotle, who made a basic distinction between mimesis, the showing of an
action, and diegesis, the narration of it (see 111). Much European drama relies heavily
upon such diegetic spaces, from the space where three roads meet that saw the fatal
encounter of Oedipus and Laius, through the riverbank where Ophelia died, to the
green head on the coastal background of Riders to the Sea.
An important attempt at articulating an analytic vocabulary of onstage and
offstage spaces was offered in a 1989 essay by Tim Fitzpatrick, “The Dialectics of
Space-Time Dramaturgical and Directoral Strategies for Performance and Fictional
World.” Here Fitzpatrick argued that the so-called offstage space is in fact composed of
many different kinds of space, beginning with the division into what he calls “localized
off” and “unlocalized off” (60, 62). Localized off refers to spaces that are physically
contiguous to the viewed setting, immediately accessible through a window, perhaps,
or a door, while unlocalized off refers to more remote spaces, existing only through
linguistic reference, such as Moscow in Three Sisters or the remote Ugandan village
of Ryanga from which Jack returns in Friel’s Dancing at Lughnasa. Fitzpatrick’s
Marvin Carlson
15
system is particularly useful in the analysis of the entirely new critical and practical
perspective on off-stage space opened in recent performance by the introduction of
modern electronic technology, a subject to which I will return later.
Important as off-stage space is in the imaginary world created by the theatrical
performance, the central space of that performance is of course that actually occupied
by the performers and observed by the spectators. This space and how it has been
changed and controlled has a central preoccupation of theatre history, as researchers
have considered the permutations of the wing and drop system, or the development of
the box set. An excellent example of such scholarship is Richard Southern’s classic
Changeable Scenery: Its Origin and Development in the British Theatre.
The space of the audience, from which this performance is observed, has
received lesser, but still significant attention. With the development of indoor theatres
in the renaissance, theatre’s normal spatial arrangement became the form still
dominant today, an audience space and a performance space, separated by some form
of proscenium arch. Somewhat surprisingly, for all its visual advantages, the move to
an indoor theatre resulted in a serious diminishment in the ability of the performer to
exploit the potentials of the space traditionally provided for his activity.
The creation of permanent indoor theatre spaces allowed for the development
of elaborate scenic backgrounds, first in Italy and then throughout Europe, but this
increase in visual spectacle was at the cost of the performers’ previous flexibility
with the stage space. With movement indoors, illumination assumed an importance
unknown in previous performance situations, and all the ingenuity of the renaissance
and baroque designs could not create an adequately illuminated stage space that would
allow actors the freedom of movement within that space that they had enjoyed in
open-air production. Almost the only illumination for the acting area came from the
chandeliers that illuminated the auditorium, and while the development of footlights
provided more visibility for the actors’ space, these actors, if they wished to be seen,
still had to move within a long, narrow band at the front of the stage. The result,
as can be seen in the few seemingly reliable sketches and engravings we have of
pre-nineteenth century performance, was that the actors normally lined up across the
stage, utilizing very little of the space open behind them.
From the beginning of the modern indoor theatre in the renaissance until the
beginning of the nineteenth century, then, the stage space, although in fact dimensional,
was from the audience’s point of view, and the actors’ use of this space more like a
painting, or at best a bas-relief. With the development of significant projectable and
controllable lighting, however, performers could once again fully utilize stage space
for desired effects to an extent that had been possible to them before the theatre moved
indoors. Although the idea of the proscenium arch framing an essentially flat “stage
picture” was still common throughout the nineteenth century, theatre practitioners
from the romantic period on began to see stage space in a different way, first fully
articulated in theory by Adolphe Appia at the end of the century, who characterized
the stage space not as an animated painting, but as a cubic, three-dimensional space,
16
Focus
the living forms within it defined by light. The process of arranging the bodies of the
actors within the stage space that in English is now called blocking begins to appear
in the early nineteenth century in the notes and sketches of Goethe and in the first
published promptbooks in France.
Although the space on stage is obviously of central interest to students of
theatre, audience spaces have not been neglected. Though the founders of modern
theatre studies like Matthews focused upon questions of staging, their reconstruction
of historical theatres led them also to consider from the beginnings the implications of
the obvious spatial differences in audience arrangements of the classic Greek theatre,
the Elizabethan stage, and the clearly socially divided audiences of the eighteenth
century theatres.
I have already mentioned Richard Southern’s highly innovative The Seven Ages
of the Theatre which attempted, as early as 1961, to provide a fresh approach to theatre
history that challenged the two most distinctive features of previous major works in
the field, the standard pattern of periodization—the Greeks, the Romans, medieval
theatre, the renaissance, and succeeding centuries in chronological order, and the
strong bias toward the literary canon, primarily that of England, France, and Germany.
Southern begins his book by attempting to reduce theatre to its essence, the first of
what he calls its “seven ages.” He finds this in the encounter between Player and
Audience. “Take these apart,” he concludes, “and you can have no theatre” (Southern
21). Thus spatiality is placed at the most fundamental level of theatre studies and the
spaces of performer and spectator given equal fundamental emphasis.
In fact the attention of theatre historians has been directed as much toward
audience as performance spaces. Almost all of this work appeared in the later
twentieth century, and was concerned, directly or indirectly, with how the spatial
arrangements of the auditorium have reflected social status. The obvious social
implications of such spaces as the Elizabethan pit or the royal and aristocratic boxes
were remarked upon by theatre historians as soon as Matthews and his students began
to study physical theatres, but such analysis became more important later as some
theatre historians, in examining non-literary aspects of theatre, became interested in
theatre as a social rather than an artistic phenomenon. A relatively early example was
James J. Lynch’s 1953 book, subtitled Stage and Society in Johnson’s London. Its
main title significantly looked to the spatial arrangement of audiences as the basic
representation of this social orientation: Box, Pit, and Gallery. The rise of a specific
sociology of theatre, pioneered by Georges Gurvich and Jean Duvignaud in France
in the 1950s and 1960s, encouraged more of this sort of historical analysis. Thus, for
example, Timothy Murray, in his 1977 “Richelieu’s Theatre: The Mirror of a Prince,”
suggested how the spatial arrangements of this key historical structure expressed
and reinforced a whole system of social power relationships (see Murray 275-97).
More recently, Joseph Donohue’s 2005 Fantasies of Empire uses the controversies
surrounding the arrangement of audience space in this theatre to illuminate a broad
spectrum of social, political, moral and legal questions in Victorian England.
Marvin Carlson
17
Only recently have theatre scholars begun to consider theatrical spaces beyond
those of the stage and the auditorium. The generally neglected backstage spaces,
important as they are to the functioning of what the public sees, have been rarely
studied or even mentioned in our historical studies, and yet they also not only reflect
social status but provide all manner of additional information about the actual physical
creation and operation of the performance. Gay McAuley’s Space in the Theatre
is—to the best of my knowledge—the only modern attempt, aside from technical
architectural studies, to consider in any detail these neglected spaces, both in the front
and in the back of the theatre house. The former she designates as audience space
and the latter as practitioner space, neither of course so fully documented or studied
as stage space. Indeed she also includes a consideration of an even less known or
documented space, rehearsal space, which, though never seen by the public “can have
a significant impact on the final production” (McAuley 70).
Not all of the spaces so far discussed, those of the performer, the spectator
and in the case of a theatre building, the space which unites and includes these other
spaces, have been considered with equal attention by theatre historians, but together
they have made up the central spatial concerns of traditional theatre history. Naturally
they shared the often unacknowledged biases of that tradition, most notably an interest
in the theatre of Europe and the United States, to the almost total exclusion of the
rest of the world, and an interest in the staging of canonical plays to the almost total
exclusion of so-called popular or minor forms. During the 1970s and 1980s, however,
these biases began to be widely exposed and challenged. Many things contributed to
this major shift in the field of theatre studies, but probably the most distinct and the
most clearly involved with these challenges was the rise of the new approach that
came to be known as performance studies.
Other cultural changes added further impetus to this change. One clearly
was modern globalization, creating a world view in which theatre history could no
longer casually ignore whole continents like Africa, South America, or Australia, or
confine its study of Asia to a handful of manifestations, mostly Japanese. Another
was a rise in interest in popular culture, forcing attention to the vast array of popular
forms of theatre hitherto ignored by the high art bias of the tradition. Both of these
were also reinforced by a major change within the study of art itself, especially the
performing arts. Just as the study of theatre had from the beginning been dominated,
and somewhat distorted, by critical models derived from literary studies, so the study
of the performing arts in general had operated on a model derived from the plastic arts,
and the concept of the art object. A key expression of the change that took place in
this attitude during the 1970s was Gerald Hinkle’s 1979 book, Art as Event. Hinkle’s
argument was that critical understanding of the performing arts has been hampered by
the application to them of strategies evolved in the plastic arts and literature, where
performance is not essential. Theatre should be viewed “more as an event than an
object in perception” (Hinkle 40).
18
Focus
Looking beyond the spatial assumptions of the European literary theatre
encourages the theatre historian to be conscious of performance spaces more prominent
in other cultures, and of their very different histories and association. A 2008 article
that I co-authored with a Moroccan scholar provides a sample of such research,
based on the circular performance space, the halqa, widely found in traditional Arab
culture and recently taking on a new meaning as a post-colonial reaction to European
performance spaces. Aside from the post-colonial dynamic of this spatial choice, the
article considers the relationship of the halqa to various cultural traditions of North
Africa and the Middle East, its use in folk festivals, popular gatherings, and in the
tradition of the traveling storyteller, and finally its mystic and religious associations
(see Amine and Carlson 71-86).
This different perspective also opened many new ways of looking at space
and the theatrical event even in the much-studied European tradition. No longer was
the focus upon the embodiment of a particular dramatic text, but upon the whole
social and physical context of the event. To the best of my knowledge, the first theatre
historian to utilize this new perspective was Michael Hays, who began his 1974 book
The Public and Performance: Essays in the History of French and German Theater
1871-1900 with an essay entitled “Theater Space as Cultural Paradigm.” It opens
with this striking spatial observation: “Until recently, the social value and function of
the buildings, the architectural forms which enclose the theater event, have remained
largely unexplored territory. Critical investigation has instead focused attention on the
smaller space of the stage or on the actor and the director.” Hays goes on to assert that
the location and shape of the performance area potentially provides the information
“which first allows us to propose a connection between the ordering principles of the
theater event and those of society at large (3).
Richard Schechner was another pioneer in such analysis, though from a more
anthropological than socio-cultural direction. In his major 1975 essay “Toward
a Poetics of Performance” he observes that: “too little study has been made of the
liminal approaches and leavings of performance—how the audience gets to, and
into, the performance place, and how they go from that place” (Schechner 122).
To take a single famous example, clearly the necessity of crossing the Thames by
boat to reach the marginal, quasi-respectable entertainment district of Bankside,
where the major Elizabethan public theatres were located, was a significant part of
the mental contextualization of attending those theatres. The study of such space
has now become an important new dimension in the analysis of both historical and
contemporary theatres. As Susan Bennett observes in her 1997 Theatre Audiences,
“the milieu which surrounds a theatre is always ideologically encoded” and thus
“shapes a spectator’s experience,” and uses this insight to analyze the geography of
Joan Littlewood’s Theatre Workshop and a variety of other nineteenth and twentieth
century theatres (126-30).
Perhaps the most important recent addition to the consideration of space in the
theatre has been stimulated by the growing use of live video and digital imaging.
Marvin Carlson
19
These technologies together are today creating new spatial dimensions and even new
concepts of space in theatres around the world. Film, of course, has been with us now
for over a century and almost from its beginning was utilized by experimental theatre
artists. While clearly a film onstage presents an image of another space, however, it
remains simply that, an image, not actually a space. If, for example, instead of the
Queen providing a narrative describing the physical location of Ophelia’s death—
“There is a willow grows aslant a brook” (Shakespeare 166)—we should see at the
back of the stage a film of this space, this space would remain still an essentially absent,
narrated space for audiences watching the performance. Such filmic images Thomas
Irmir has usefully designated as “second level” images, not fully integrated into the
scene on stage but operating rather more like “footnotes to the stage picture” (22).
Their primary use has nothing to do with the extension or elaboration of the scenic
spaces but rather, as Patrice Pavis has suggested, has been “to provide background or
ironic comment on the stage action” (125).
A very different visual space, however, is created by the ever-increasing
introduction of live video into the performance area. There was an enormous
expansion of such experimentation in Europe in the 1990s, perhaps most notably
in the work of German directors like Frank Castorf and René Pollesch. In a series
of productions beginning in the late 1980s such directors began utilizing live video
as a way of creating a new sort of theatrical space, a real space located somewhere
between onstage and off. As one of its practitioners, Jan Spechenbach, has explained:
“The paradoxical nature of the process of bringing the means of live transmission
into a space that is involved in nothing other than transmitting a selection of this
space makes filmic explorations possible that are not possible either in traditional
film or video” (80). The constant renegotiation between the mimetic and the diegetic,
which in the most extreme cases involves not only onstage and offstage space but
audience spaces, lobbies, and dressing rooms, poses significant new challenges to
theatre analysts seeking to chronicle and explain the experience such work offers.
The German theatre critic Thomas Oberender has suggested that recent
theatrical use of video is primarily of two types, which he calls Einspielung and LiveProduktion. In the process of Einspielung the video is used in the same way that film
has traditionally been used in the theatre—a sequence created at some earlier time is
played simultaneously with live action in the present. Live-Produktion, on the other
hand, takes advantage of the potential immediacy of video by placing alongside the
live action on stage a living picture actually taking place at the same time. According
to Oberender, the first production in Germany to utilize Live-Production was Fred
Kelemen’s staging of Desire, based on Eugene O’Neill’s Desire Under the Elms and
presented at the small experimental stage, the Prater, in 2001.
For Desire, Kelman created an onstage bungalow composed of rooms some of
which were visible to the audience and some hidden from direct sight but observed
by live video cameras. Thus the offstage actors seen as video images were no longer
in some unidentified space but in an actual onstage room which the audience could
20
Focus
physically locate but not see within. The result was a new blend of the impressions
normally associated with live theatre and film. Even though the audience was aware
that the actress they had just seen live on stage was still performing live, the effect of
seeing her on screen was essentially the same as the familiar “absent” depictions of
conventional film or video.
In order to fully break away from that deeply conditioned effect, another staging
innovation was necessary, which Castorf introduced in his next major production, a
Dostoevsky adaptation, Injured and Humiliated. The setting was again a several-room
bungalow, surmounted by a large video screen, but in the larger Volksbühne Castorf
could combine this staging with a turntable, so that, unlike Desire, the hidden offstage
spaces could be revealed live as well as by video. Thus the production opened with a
scene of a group of actors chatting in a living room, seen only on the large overhead
screen. Then the stage revolved, revealing this scene being broadcast from another
room, now visible through a wall of glass doors. However, this revolving not only
revealed the actors and room, but the video camera and its crew filming the scene,
something never seen in Desire. Thus the audience was simultaneously presented with
a live action, its video projection, and the apparatus by which this projection is being
created. This marked a fundamental step forward for such experimentation, in that
Castorf foregrounded the fact that with video the image and its space can for the first
time become a part of the lived moment in which it is generated, creating a feedback
loop in which the medium becomes a part of the reality in which it is embedded.
Castorf’s video artist and camera operator, Jan Speckenbach, has characterized
theatre of this sort as a kind of “live cubism.” The effect sought is that of a collage
of selected views, of fragmented perspectives, of discrepant ways of seeing which
never coalesce into a unified vision. It makes possible a kind of “filmic exploration”
that is impossible either in traditional theatre, film or video by “bringing the means
of live transmission into a space that is involved in nothing other than transmitting a
selection of this space” (78). One reviewer of Insulted and Humiliated described the
visual complexity of Speckenbach’s design in these words: “Cameras . . . are mounted
all over this labyrinthine container-set, parts of which we never see directly except
as glimpses through open doors or peeks behind patched-up windows.” Nor do the
cameras remain stationary. They are on occasion “picked up by actors who follow
other actors into this Everyman-warren that is also a forlorn No Man’s Land” (Rouse
14).
Spatially speaking, these turn of the century experiments by Castorf and others
basically utilized live video to blur the boundaries between virtual and diegetic,
between onstage and offstage space. All the spaces experienced have a grounding
in physical and contemporary reality, even if we can access them only through the
eye of the camera. A more radical sort of performative space has been developed by
other groups, first in dance and then in certain experimental theatre companies. In
the 1999 dance piece Friends, by Netherlands choreographer Krisztina de Chatel, for
example, dancers simultaneously performing in widely separated spaces were brought
Marvin Carlson
21
together to seemingly dance with each other in an electronic space which had no
actual physical reality, and audiences could observe this space alone or in conjunction
with one or another of its various components. Electronically created space, of various
kinds, has been built into the recent work of a number of experimental theatre groups
in the United States and in Europe.
One of the best leaders in such work was the Big Art group, founded in 1998
with the stated aim of using “the language of media and blended states of performance
in a unique form to build culturally transgressive and challenging new works”
(bigartgroup.com). Typically they use several different live video cameras to capture
separate images which are then combined in form a new image in virtual space. Instead
of locating these cameras in widely separated locations in the manner of de Chatel’s
Friends, however, they place them in different parts of the stage, so that the audience
can simultaneously see the collage of combined images and its component parts. Let us
take for example a sequence in the production Flicker in which a character is pursued
through the woods by a knife-wielding maniac. The actress in fact runs in place, her
back toward the stage-right camera, looking back over her shoulder at the camera
and presumably at her pursuer, whom we see in another digital image brandishing a
knife. In fact, as the audience can clearly see, he is neither running nor anywhere near
the actress, but is being filmed in another location. As the run continues, the digital
body of the actress is replaced in virtual space by that of a male actor in a red wig and
costume similar to hers. As the “run” continues, it provides another replacement in
this same virtual space. In the traditional theatre, such a run would be quite difficult
to stage since its spatial demands are much more suitable to the film, and it would
be surely presented as a brief sequence performed by a single actress. In Flicker, on
the other hand, this coherent body exists only in digital space, while the audience is
simultaneously aware of that digital coherent body and of the contributing and varied
parts of this body in various parts of actual stage space around it.
In the United States, experiments with virtual space have so far been confined
to small theatres, but in Europe, a number of major directors and companies, inspired
by the work of German directors like Castorf in the 1990s have recently begun to
incorporate live video to introduce new spaces into their productions, and their tours
have exposed such experimentation to an international audience. The Flemish director
Ivo van Hove toured widely with his 1997 production of Moliere’s The Misanthrope,
which utilized live video projections of the actors throughout, occasionally following
them offstage into the dressing areas. The 2000 production of Peter Weiss’s Marat/
Sade by the Triumviratus Art Group of Varna, Bulgaria, featured a very large video
monitor/screen mounted directly above the stage, as in recent productions of Castorf,
so that the audience was always offered a double focus of live and mediatized spaces.
On this screen appeared not only different perspectives of on-stage action, as in Big
Art, but views of live action off-stage as in Castorf, going not only into the dressing
rooms, lobbies, and spaces actually outside the physical theatre, but also into the
22
Focus
audience, so that spectators while experiencing their own personal space could also
see it appearing on the stage monitor.
In Katie Mitchell’s 2007 staging of Virginia Woolf’s The Waves at the National
Theatre in London, Woolf’s multilayered and internalized novel was brought to life
on stage by utilizing much the same techniques as those of Mason’s Big Art Group.
The setting consisted only of a long table center stage but the visual focus was divided
between the actors working around (and on) this table, and the large video screen above
them which in the manner of Castorf and Triumverus offered a continually changing
master visual image and which in the manner of Big Art was an image existing only
in this virtual space and constructed by observed movements and manipulations of the
actors beneath it on the main stage. Thus, for example, in the scene “London 1906” a
pair of actors sits at one end of the long table and another pair at the other end, while
two cameras merge them on the overhead into a foursome sitting at an apparently
small restaurant table. Similar constructions of merged characters, characters and
scenery, and visual special effects provide an ongoing visual narrative on the overhead
screen very much in the manner of Big Art.
In his excellent study on the phenomenology of theatre, Great Reckonings in Little
Rooms, Bert States advanced what he considered the most basic phenomenological
feature of this art: “Theatre is the medium, par excellence, that consumes the real
in its realest forms: man, his language, his rooms and cities, his weapons and tools,
his other arts, animals, fire, and water—even, finally, theatre itself” (8). Some recent
performance theorists have argued that in this mediatized age, the living element of
theatre is being consumed by video, but these recent international experiments suggest
that, on the contrary, the omniverous appetite of theatre can encompass not only video
itself, but, on a deeper level, the reversion of video back into life in the objects of its
view and the subjects controlling that view. Thus virtual space has not proven inimical
to theatre, but an extension of its possibilities, making its on contribution to the
complex and always shifting interplay of reality and illusion, presence and absence,
distance and empathy, which has always been a part of the theatre experience.
Works Cited
Amine, Khalid, and Marvin Carlson. “Al-halqa in Arabic Theatre: An Emerging Site
of Hybridity.” Theatre Journal 60.1 (2008): 71-86. Print.
Bennett, Susan. Theatre Audiences. London: Routledge, 1997. Print.
Elam, Kier. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. London: Methuen, 1980. Print.
Fitzpatrick, Tim. “The Dialectics of Space-Time Dramaturgical and Directoral
Strategies for Performance and Fictional World.” Performance: From Product
to Process. Ed. Tim Pitzpartick. Sydney: Frederick May Foundation, 1989. 49112. Print.
Marvin Carlson
23
Hays, Michael. The Public and Performance: Essays in the History of French and
German Theater 1871-1900. Ann Arbor: UMI Research P, 1974. Print.
Hinkle, Gerald. Art as Event: an aesthetic for the performing arts. Washington: UP of
America, 1979. Print.
Hume, Robert D. “Theatre History 1660-1800: Aims, Material, Methodology.”
Players, Playwrights, Plahouses: Investigating Performance, 1660-1800. Ed.
Michael Cordner and Peter Holland. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007.
9-44. Print.
Irmir, Thomas. “Das Theater der neuen Sehens: Zum Einsatz von Video und Film
bei Frank Castorf Rene Pollesch und Olaf Nicolai.” Ed. Thomas J. Kleiner and
Holger Ostwald. Quadratur: Kulturbuch 5 (2003): 130-34. Print.
Matthews, Brander. A Study of the Drama. Boston, Chicago, New York: Riverside,
1910. Print.
McAuley, Gay. Space in Performance: Making Meaning in the Theatre. Ann Arbor:
U of Michigan P, 1999. Print.
Murray, Timothy. “Richelieu’s Theatre: The Mirror of a Prince.” Renaissance Drama
n.s. 8 (1977): 275-97. Print.
Pavis, Patrice. Theatre at the Crossroads of Culture. Trans. Loren Kruger. London:
Routledge, 1992. Print.
Rouse, John, and Marvin Carlson. “The 2002 Berlin Theatertreffen.” Western
European Stages 14:3 (Fall, 2002): 5-24. Print.
Schechner, Richard. Essays on Performance Theory 1970-1976. New York: Drama
Book Specialists, 1977. Print.
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet, Prince of Danemark. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
2003. Print.
Southern, Richard. The Seven Ages of the Theatre. New York: Hill and Wang, 1961.
Print.
Speckenbach, Jan. “Der Einbruch der Fernsehtechnologie.” Einbruch der Realität:
Politik und Verbrechen. Ed. Carl Hegemann. Berlin: Alexander, 2002. 80-84.
Print.
States, Bert O. Great Reckonings in Little Rooms. Berkeley: U of California P, 1985.
Print.
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MUSIC HALL &
MODERNITY
The Late-Victorian Discovery of Popular Culture
Barry J. Faulk
OHIO UNIVERSITY PRESS
AT H E N S
Richard Danielpour
MARGARET GARNER
A New American Opera in Two Acts
Libretto by Toni Morrison
Based on a true story
First performance: Detroit Opera House, May 7, 2005
Opera Carolina performances: April 20, 22 & 23, 2006
North Carolina Blumenthal Performing Arts Center
Stefan Lano, conductor
Cynthia Stokes, stage director
The Opera Carolina Chorus
The Charlotte Contemporary Ensemble
The Charlotte Symphony Orchestra
The Characters
Cast
Margaret Garner, mezzo
Robert Garner, bass baritone
Edward Gaines, baritone
Cilla, soprano
Casey, tenor
Caroline, soprano
George, baritone
Auctioneer, tenor
First Judge , tenor
Second Judge, baritone
Third Judge, baritone
slave on the Gaines plantation
her husband
owner of the plantation
Margaret’s mother
foreman on the Gaines plantation
Edward Gaines’ daughter
her fiancée
Denyce Graves
Eric Greene
Michael Mayes
Angela Renee Simpson
Mark Pannuccio
Inna Dukach
Jonathan Boyd
Dale Bryant
Dale Bryant
Daniel Boye
Jeff Monette
Slaves on the Gaines plantation, Townspeople
The opera takes place in Kentucky and Ohio
Between 1856 and 1861
1
MARGARET GARNER
Act I, scene i:
Kentucky, April 1856.
The opera begins in total darkness, without any sense
of location or time period. Out of the blackness, a
large group of slaves gradually becomes visible. They
are huddled together on an elevated platform in the
center of the stage.
CHORUS:
“No More!”
THE SLAVES
(Slave Chorus, Margaret, Cilla, and Robert)
NO, NO MORE.
NO MORE, NOT MORE.
PLEASE, GOD, NO MORE.
NO, NOT MORE.
DEAR GOD, NO MORE!
SLAVE CHORUS
…NO, NO. NO, NO MORE!
NO, NO, NO!
(basses) PLEASE GOD, NO MORE!
MARGARET
UNDER MY HEAD...
SLAVE CHORUS
… NO, NO, NO MORE!
NO, NO MORE.
NO, NO, NO!
(basses) DEAR GOD, NO MORE!
MARGARET
(confidently, with a sense of defiance)
NO, NO! NO MORE!
NO, NO! NO MORE!
WISHING, PRAYING...
MARGARET
… NO, NO! NO, NO MORE! …
(basses) DEAR GOD, NO MORE!
SLAVE CHORUS
ANKLES CIRCLED WITH A CHAIN...
MARGARET
SLAVE CHORUS
…NO, NO. NO, NO MORE!
NO, NO MORE!
(tenors and basses) PLEASE, GOD, NO MORE!
MARGARET
SKIN BROKEN BY A CANE...
SLAVE CHORUS
…NO, NO! NO MORE!
NO, NO. NO MORE!
MARGARET
… I WAS DEAD.
THE SLAVES
(Slave Chorus, Cilla, and Robert)
NO, NO. NO, NO MORE!
NO, NO. NO MORE!
NO, NO, NO!
DEAR GOD, PLEASE, NO MORE!
SLAVE CHORUS
(without Cilla and Robert)
DEAR GOD,
NO MORE, NOT MORE.
PLEASE, NO MORE.
BLOODY PILLOWS...
2
MARGARET
BLOODY PILLOWS UNDER MY HEAD;
WISHING, PRAYING I WAS DEAD.
THE SLAVES
(Slave Chorus, Cilla, and Robert)
PLEASE GOD, NO MORE.
MARGARET
MASTER'S BRAND IS FOLLOWING ME;
ROPE CAN SWING FROM ANY OLD TREE.
THE SALE OF ALL GOODS
AND CATTLE AND WOODLAND,
SLAVES AND PLANTING FIELDS
DARK WITH LOAM.
I HEREBY DECLARE AND ALLOW
AN OLD ESTATE RICH IN HISTORY
IS NOW ON THE MARKET
FOR A GENTLEMAN'S POCKET;
A PRIZE IN THE WHOLE COUNTY.
YOUR SHREWD EYES WILL LIGHT UP
DOLLAR FOR DOLLAR,
POUND FOR POUND,
THE BESTEST VALUE FOR MILES AROUND.
(pleading)
(A foreman approaches the slaves. He cracks a
bullwhip, and the slaves immediately assume different
positions for inspection: they bare their teeth, expose
their backs, stretch out their necks, etc.)
PLEASE GOD, NO MORE.
PLEASE GOD, NO MORE.
PLEASE GOD, NO MORE.
NO MORE!
THE TOWNSPEOPLE
(White Chorus)
THE SLAVES
(Slave Chorus, Cilla, and Robert)
****
The lights go up, and illuminate the entire stage. The
“elevated platform” on which the slaves stood at the
beginning of the opera is revealed now to be a trading
block situated in the middle of a busy town square in
Kentucky. It is April 1856. In preparation for a slave
auction, members of slave families are being separated
from one another, and grouped according to gender
and age.
The local townspeople are gathering eagerly for the
auction. They exhibit a small-town mentality: familiar
with everyone else's daily life and business, they love
to gossip and at times can be judgmental of others.
Also in the crowd of onlookers is a handsome, genteel
man named Edward Gaines, accompanied by his
daughter Caroline.
HOW MUCH? HOW MUCH?
FOR PICKNIES AND MAMMIES AND BREEDERS
AND BUCKS?
HOW MUCH? HOW MUCH?
WHAT SAY? WHAT SAY?
FOR MILKING AND PLOWING
AND SPINNING AND CANNING AND SUCH.
O, WHAT A PROBLEM TO DECIDE.
O, WHAT A BURDEN ON OUR SHOULDERS:
FOR THOSE WHO HAVE NOTHING,
ARE NOTHING, DO NOTHING
EXCEPT FOR WE WHO CLOTHE THEM AND
FEED THEM
AND LET THEM SLEEP WHEN THEY ARE ILL.
WE TEACH THEM ALL THEY WILL EVER
KNOW,
ALL THEY WILL EVER KNOW
OF GOD AND WORK AND HOME!
AUCTIONEER
AUCTIONEER
(freely chanted)
BY THE POWERS INVESTED
AND BY CUSTOMS INGESTED
I HEREBY DECLARE AND ALLOW:
BY THE POWERS INVESTED
AND BY CUSTOMS INGESTED,
I HEREBY DECLARE AND ALLOW
THIS SALE TO BE NOW OPEN!
3
TOWNSPEOPLE
FOUR HUNDRED, FOUR HUNDRED DOLLARS...
WHAT SAY? WHAT SAY?
FOR MILKING AND PLOWING
AND SPINNING AND CANNING AND SUCH.
HOW MUCH? HOW MUCH?
FOR PICKNIES AND MAMMIES AND BREEDERS
AND BUCKS,
WHO KNOW NOTHING OF GOD AND HOME!
...FOUR HUNDRED, FOUR HUNDRED, FOUR
HUNDRED, FOUR HUNDRED,
FOUR HUNDRED!
AUCTIONEER
(bringing forth the first slave for sale)
EDWARD GAINES
(impatient, forcefully)
NOW THIS HERE IS CILLA.
ABOUT FIFTY, SHE THINKS.
A COOK, A CHILD NURSE, LAUNDRESS AND
SEAMSTRESS.
HOLD ON! HOLD ON!
I'M TELLING YOU TO HOLD ON!
THIS BID BEGINS AT TWO HUNDRED
DOLLARS.
DO I HEAR TWO FORTY, TWO FORTY, TWO
FORTY, TWO FORTY?
TOWNSPEOPLE
(excitedly)
TOWNSPEOPLE
(startled, a little nervously)
WHO IS IT? WHAT IS IT?
WHO IS IT? WHAT IS IT?
(A customer raises his hand, thereby upping the bid.)
AUCTIONEER
(polite, but annoyed)
TOWNSPEOPLE
(emphatically)
EXCUSE ME, SIR.
LEGAL BUSINESS IS IN PROGRESS HERE.
TWO FORTY!
BY THE POWERS INVESTED,
AND BY CUSTOMS INGESTED...
AUCTIONEER
YES!
TWO HUNDRED FORTY.
DO I HEAR
THREE HUNDRED, THREE HUNDRED, THREE
HUNDRED?
I NEED THREE HUNDRED DOLLARS.
TOWNSPEOPLE
(enthusiastically)
THREE HUNDRED!
EDWARD
(interrupting the Auctioneer)
...I BEG YOUR PARDON!
THIS FARM BELONGED TO MY BROTHER.
IT CAN'T BE SOLD TO ANOTHER.
AUCTIONEER
IT IS TRUE.
IF A FAMILY MEMBER CALLS THE CLAIM,
NO SALE CAN TAKE PLACE HERE AND NOW.
AUCTIONEER
YES!
EDWARD
THREE HUNDRED DOLLARS.
DO I HEAR
FOUR HUNDRED, FOUR HUNDRED,
I AM A GAINES.
EDWARD GAINES, BROTHER OF THE
DECEASED.
4
AUCTIONEER
(increduously)
DON'T YOU REMEMBER ME?
TOWNSPEOPLE
(their curiosity aroused)
IT IS TRUE.
IT IS THE LAW.
TOWNSPEOPLE
(echoing the Auctioneer)
EDWARD GAINES? WHO IS HE?
DID OLD GAINES HAVE A BROTHER?
WHO IS HE? EDWARD GAINES?
IT IS TRUE. IT IS TRUE.
IT IS TRUE, IT IS THE LAW.
EDWARD
AUCTIONEER
I WAS BORN AMONG YOU
AND NOW I'VE RETURNED.
DOESN'T ANYONE REMEMBER ME?
WE MUST ENTERTAIN HIS RIGHT UNDER THE
LAW.
TOWNSPEOPLE
TOWNSPEOPLE
UNDER THE LAW. UNDER THE LAW.
NO. NO. NO.
WAS IT A LONG TIME AGO?
AUCTIONEER
EDWARD
YOU THOUGHT I WAS LOST, DIDN'T YOU,
IN A ROUGH LIFE OF THE GAME.
YOU WERE WRONG.
(WELL, NO, YOU WEREN'T …)
WELL, YES, YOU WERE!
WHAT IS YOUR PLEASURE,
MISTER GAINES, SIR?
(solicitously)
WHAT PARTS INTEREST YOU?
EDWARD
ARIA:
“I Was Just a Boy”
EDWARD
I WAS JUST A BOY
WHEN ANY OF YOU LAST SAW ME.
BUT I'VE BEEN HAPPILY MARRIED
WITH A DAUGHTER WE BOTH ADORED.
NOW I'M A WIDOWER, A MAN OF MEANS,
A FATHER WITH A CHILD TO RAISE.
WHAT MY BROTHER OWNED
I HAVE RIGHT OF FIRST OFFER TO BUY.
WHICH I DO NOW, FRIENDS.
WHICH I DO NOW.
I WANT IT ALL.
I'LL HAVE IT ALL.
EVERY BOX OF CHINA TEA BELONGS TO ME.
EVERY BODY, EVERY BROOM,
EVERY MULE AND EVERY LOOM.
(pointing at the slaves)
KEEP ALL THE GOODS AND PROPERTY
TOGETHER.
I'LL HAVE IT ALL.
(The auctioneer and Edward shake hands after
agreeing on terms for the sale of Maplewood
Plantation. As Edward examines the legal paperwork,
the townspeople begin to disperse. Several prominent
businessmen remain to witness the transaction, as does
Edward's daughter Caroline, who will inherit
Maplewood one day.)
5
****
(The slave families, now allowed to stay together
thanks to Edward's generosity,
celebrate in dance and song.)
WE CAN STILL ATTEND WITH
SWEET WILLIAM AND COLUMBINE.
SLAVE CHORUS
SWEET WILLIAM AND COLUMBINE.
CHORUS:
“A Little More Time”
SLAVE CHORUS, CILLA, and ROBERT
SLAVE CHORUS, CILLA, MARGARET, and
ROBERT
(clapping as they sing)
LITTLE MORE TIME
A LITTLE MORE TIME
MORE TIME WITH THE CHILDREN WE LOVE...
A LITTLE MORE TIME
A LITTLE MORE TIME
MORE TIME WITH THE CHILDREN WE LOVE...
(altos)
...TIME WITH OUR MOTHERS.
(all)
(tenors)
...TIME WITH OUR BROTHERS.
WE FEEL THE MERCY OF OUR LORD GOD
WITH THE GRACE OF A LITTLE MORE TIME.
(all)
WE FEEL THE MERCY OF OUR LORD GOD
WITH THE GRACE OF A LITTLE MORE TIME.
CILLA and MARGARET
ANOTHER SEASON OF FRIENDSHIP
TELLING STORIES, SHARING SECRETS BY THE
FIRE.
SLAVE CHORUS
WE FEEL THE MERCY OF OUR LORD GOD
WITH THE GRACE OF A LITTLE MORE TIME.
MARGARET
(Gaines nods in assent to the contract’s terms, then
turns to the businessman standing next to him and asks
for a pen with which to sign the contract.)
ARIOSO:
“I Made a Little Play Doll”
MARGARET
(tenderly)
I MADE A LITTLE PLAY DOLL FOR MY BABY,
WITH BUTTON EYES AND HAIR OF YARN;
THE LIPS ARE MADE OF ROSE-COLORED
THREAD.
(Distracted, Edward looks up from his paperwork; he
turns around and notices Margaret, who is wearing a
red scarf. He is intrigued, and grateful for his good
fortune to have just purchased her.)
MORE NIGHTS TO CURL LIKE A VINE
IN OUR HUSBAND’S ARMS.
ONE DAY SHE WILL LOVE IT;
I AM WAITING FOR HER TO LOVE IT
ROBERT
MORE DAYS TO BASK IN THE LIGHT
OF OUR LOVER’S EYES.
(Edward turns around again, and finishes signing the
contract. The businessmen extend handshakes of
congratulations to him on the acquisition of
Maplewood.)
CILLA and MARGARET
WHEN SHE IS OLD ENOUGH TO HOLD IT.
OUR FATHERS' GRAVES
6
EDWARD
(disappointed, somewhat disgusted)
(Margaret unties her red scarf. When one of the slaves
brings in Margaret’s infant daughter, wrapped in a
white cloth, she drops her scarf on the ground in order
to cradle the baby tenderly in her arms.)
I’M WATCHING THIS MYSTERY CALLED
CHILD.
LOOK AT THEM.
THEY WERE MY NEIGHBORS ONCE.
THEY PRETEND THEY DON'T REMEMBER ME.
CASEY
IT WAS A LONG TIME AGO, SIR.
YOU'VE BEEN AWAY FOR TWENTY YEARS…
SLAVE CHORUS, CILLA, and ROBERT
A LITTLE MORE TIME
A LITTLE MORE TIME
MORE TIME WITH THE CHILDREN WE LOVE...
EDWARD
(turning back around, facing Casey)
…TWENTY YEARS. (to himself)
(altos)
...TIME WITH OUR MOTHERS.
THEY PRETEND.
THEY LIE, AND THEY SAY THEY DON’T
REMEMBER ME.
SLAVE CHORUS, CILLA, and ROBERT
WE FEEL THE BREATH OF OUR LORD GOD
WITH THE GIFT OF A LITTLE MORE TIME.
SLAVE CHORUS
(Margaret's scarf, still lying on the ground, catches
Edward's attention;
he starts walking over towards it.)
CASEY
(looking in the other direction from Gaines)
WE FEEL THE BREATH OF OUR LORD GOD.
SOMETHING IN THE PAST, SIR?
SOMETHING BEST FORGOTTEN?
CILLA, MARGARET, and ROBERT
WE FEEL THE BREATH OF OUR LORD GOD.
(Edward picks up Margaret's scarf, and mindlessly
puts it in his pocket.)
SLAVE CHORUS
EDWARD
WITH THE GIFT OF A LITTLE MORE TIME.
(The slaves exit slowly; Margaret is the last of the
slaves to leave.)
(Having completed the legal transaction with Edward,
the auctioneer departs with the businessmen. Caroline
remains, however, cheerfully conversing with their
wives.)
I WAS JUST A BOY.
THE TROUBLE I CAUSED WAS INESCAPABLE.
FOR A BOY WITH AN APPETITE.
CASEY
BUT EVERY BOY HAS AN APPETITE, SIR.
****
EDWARD
(Edward watches the last townspeople leave.)
I LEFT UNDER A CLOUD OF SUSPICION.
7
IT WAS NOTHING, NOTHING TO RAISE
EYEBROWS.
THE GIRL WAS SO YOUNG,
AND FROM SUCH A FINE FAMILY;
THINGS GOT A LITTLE OUT OF HAND.
(sotto voce)
SO NOW THEY PRETEND
NEITHER I NOR IT EVER HAPPENED.
End of Act One, Scene One
*****
Act I, scene ii:
Harvest time, about six months later.
WHAT A SHAME.
I REMEMBER!
I REMEMBER EVERYTHING.
ARIA:
“I Remember”
The slaves -- some of whom are children, barely 10 or
12 years old -- return to their quarters after a day of
working in the fields. In time with the percussion’s
strong, syncopated beat, they perform a series of
domestic chores: chopping wood, pumping water,
beating rags, etc.
EDWARD
(wistful, yet still optimistic)
I REMEMBER THE CURVE OF EVERY HILL
THE SWANS IN THE POND;
I REMEMBER THEM STILL.
CHORUS:
“O Mother, O Father, Don’t Abandon Me!”
ROBERT
I REMEMBER EVERY TREE:
MAPLE, BIRCH, WILLOWS AND PINE.
TURN MY FACE TO THE DYING SUN
I CAN SEE THEM NOW
SHADING THE DRIVE,
SHELT’RING ME FROM THE HEAT.
MAPLE, BIRCH AND THE ODOR OF PINE.
TURN MY FACE TO THE DYING SUN
I REMEMBER EVERY TREE
BUT NONE OF THEM REMEMBERS ME.
ROBERT
THE WELL, THE CREEK,
FISHING BY THE LAKE.
EVENINGS OF LAUGHTER
WITH GIRLS WHO WANTED TO PLAY.
SLAVE CHORUS
CAN’T STRAIGHTEN MY BACK
TIL THE WORK IS DONE.
SLAVE CHORUS
I REMEMBER EVERY TREE
BUT NONE OF THEM REMEMBERS ME.
CAN’T STRAIGHTEN MY BACK
TIL THE WORK IS DONE.
(Edward catches Caroline's glance, and motions for
her to join him.)
ROBERT
EDWARD
(sotto voce)
PLOWED THE FIELD, BALED THE HAY
THEY WON'T FORGET ME AGAIN!
SLAVE CHORUS
(Edward exits, with Caroline at his side. Casey follows
them.)
PLOWED THE FIELD, BALED THE HAY
8
ALL
ROBERT
GOING TO DANCE
ON THE LEAD MULE’S BACK SOMEDAY.
O MOTHER, O FATHER
DON’T ABANDON ME
WHILE MY BLOOD FLOODS THE VELVET DIRT
OF DEAR OLD KENTUCKY.
GOING TO DANCE
ON THE LEAD MULE’S BACK SOMEDAY.
O MOTHER, O FATHER
DON’T ABANDON ME
WHILE MY SWEAT STILL SWEETS THE RICH
BROWN SOIL
OF DEAR OLD KENTUCKY.
ALL
CRACK UH BACK
O MOTHER, O FATHER
DON’T ABANDON ME
WHILE MY SWEAT STILL SWEETS THE RICH
BROWN SOIL
OF DEAR OLD KENTUCKY.
CUT UH CANE
SLAVE CHORUS
PULL UH MULE
CHOP UH COTTON
O MOTHER, O FATHER
DON’T ABANDON ME.
SPLIT UH WOOD
MARGARET
CRACK UH BACK
BOSS IS HAPPY AT HIS PLATE
CUT UH CANE
PULL UH MULE
SLAVE CHORUS
CHOP UH COTTON
LONG AS HE GETS HIS FOWL;
SPLIT UH WOOD
MARGARET
IF I STAND AT HIS COOKING STOVE,
CRACK, CUT,
PULL, CHOP, SPLIT;
SLAVE CHORUS
CRACK, CUT,
PULL, CHOP, SPLIT;
HIS SUPPER WILL BE FOUL!
MARGARET and ROBERT
(shouted like gospel singers)
BELIEVE IT!
CRACK, CUT,
PULL, CHOP, SPLIT!
FEMALE CHORISTERS
(soprano soloist)
BOSS IS HAPPY IN HIS BED
(all)
LONG AS HIS PILLOW’S DOWNEY;
(soprano soloist)
IF I STOOD BY HIS SLEEPY HEAD
9
(all)
HIS FACE WOULD BE AS FLUFFY.
CUT UH CANE
PULL UH MULE
MALE CHORISTERS
(like gospel singers)
CHOP UH COTTON
TELL IT TO ME!
SPLIT UH WOOD
ROBERT
CRACK UH BACK
PLOWED THE FIELD, BALED THE HAY
CUT UH CANE
PULL UH MULE
CHORUS
CHOP UH COTTON
PLOWED THE FIELD, BALED THE HAY
SPLIT UH WOOD
ROBERT
GOING TO DANCE
ON THE LEAD MULE’S BACK SOMEDAY.
CRACK, CUT,
PULL, CHOP, SPLIT;
CRACK, CUT,
PULL, CHOP, SPLIT;
SLAVE CHORUS
GOING TO DANCE
ON THE LEAD MULE’S BACK SOMEDAY.
ALL
CRACK, CUT,
PULL, CHOP, SPLIT!
(Upon hearing the dinner bell, the workers wash up for
supper. Cilla is waiting at Margaret and Robert’s
cabin to welcome them home.)
O MOTHER, O FATHER
DON’T ABANDON ME
WHILE MY TEARS MUDDY THE RICH BROWN
SOIL
OF DEAR OLD KENTUCKY.
YOU LEFT THE LIGHT BEHIND YOU.
DID YOU HAVE A WORRISOME DAY?
MARGARET and ROBERT
(shouted like gospel singers)
(Cilla, Robert, and Margaret go inside the cabin, and
begin preparing dinner.)
CILLA
SING IT TO ME!
ROBERT
ALL
O MOTHER, O FATHER
DON’T ABANDON ME
WHILE MY BLOOD FLOODS THE VELVET DIRT
OF DEAR OLD KENTUCKY. (sarcastically)
CRACK UH BACK
EVERY NEW DAY IS LIKE YESTERDAY.
WORK THE CROPS,
FORGET ABOUT PAY.
END EACH DAY
LIKE THE ONE BEFORE.
DON’T LEAVE THE FIELD
TIL THE LIGHT’S TOO POOR.
10
CILLA
CILLA
THIS GAINES IS NOT LIKE THE LAST ONE.
A MEAN STREAK RIDES HIS BROW.
THE OTHER ONE HAD A HEART -SOMETIMES! (jokingly)
MAKE US GRATEFUL FOR OUR FOOD.
MARGARET and ROBERT
[Sweet Jesus…]
MARGARET
CILLA
NO SUCH THING AS A BOSS’S HEART.
HE CAN’T WASTE THE SPACE.
KEEP US WELL AND IN YOUR SIGHT.
ROBERT
MARGARET and ROBERT
[mmm…]
IF HE COULD HARVEST CORN IN HIS CHEST,
CILLA
ROBERT and MARGARET
(laughing heartily)
HE WOULD LEASE OUT HIS OWN HEART’S
PLACE!
PROTECT THOSE IN DANGER,
MARGARET and ROBERT
[Take my hand…]
CILLA
(Cilla beckons for Robert and Margaret to sit down at
the dinner table.)
CILLA
EASE YOURSELVES, EASE YOURSELVES.
THE TABLE IS LAID.
THE SUPPER IS PLAIN BUT WARM.
AND LET US BE GUIDED BY YOUR HEAVENLY
LIGHT.
MARGARET and ROBERT
[Precious Lord… mmm]
CILLA
AMEN.
MARGARET
*****
… YOU’VE GOT MILK AND STRAWBERRIES
TOO.
ROBERT
(exuberantly)
(All three sit down to dinner.)
YOU ARE A HUNDRED POUND BLESSING,
MAMA.
"Cilla’s Prayer”
CILLA
MARGARET
(to Cilla)
DEAR LORD IN HEAVEN,
HOW’S MY BABY?
NOT CRYING FOR ME?
HOW’S MY SWEETNESS?
NOT MISSING ME?
MARGARET and ROBERT
(interjecting, like a Responsorial)
[Blessed Lord…]
11
CILLA
SHE’S SLEEPING, MARGARET,
SLEEPING.
NOT A FROWN ON HER SUGAR BUTTER FACE.
ROBERT
(laughing)
MARGARET
(smiling, reaching out to Robert)
OH NO. OH NO.
YOU ARE THE PULSE.
WITHOUT YOU I HAVE NO HEART.
ROBERT
DID YOU EVER SEE A MOTHER LIKE THAT?
THE CHILD SUPPOSED TO NEED THE MOTHER;
NOW HERE THE MOTHER NEEDS THE CHILD
MORE.
AND WITHOUT YOU I HAVE NO PULSE TO
GIVE.
MARGARET
CILLA
(interrupting)
(They embrace.)
I NEED TO SMELL HER BREATH.
CILLA
ENOUGH SAID.
GO GET YOUR HEART
BEFORE YOU BREAK MINE.
THE BABY NEEDS HER REST.
(Margaret goes to get the baby. As Cilla and Robert
eat dinner, Margaret sings tenderly to the child.)
MARGARET
I NEED TO SEE HER EYES, HER SMILE.
"Margaret’s Lullaby"
CILLA
(emphatically)
IT’S DANGEROUS, DAUGHTER,
TO LOVE TOO MUCH.
THE LORD GIVETH
AND THE LORD TAKETH AWAY.
COME TO YOUR SUPPER BEFORE YOU WAKE
HER.
MARGARET
SHE IS MY SUPPER,
THE FOOD OF MY HEART.
ROBERT
AND WHAT AM I?
THE LEAVINGS?
MARGARET
SAD THINGS, FAR AWAY
SOFT THINGS, COME AND PLAY
LOVELY BABY …
SLEEP IN THE MEADOW,
SLEEP IN THE HAY
BABY’S GOT A DREAMIN’ ON THE WAY.
BAD THINGS, FAR AWAY
PRETTY THINGS, HERE TO STAY
SWEET BABY, SMILE AT ME
LOVELY BABY, GO TO SLEEP.
SLEEP IN THE MEADOW,
SLEEP IN THE HAY
BABY’S GONNA DREAM THE NIGHT AWAY.
LOVELY BABY, PRETTY BABY
BABY’S GONNA DREAM THE NIGHT AWAY.
12
(Casey approaches the cabin, armed with a doublebarreled shotgun and carrying a satchel. He loiters for
a few minutes, passing the time by cleaning his gun.)
SLEEP IN THE MEADOW,
SLEEP IN THE HAY
BABY’S GONNA DREAM …
BABY’S GONNA DREAM … (softer)
BABY’S GONNA DREAM … (softer still)
CASEY
I’M TALKIN’ TO YOUR BOY, CILLA.
NOT YOU.
CASEY
(to Robert)
CASEY
(quietly, standing in the cabin doorway)
YOU HAVE BEEN RENTED OUT, BOY.
MISTER GAINES WANTS YOU ON YOUR WAY
T’NIGHT
(aggressively) SO YOU’LL BE READY FOR WORK
AT SUNRISE.
NOT TONIGHT.
NOBODY DREAMS TONIGHT.
ROBERT
ROBERT
WHERE, SIR?
WHERE IS HE SENDING ME?
WHAT D’YOU SAY?
WHAT’S THAT YOU SAY?
CASEY
(Casey enters the cabin abruptly, and confronts
Robert.)
NOT YOUR BUSINESS TO KNOW.
ONLY YOUR BUSINESS TO GO.
(pointing to the door)
CASEY
(sarcastically)
THE WAGON IS ON THE ROAD.
HOP TO IT, BOY!
WHAT’S THAT I SAY?
WHAT’S THAT YOU SAY?
MARGARET
(Casey points his gun at Robert.)
ROBERT
I’LL GET READY.
HOLD THE BABY, MAMA.
EXCUSE ME, SIR.
YES, SIR.
WHAT’S THAT YOU SAY, SIR?
CASEY
HOLD ON, GIRL.
CASEY
BETTER. MUCH BETTER.
WHAT I SAY IS
NO HAPPY DARKY DREAMIN’ T’NIGHT.
MISTER GAINES HAS OTHER PLANS… OTHER
PLANS.
CILLA
WHAT PLANS, MISTER CASEY?
YOU’LL GET READY ALL RIGHT.
BUT YOU WON’T NEED THE WAGON.
(quietly, with innuendo)
MISTER GAINES WANTS YOU IN THE HOUSE,
HIS HOUSE.
AIN’T THAT NICE?
NO MORE FIELD WORK.
AIN’T THAT NICE?
YOU CAN PUT YOUR FEET UP
IN HIS HOUSE ALL DAY,
13
ALL NIGHT, TOO.
MARGARET
AIN’T THAT NICE?
AIN’T THAT NICE?
COOL DOWN, ROBERT!
HE WILL HEAR YOU.
(Casey pulls a stylish housedress out of his satchel. He
waves the dress, like a red flag, in Robert’s face, then
tosses it at Margaret.)
ROBERT
(angrily)
I AM A MAN!
AIN’T I?
AIN’T THAT NICE?
(Casey leaves.)
AIN’T I A MAN?
AIN’T I?
AIN’T I?
(Robert and Margaret exchange troubled glances;
Cilla rocks the baby.)
MARGARET
(As he walks away, Casey sings a parody of
Margaret’s “Lullaby”.)
YES!
YOU ARE TO ME.
AND TO US.
CASEY
LA-DA-DA-DA-DA
LA–DA-DA-DAY.
(He laughs derisively.)
ROBERT
(sotto voce; trying to contain his emotions)
SKUNK! SNAKE!
ROBERT
(almost stuttering in frustration)
…I KNOW… I KNOW… I KNOW…
WHAT IS ON HIS MIND.
BASTARD!
MARGARET
(lovingly)
IT WON’T HAPPEN.
IT WON’T HAPPEN, BELIEVE ME.
BELIEVE ME!
(erupting in rage)
SON OF A WHORE!
ROBERT
(Robert paces the room, his anger at the boiling point.)
CILLA
HOW CAN YOU KNOW?
HOW CAN YOU BE SURE?
YOU CAN’T CONTROL A SNAKE IN HIS OWN
NEST.
PLEASE! DON’T WAKE THE BABY.
MARGARET
ROBERT
HIS DAUGHTER LIVES THERE TOO.
HE WILL BEHAVE.
YELLOWBELLY!
THAT SON OF A DOG!!
14
CILLA
BELIEVE HER, SON.
IT CAN’T BE FOR TOO LONG.
YOU ARE MY SHOULDER.
ROBERT
YOU ARE MY SPINE.
MARGARET
WE WILL FIND A WAY.
STAY STRONG.
MARGARET and ROBERT
(together)
YOU ARE MY COURAGE.
(moving closer to Robert)
HE IS NOT THE MASTER OF ME.
MARGARET
Standing downstage center, Robert and Margaret are
holding hands. As they sing, they gradually move
apart; by the end of the duet, they are standing at
opposite ends of the stage.
DUET:
“Love is the Only Master”
MARGARET
AND YOU ARE THE SIGN
MARGARET and ROBERT
(together)
THAT LOVE IS THE ONLY MASTER
THE HEART OBEYS;
LOVE IS THE ONLY MASTER
THAT MY HEART OBEYS.
HOLD ME.
(Evening falls as Robert leaves.)
ROBERT
(Fade to black.)
HOLD ON.
*****
MARGARET
STAY, SWEET.
Act I, scene iii:
Maplewood Plantation, in the early summer of
1858.
ROBERT
STAY STRONG.
MARGARET
BE MY MOONRISE.
ROBERT
In the candlelit parlor at Maplewood Plantation, a
wedding reception is being held to celebrate the
marriage of Caroline Gaines, Edward’s daughter, to
George Hancock. The guests – the local townspeople
whom Edward is very eager to impress – waltz to the
gentle accompaniment of a parlor piano, and enjoy
generous amounts of freely flowing champagne.
EDWARD
(to the guests)
BE MY DAWN.
PLEASE, MAY I HAVE YOUR ATTENTION?
MARGARET and ROBERT
(together)
15
THE GUESTS
(gathering around)
MISTER GAINES WANTS TO SPEAK.
GATHER ‘ROUND OUR GRACIOUS HOST.
THERE IS NOTHING SO FINE AS SEEING A
COUPLE IN LOVE!
(Arioso)
EDWARD
EDWARD
EXACTLY SO, PRECISELY SO.
AM I RIGHT, GEORGE?
GEORGE
I’M NOT SURE
THAT I DESERVE HER,
BUT I WILL SPEND MY LIFE
TRYING TO SERVE HER
AND EARN THE DEVOTION
SHE SQUANDERS ON ME.
I PROMISED CAROLINE’S MOTHER
TWO THINGS.
ONE, THAT I WOULD STAY
A WIDOWER;
TWO, THAT I WOULD SEE
TO OUR DAUGHTER’S FUTURE CARE.
CAROLINE HAS PROVEN
THE RIGHTNESS OF THOSE PROMISES.
SHE WILL INHERIT A SOUND ESTATE -WHICH, I MIGHT ADD,
HAS GROWN FROM MODEST TO GRAND.
AND HER CHOICE OF HUSBAND
IS EVERYTHING
HER MOTHER WOULD HAVE WISHED FOR…
THERE IS NOTHING SO WONDEROUS
AS BEING IN LOVE.
THE GUESTS
CAROLINE and GEORGE
…BEAUTIFUL WORDS
FROM OUR GENEROUS HOST!
THERE IS NOTHING SO WONDEROUS
AS BEING IN A MARRIAGE FOR LOVE!
EDWARD
FEMALE GUESTS
A MAN OF STATURE AND LEARNING.
A MARRIAGE FOR LOVE…
(The pompous guests blatantly examine the room’s
furnishings to judge their quality.)
MALE GUESTS
THE GUESTS
GUESTS
THERE IS NOTHING SO WONDEROUS
AS SEEING A MARRIAGE FOR LOVE.
…A MARRIAGE FOR LOVE.
THE GUESTS
EDWARD
AND HER CHOICE OF HUSBAND
IS EVERYTHING HER MOTHER WISHED FOR.
CAROLINE, MY ADORABLE CAROLINE.
GIVE YOUR FATHER
A DAUGHTER’S EMBRACE.
CAROLINE
AND YOU, FATHER?
IS HE WHAT YOU HAVE WISHED FOR ME?
(Caroline walks across the room to her father, who is
waiting with open arms. He embraces her too tightly,
however.)
16
EDWARD
CAROLINE
(lightheartedly)
OH, FATHER, I CANNOT BREATHE.
(Caroline makes light of the situation, then goes to
mingle with the guests.)
EDWARD
(warmly)
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS AN IMPOSTER,
HIDING IN DRESSES OF VERSE.
GEORGE
(emphatically)
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS A MAGICIAN,
TURNING ROSES INTO DOVES ON THE WING.
FORGIVE ME, CAROLINE;
(Upon hearing her name, Caroline turns towards her
father.)
MY ARMS ARE LIKE MY LOVE.
STRONG AND ALL EMBRACING.
EDWARD
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS AN INFANT’S HAND IN A FATHER’S GLOVE.
GEORGE
CAROLINE
(reassuringly, taking her father’s hands in hers)
NEVER MIND, FATHER.
I HAVE PROSPERED
SO MUCH IN YOUR ARMS,
I CAN NOW EMBRACE ANOTHER.
(Caroline suddenly lets go of her father’s hands, and
turns away from him to walk towards George, who is
downstage, on the other side of the room. George
embraces Caroline tenderly.)
A RAFT IN A STORMY SEA,
OFFERING RESCUE.
THE GUESTS
(eagerly joining in the fray)
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS OFTEN HARD TO EXPLAIN.
IT MAY OFFER TRUE JOY,
BUT IT CAN END IN SUCH PAIN!
GEORGE
GEORGE
(sensing that Edward feels somewhat rejected)
THERE IS NO RIVAL HERE.
LOVE DOES NOT CONQUER OR DISPOSE;
IT DOUBLES AND TRIPLES WITH USE.
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS A LIGHTHOUSE
TO GUIDE US OVER HEAVY WAVES.
EDWARD
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE IS ALWAYS
CONFUSING.
IT CAN NEVER BE AS CLEAR
AS THE EMOTION IT TRIES TO CONVEY.
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS A THIEF RESPECTING NO HOUSEHOLD,
STEALING THE LOVED ONES AWAY.
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE…
THE GUESTS
(Edward puts up his hand to interrupt George in midsentence.)
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS TOO COMPLEX TO BE KNOWN.
WHAT IS BOUGHT WITHOUT PRICE,
CAN NEVER BE OWNED!
17
EDWARD
GEORGE
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS AN IMPOSTER…
…IT’S A LIGHTHOUSE TO GUIDE US …
GEORGE
EDWARD
(definitively, ending the discussion)
…IS A MAGICIAN…
…IT’S A THIEF RESPECTING NO HOUSEHOLD,
STEALING THE LOVED ONES AWAY!
EDWARD
(Caroline returns and makes a “grand entrance,”
holding her champagne glass up high.)
…IS AN INFANT’S HAND IN A FATHER’S
GLOVE.
CAROLINE
(in a celebratory mood)
GEORGE
…TURNING ROSES INTO DOVES ON THE
WING!
THE GUESTS
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS A DANGEROUS ART.
IT CAN OPEN YOUR EYES
OR IT WILL TEAR OUT YOUR HEART!
(Embarrassed by the argument that has broken out
between her father and her new husband, Caroline
walks away. She goes over to the side table and picks
up a crystal champagne glass.)
EDWARD
(getting angry)
THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
IS AN IMPOSTER.
GEORGE
IT’S A CLIPPER SHIP
WITH ROOM AFTER ROOM
FOR DANCING
AND CAKES AND TEA AND CHAMPAGNE!
(The newlyweds Caroline and George begin the
traditional “first dance;” the others join in the waltz
one couple at a time. Ironically, only Gaines is without
a partner; he is forced to watch the festivities.)
(Margaret enters the room to bring in another tray of
glasses. Although she is dressed more nicely now, in
the uniform befitting a house servant, she acts in a
more subjugated manner. Gaines, standing alone,
quietly takes notice of her arrival.)
(The guests gradually conclude dancing. Gaines once
again plays the gracious host; he toasts the newlyweds
as Margaret serves the guests.)
EDWARD
WELL, THAT IS OUR ANSWER THEN.
CHAMPAGNE HEALS ALL WOUNDS
AND PUTS ALL ARGUMENTS TO BED.
CONGRATULATIONS, SON.
BLESSINGS, DAUGHTER.
(Margaret starts to leave the room.)
IS A MAGICIAN.
CAROLINE
(warmly)
EDWARD
IT’S AN INFANT’S HAND IN A FATHER’S
GLOVE…
MARGARET, WAIT A MOMENT.
COME TO ME.
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
18
MARGARET
(somewhat surprised)
EXCUSE ME, MA’AM?
EDWARD
CAROLINE,
YOU ARE TOO WILLFUL.
SHE CAN’T ANSWER YOU.
SHE WON’T ANSWER YOU.
CAROLINE
WHAT DO YOU THINK
ABOUT LOVE?
WE WERE DISCUSSING
THE WORDS TO DESCRIBE IT.
CAROLINE
WHY NOT?
(Arioso)
EDWARD
CHILD! DEAR CHILD!
CAROLINE
(to Margaret)
DO THEY HELP US TO LOVE?
OR HURT US BEYOND REPAIR?
(to her father)
I WANT TO KNOW -- I WANT TO KNOW -- WHAT
SHE THINKS.
SHE HAS LOVED ME
SERVED ME, TAUGHT ME
IN THESE TWO YEARS;
WATCHED OVER MY SLEEP.
WHO KNOWS BETTER THAN SHE
HOW TO SAY WHAT LOVE IS?
CAN WORDS DO IT JUSTICE, MARGARET?
ENCOURAGE ITS SUCCESS?
OR, AS MY FATHER SAYS,
IS THE LANGUAGE OF LOVE
AN IMPOSTER?
A THIEF IN THE NIGHT?
MARGARET
EDWARD
(insistent)
BEGGING YOUR PARDON, MISS CAROLINE.
MISTER GAINES IS THE EXPERT HERE.
CHILD! PLEASE, CHILD, NO MORE!
CAROLINE
THE GUESTS
(whispering)
WHAT IS ALL THIS TALK ABOUT,
TALK ABOUT?
WHAT IS ALL THIS TALK ABOUT?
OH DEAR. OH DEAR.
WE THOUGHT HE WAS QUALITY.
OH DEAR. OH DEAR.
THIS IS A MISTAKE
QUALITY FOLK WOULD NEVER MAKE!
OH DEAR. OH DEAR.
THIS IS A PROFOUND INSULT.
THIS IS A MISTAKE
QUALITY FOLK WOULD NEVER MAKE!
…HIS LOVE IS ROUGH,
WHILE YOURS IS TENDER.
EDWARD
(emphatically)
YOU SEE?
SHE HAS NOTHING TO SAY
ON THE MATTER.
LOVE IS NOT IN HER VOCABULARY.
MARGARET
(thoughtfully)
WORDS OF LOVE ARE MOTHS;
EASY FOOD FOR FLAME.
19
ACTIONS ALONE
SAY WHAT LOVE MAY BE.
CAROLINE and GEORGE
(looking into each other’s eyes)
AND MANY KINDS OF LOVERS.
EDWARD
(agitated, wild)
THE GUESTS
ENOUGH! ENOUGH!
(angrily)
WE HAVE ALL HAD ENOUGH OF THIS
NONSENSE.
I REFUSE TO HEAR A SLAVE COMMENT
ON THINGS OUTSIDE HER SCOPE.
OUR GUESTS ARE RIGHT.
HER VIEWS ARE WORTHLESS.
(to Margaret)
YOU ARE EXCUSED.
LEAVE US.
THIS IS TOO SUBTLE FOR ME.
… and me, and you…
PERHAPS IT IS TIME TO SAY GOOD NIGHT.
… good night, good night, and good night …
ARGUMENT CHILLS A PARTY.
… good night, good night, and good night…
… GOOD NIGHT!
(Margaret exits.)
(The guests leave, bowing stiffly; they disapprove of
Gaines’s behavior and act coolly towards him. He is
angered and annoyed by their early departure.)
CAROLINE
EDWARD
FATHER, YOU SHAME ME.
SHE IS AS COMPLETE A HUMAN AS YOU ARE.
FOOLS, IDIOTS.
WHAT DO THEY KNOW ABOUT “QUALITY”
FOLK?
GEORGE
(to Caroline and George, with regret)
IF SHE IS A MOTHER,
MAYBE MORE SO.
THIS WAS TO BE A PROUD MOMENT.
NOW YOU HAVE GIVEN MY NEIGHBORS
MORE REASON TO GOSSIP AND DESPISE ME.
(The parlor clock strikes 10 o’clock. A few of the
guests realize that the late hour now gives them an
alibi to leave the party.)
EDWARD
(to Caroline)
YOU DISAPPOINT ME.
HOW COULD LOVE EXIST IN A SLAVE?
PASSION, PERHAPS.
BUT HOW WOULD SHE KNOW THE
DIFFERENCE?
CAROLINE
(pleading with him to be reasonable)
THERE ARE MANY KINDS OF LOVE, FATHER.
CAROLINE
I AM SORRY, FATHER,
IF I UPSET YOU.
GEORGE
DON’T THINK US UNGRATEFUL
FOR THIS CELEBRATION.
CAROLINE and GEORGE
(together)
WE DID NOT MEAN TO BE RUDE,
ONLY TO SAY WHAT WE BELIEVE.
HONESTY SHOULD NOT OFFEND YOU.
20
EDWARD
(agitated)
MARGARET
(looking at the glass)
I AM NOT SO WEAK
AS TO BE OFFENDED BY INNOCENCE.
BUT I HAVE A REPUTATION TO MAINTAIN.
ARE THERE MANY KINDS OF LOVE?
SHOW ME EACH AND EVERY ONE.
YOU CAN’T, CAN YOU?
FOR THERE IS JUST ONE KIND.
CAROLINE
FATHER, PLEASE TRY ...
ARIA:
“A Quality Love”
MARGARET
EDWARD
…MY SWEET CAROLINE,
IT DOESN’T MATTER.
ALL IS WELL.
TAKE CARE OF YOURSELVES.
(tenderly kissing his daughter)
GOODBYE.
ONLY UNHARNESSED HEARTS
CAN SURVIVE A LOCKED-DOWN LIFE.
LIKE A RIVER RUSHING FROM THE GRIP OF
ITS BANKS,
AS LIGHT ESCAPES THE COLDEST STAR;
A QUALITY LOVE -- THE LOVE OF ALL LOVES - WILL BREAK AWAY.
(shaking George’s hand)
TAKE CARE.
WHEN SORROW CLOUDS THE MIND,
THE SPINE GROWS STRONG;
NO PRETTY WORDS CAN SOOTHE OR CURE
WHAT HEAVY HANDS CAN BREAK.
(Caroline and George leave, eager to depart on their
honeymoon. Gaines pauses, and somewhat wistfully
watches them walk away.)
WHEN SORROW IS DEEP,
THE SECRET SOUL KEEPS
ITS WEAPON OF CHOICE: THE LOVE OF ALL
LOVES.
EDWARD
(regaining his inner strength)
IT DOESN’T MATTER AT ALL.
I HAVE SUCCEEDED
JUST AS I SAID I WOULD.
ENVY IS THE TRUE PRICE OF WEALTH…
WHICH I EASILY, HAPPILY PAY.
A RICH MAN HAS MANY REMEDIES.
(Edward begins to leave, but when he notices
Margaret returning to clear the champagne glasses, he
lingers in a hiding place.)
NO PRETTY WORDS CAN EASE OR CURE
WHAT HEAVY HANDS CAN DO.
WHEN SORROW IS DEEP,
THE SECRET SOUL KEEPS ITS QUALITY LOVE.
WHEN SORROW IS DEEP,
THE SECRET SOUL KEEPS
ITS WEAPON OF CHOICE: THE LOVE OF ALL
LOVES!
(Edward slowly emerges from his hiding place and
walks towards Margaret, looking her over with
unmistakable intent. She is momentarily unaware of
his presence, however, as she is looking down at the
glass in her hand.)
EDWARD
(coolly; unintentionally startling Margaret)
(Margaret picks up a glass and holds it to the light,
peering into it
as if it were a crystal ball.)
SUCH FINE SENTIMENTS.
TOO FINE, I THINK
FOR A SLAVE.
21
(He gently takes the glass from her hand. Assuming an
air of gentility, Edward then pulls Margaret’s red scarf
out of his pocket and slowly ties it around her neck.)
CILLA
NOT YET.
BUT I HAVE MY REMEDIES.
A MAN HAS MANY REMEDIES.
(Margaret resists his advances.)
MARGARET
IS HE HERE?
HAS HE COME?
MARGARET
(agitated)
CILLA
THEY CAN NOT TOUCH
THE SECRET SOUL.
NOT YET.
BUT SOON.
EDWARD
(losing control)
(Margaret suddenly notices that Cilla is packing a
carpetbag.)
…YOUR SOUL
IS NOT ON MY MIND.
(Margaret begins to struggle vehemently. But Edward
overpowers her, and drags her forcibly out of the
parlor.)
MARGARET
(unsettled)
WHAT ARE YOU DOING?
WHERE ARE THE CHILDREN?
CILLA
(with assurance)
(The curtain falls slowly.)
End of Act One
********
INTERMISSION
MARGARET GARNER
Act II, scene i: Maplewood Plantation.
Sunday, February 24, 1861, in the early evening.
Anticipating a visit from Robert, who has been
meeting her secretly on Sunday nights, Margaret goes
to Cilla’s cabin. She is disturbed to find Casey lurking
nearby.
ROBERT IS MY SON
AND HIS WORD IS GOLD.
CALM YOURSELF.
YOUR DAUGHTER IS WITH KATE.
SO IS THE LITTLE ONE.
(Margaret begins to search the room for signs of the
children. She becomes increasingly anxious when she
realizes they are not there.)
MARGARET
(agitated)
WHY ARE YOU FOLDING THEIR CLOTHES?
YOU’RE PACKING THEM AWAY!
WHAT AREN'T YOU TELLING ME?
HAS CASEY BEEN HERE?
IS HE TAKING THEM AWAY?
CILLA
MARGARET
HAS HE COME?
MARGARET, YOU HAVE CHANGED SO.
EACH TIME YOU VISIT
I SEE LESS OF YOU
22
AND MORE OF A WET HEN.
DON'T CUT UP SO.
THE NEWS IS GOOD.
MARGARET
WHAT NEWS?
PLEASE, CILLA.
WHAT IS HAPPENING?
(Arioso)
CILLA
IT'S TIME, DARLING GIRL.
AT LAST,
THE TIME HAS COME.
THE PLAN IS SET.
THAT'S WHY YOUR HUSBAND IS LATE.
HE IS MAKING SURE
THAT ALL IS IN PLACE.
YOU'RE LEAVING TONIGHT!
MARGARET
(feigning anger at Robert)
YOU DIDN'T SAY A WORD LAST SUNDAY.
ROBERT
(taking her seriously)
I COULDN'T.
I HAD TO BE SURE.
MARGARET
(teasing)
YOU OUGHT TO TELL ME
WHAT YOU’RE DOING … SOMETIMES!
ROBERT
YOU NEED TO KEEP IT QUIET IN HERE.
MARGARET
MARGARET
SWEET JESUS!
ALRIGHT.
WHEN DO WE LEAVE?
CILLA
ROBERT
SWEETER THAN SYRUP
AND RIGHT ON TIME.
THREE HOURS FROM NOW.
MARGARET
MARGARET
SLEEP MY BABIES IN THE MEADOW
SLEEP MY BABIES IN THE HAY;
MY BABIES GOT SOME DREAMING TO DO
CAUSE FREEDOM'S ON THE WAY.
MARGARET and CILLA
(together, with joyful exuberance)
SLEEP MY BABIES IN THE MEADOW
SLEEP MY BABIES IN THE HAY;
MY BABIES GOT SOME DREAMING TO DO
CAUSE FREEDOM'S ON THE WAY.
OH LORD.
I AM GONNA CRY.
ROBERT
YOU? NOT YOU!
MY SOLDIER GIRL'S GOING TO CRY?
(Robert tries to embrace Margaret, but she pulls away,
embarrassed to show her tears.)
IT'S ALRIGHT.
IT'S ALRIGHT.
(Robert arrives, and immediately embraces Margaret.)
23
ARIETTA:
“Go Cry, Girl”
ROBERT
(tenderly)
GO CRY, GIRL
YOU HAVE WON YOUR TEARS;
GO CRY, GIRL
OBEY YOUR TENDER YEARS.
THE STRING IS CUT
THE TALE IS TOLD, I KNOW.
DON'T THINK I DON'T KNOW.
THE GATE IS OPEN
THE WAY IS CLEAR;
THE WORK IS DONE
AND THE TIME HAS COME, I KNOW.
DON'T THINK I DON'T KNOW.
(emphatically)
I AM IN CHARGE NOW.
EVERYTHING IS READY -(teasing) EXCEPT YOU.
NOW YOU HELP MAMA FINISH PACKING.
I’M GOING FOR THE CHILDREN.
(He leaves.)
(Cilla looks around the room one more time, to make
sure that all of Robert and Margaret’s belongings are
packed.)
CILLA
(locking the last bag)
ALL DONE.
I'M THROUGH.
GO CRY, GIRL
GIRL, GO CRY.
MARGARET
(Margaret feels overwhelmed with love for Robert)
WHERE ARE YOUR THINGS?
I DON'T SEE YOUR THINGS, MAMA.
MARGARET
(recovering her composure, but still anxious)
CILLA
WHERE WILL WE GO?
ROBERT
DARLING GIRL,
I AM TOO OLD TO TREAD NEW WATERS.
I AM BOUND TO STAY HERE.
(reassuringly) IT’S ALRIGHT.
MARGARET
MARGARET
MAMA!
YOU HAVE TO COME WITH US.
ARE THERE OTHERS?
ROBERT
IT’S ALRIGHT.
CILLA
MARGARET
NO, I DON'T.
YOU KNOW I WON’T.
DO WE HAVE MONEY?
WHERE WILL WE HIDE?
(Briefly overcome by painful emotions, Cilla looks
away from Margaret, who is attempting to make direct
eye contact with her mother-in-law.)
ROBERT
(Accompanied Recitative)
IT’S ALRIGHT.
SEEING YOU,
24
MY SON AND MY GRANDCHILDREN
GONE FROM THIS PLACE,
AWAY FROM SATAN'S BREATH
IS MY BLESSING.
ROBERT WILL INSIST.
DON'T MOURN ME.
WHEN MY FAMILY IS SAFE,
I WILL BE ONLY NEAR THE CROSS -NOT ON IT.
HUSH, CHILD.
HEAR ME NOW:
DON'T WASTE MUSCLE WHERE NONE IS
WANTED.
YOU WILL NEED EVERY BONE AND SINEW
PLUS YOUR MIND
TO GET AWAY FROM HERE.
FOLLOW YOUR HUSBAND.
SAVE YOUR CHILDREN, MOTHER!
ARIA:
“He is By”
CILLA
HE IS BY,
FOREVER BY ME.
IN HIS SHADOW
I WILL LINGER ON A WHILE
TIL HE CALLS ME.
CILLA
REAR UP, NOW.
HELP ROBERT WITH THE CHILDREN.
(They hear footsteps approaching the cabin.)
HERE HE COMES.
HE IS BY,
FOREVER BY ME.
NO TRUMPETS OR STREETS OF GOLD
HE WILL COME IN SILENCE
AND GATHER ME IN HIS ARMS.
HE IS BY,
FOREVER BY ME.
NO TRUMPETS OR STREETS OF GOLD
HE WILL COME IN SILENCE
AND GATHER ME IN HIS ARMS.
(Margaret and Cilla are shocked when Casey, not
Robert, storms into the cabin. Casey glances around
the cabin, then picks up one of their carpetbags and
throws it across the room.)
CASEY
PLANNING A LITTLE TRIP?
OR JUST CLEANIN’ OUT THE STY?
MARGARET
PLEASE DON'T CONFINE US
TO THE EDGE OF YOUR MIND IN SHADOW.
WE DON'T WANT TRUMPETS
OR STREETS OF GOLD.
AS WE LEAVE IN SILENCE,
GIVE US YOUR ARMS.
ROBERT
(calling from outside)
THE CHILDREN ARE COMING!
THE CHILDREN ARE …
(Upon entering the cabin, Robert halts abruptly when
he sees Casey.)
CILLA and MARGARET
(together)
CASEY
AMEN.
MARGARET
IT’LL BREAK MY HEART
KNOWING THAT YOU ARE STILL HERE.
WE CAN'T BE FREE
WITHOUT YOU.
WELL, I'LL BE. [WELL, I'LL BE.]
LOOK WHAT CRAWLED OUT OF THE WOODS.
PAPPY BEAR.
COMIN’ TO GET MAMMY BEAR
AND ALL THE LITTLE CUBS?
(to Cilla)
25
I GUESS YOU MUST BE GOLDILOCKS.
SEEMS THE PORRIDGE IS ALL ET UP.
LET ME SEE WHAT I CAN OFFER YOU.
CILLA
LAP OF GOD, ROBERT.
WHAT HAVE YOU DONE?
(pulling a pistol out of his coat)
GUN POWDER MIGHT BE A LITTLE DRY
BUT GOLDILOCKS GOT TO EAT,
DON'T SHE?
(Pointing the pistol at Cilla's mouth, Casey motions to
Robert and Margaret with his free hand.)
LET'S JUST LINE UP OVER THERE.
(Impulsively, Robert attacks Casey. A violent struggle
ensues, during which Robert manages to wrest away
Casey’s pistol. He grabs Casey from behind, yet
hesitates to shoot him.)
CASEY
YOU KILL ME,
BOTH OF US IS DEAD.
YOUR FAMILY TOO.
ROBERT
PROVED MY WORTH
AS A MAN AND YOUR SON.
CILLA
(clasping her hands)
FORGIVE HIM, FATHER.
THIS MAY BE THE END.
MARGARET
NO!
NO, WE CAN'T CHANGE WHAT IS DONE.
QUICK! ROBERT,
YOU HAVE TO RUN!
ROBERT
I CAN'T LEAVE YOU ALL HERE!
ROBERT
(livid, filled with rage)
MARGARET
AND IF YOU LIVE, WILL THEY?
TELL ME WHERE TO MEET YOU.
THEN GO!
MARGARET
DON'T KILL HIM.
HE’S ALREADY DEAD.
CASEY (to Margaret)
YOU BLACK SLUT!
DON'T YA BEG FOR ME!
ROBERT
(agitated)
THE BOTTOM...
BY THE MIMOSA.
THE GRASS IS TALL THERE.
WHEN THE MOON HITS
THE TOP OF THE PINES,
THE WAGON WILL BE THERE.
ROBERT
CILLA
DOG WITHOUT TEETH!
REMEMBER HELL?
GO HOME TO IT NOW!
HURRY, SON!
MAKE TRACKS, NOW!
WE'LL HANDLE GOD'S OUTCAST.
(Robert strangles Casey to death)
(She covers Casey’s body.)
26
ROBERT
******
MARGARET.
OH, MY SWEET, LOVING WOMAN!
Act II, scene ii:
In the Free State of Ohio, three weeks later.
MARGARET
At twilight, on an evening in late March 1861. Three
weeks have passed since Robert and Margaret
successfully escaped from Maplewood, and crossed the
frozen Ohio River on the Kentucky border to reach
Cincinnati, a city in the “Free State” of Ohio.
THE BOTTOM...
TALL GRASS...
MIMOSA...
ROBERT
BE THERE.
WHEN THE MOONLIGHT...
ROBERT and MARGARET
(together)
Robert is standing underneath a huge elm tree, near the
entrance to an underground shed where he and
Margaret, now both outlaws, are hiding with their
children in an attempt to avoid being recaptured and
returned to their masters. Glimmering hot coals can be
seen in a hole in the shed’s earthen floor.
MARGARET
(emerging from the shed)
...TOUCHES PINE.
WHAT ELSE HAVE YOU HEARD?
WHAT ARE THEY SAYING ABOUT HIM?
ROBERT
(a bit more anxious)
ROBERT
LISTEN FOR THE …
ROBERT and MARGARET
THEY SAY THIS NEW PRESIDENT
DOESN’T HISS LIKE A SNAKE;
THAT HE TALKS LIKE A MAN.
…WAGON WHEELS.
MARGARET
ROBERT
WHAT ELSE HAVE YOU HEARD?
WHAT HAS HE SAID?
WATCH FOR THE…
ROBERT
ROBERT and MARGARET
… MOONLIGHT,
WE’LL MEET YOU IN THE MOONLIGHT.
THAT A HOUSE DIVIDED
CANNOT STAND.
AND THAT THE UNION IS SACRED.
(Robert kisses her.)
MARGARET
MARGARET
GO!
(Robert runs away)
End of Act Two, Scene One
THAT MEANS WAR…
YOU BETTER MAKE YOUR SPIRIT READY,
DARLING.
OH ROBERT,
THE CHILDREN ARE TROUBLED.
THEY CRY IN THEIR SLEEP.
27
ROBERT
ROBERT
I KNOW, I KNOW…
BUT FREEDOM IS IN OUR TEETH.
IT WILL BE JUST SO.
MARGARET
MARGARET
(with hope)
TELL ME AGAIN.
WHAT IS THE NAME OF THIS PLACE?
WILL I WATCH FROM A WINDOW
OUR CHILDREN TUMBLING IN CLOVER AND
ROSEMARY?
ROBERT
ROBERT
OHIO.
IT MEANS ‘BEAUTIFUL.’
TRUST ME, MARGARET.
IT WILL BE JUST SO.
MARGARET
MARGARET
IS IT?
IS IT BEAUTIFUL?
WILL THEY SWIM IN CLEAR WATER
UNTIL THEIR SKIN GLITTERS LIKE BRASS?
TELL ME… TELL ME.
ROBERT
ROBERT
SO I HEAR.
A BEAUTIFUL PLACE FOR A FUTURE.
THEY WILL.
IT WILL BE JUST SO.
MARGARET
LOOK! DO YOU SEE THIS TREE?
HOW ITS LOWERING BRANCHES TO
PROTECT YOU
NO MATTER WHAT THE WEATHER BRINGS.
IMAGINE…
TELL ME.
TELL ME WHAT THE FUTURE WILL BE LIKE.
MARGARET
ROBERT
…THAT IS HOW IT WILL ALWAYS BE…
IT WILL BE YOU AS MY WIFE
NO OTHER MAN CAN TOUCH OR CLAIM.
IT WILL BE THE CHILDREN
SEATED, NOT BENT.
SEATED IN SCHOOL ROOMS,
NOT BENDING THROUGH ROWS OF CORN.
IT WILL BE ME PAID FOR MY LABOR
WITH COIN OF THE REALM.
MARGARET
WILL I PLANT A GARDEN?
MEND YOUR SHIRTS BY LAMPLIGHT?
ROBERT
…THAT IS HOW I WILL ALWAYS BE.
MARGARET and ROBERT
(together)
THAT IS HOW IT WILL ALWAYS BE.
ROBERT
(suddenly coming to his senses)
28
COME INSIDE.
IT’S DANGEROUS OUT HERE.
SOMEONE MIGHT SEE US.
(As they walk back to the shed, Robert puts his arm
protectively around Margaret.)
(Once inside the shed, Robert thinks he hears a group
of men approaching, and grabs his pistol. Margaret
runs to protect her children, sleeping in the corner
behind a blanket. Accompanied by a group of slave
catchers, Edward Gaines – who appears to be
somewhat intoxicated -- pounds on the shed door.)
EDWARD and SLAVE CATCHERS
EDWARD
THERE IS NOTHING YOU CAN DO.
(Gaines breaks down the shed door and fires his pistol
in the air. Robert shoots at Gaines, but misses his
target. Overpowered, Robert is knocked to the ground
and tie him up. Margaret emerges from behind the
childrens’ blanket.
Emotionally spent, she falls to her knees)
MARGARET
(grief-stricken)
NO! NO MORE!
NO! NO MORE!
(No sound is heard from inside the shed.)
(getting up from the floor)
WHY CAN’T YOU LEAVE US BE?
WHY CAN’T YOU LEAVE US ALONE?
EDWARD
EDWARD
IF BLOODSHED IS ON YOUR MIND,
DON’T WORRY.
I JUST WANT WHAT IS MINE.
LEAVE MURDERERS BE?
I OWN HIM!
I OWN YOUR CHILDREN!
I OWN YOU!
OPEN UP! OPEN UP!
EDWARD and SLAVE CATCHERS
OPEN UP! OPEN UP!
MARGARET
(pleading)
EDWARD
SOMEBODY HELP US!
PLEASE, SOMEBODY!
PLEASE, NO MORE!
NO HARM.
SLAVE CATCHERS
(Margaret weeps silently as Edward removes his hat,
overcoat, and gloves.)
NO HARM.
EDWARD
EDWARD
COME SOFTLY.
MY BED IS COLD, GIRL.
IT WANTS WARMING.
REMEMBER… REMEMBER?
SLAVE CATCHERS
(with increasing vigor and excitement)
OPEN UP! OPEN UP!
REMEMBER THE BED WARMER YOU RAN
OVER MY SHEETS?
FIRST YOU FILLED IT WITH HOT COALS AS I
RECALL...
29
MARGARET
(wildly)
HERE THEY ARE!
TAKE THEM! TAKE THEM!
(With her bare hands, Margaret grabs some coal out
of the smoldering fire and lunges at Gaines, attempting
to burn him. He manages to grasp her wrists, and
forces her to drop the coals. He notices that her hands
have been scorched.)
ROBERT
MARGARET! MARGARET!
I LOVE YOU!
I LOVE . . .
(The box on which Robert is standing is kicked away;
he dies instantly.)
MARGARET
NEVER TO BE BORN AGAIN INTO SLAVERY!
EDWARD
PRETEND TO BE CRAZY AS MUCH AS YOU
LIKE.
(Margaret violently attacks and murders her two
children: first slitting the throat of her daughter, then
stabbing the younger one.)
(derisively)
MANGLE YOURSELF, I DON’T CARE.
(Horrified, Gaines and his men surround Margaret,
who has collapsed.)
EDWARD
End of Act Two, Scene Two
CASEY WAS NOT ENOUGH?
WILL YOU KILL ME TOO?
OH NO, MY LITTLE CROW.
*****
(A slave catcher returns to the shed.)
Act II
INTERMEZZO
SLAVE CATCHER
Total darkness envelops the stage. Gradually, the
image of Margaret, alone, becomes visible. Her state
of mind is changing; the intense isolation she feels in
this moment “out of time” is mirrored by the
dislocating blackness that surrounds her.
HE’S BOUND AND READY, SIR.
MARGARET
DAMN YOUR MARBLE EYES,
DAMN YOUR SLITHERING SOUL!
YOUR MISERABLE, PUTRID HEART.
EDWARD
(to the slave catcher)
TAKE THE YOUNG ONES TO THE WAGON.
THEN LIGHT THE FIRE.
THE NIGHT IS COLD
AND PROMISES TO BE LONG.
(In the dim light, Robert can be seen standing outside
on a tall box underneath the tree; a noose is hanging
around his neck. One by one, the slave catchers plant
their torches in the ground, surrounding the
condemned man with fire.)
MARGARET
(consoling herself)
AH . . .
LIKE A RIVER RUSHING
FROM THE GRIP OF ITS BANKS.
(With defiant grandeur, Margaret embraces her life’s
circumstances.)
DARKNESS, I SALUTE YOU.
REASON HAS NO POWER HERE,
OVER THE DISCONSOLATE.
GRIEF IS MY PLEASURE;
THEIF OF LIFE, MY LOVER NOW.
(with quite acceptance)
DARKNESS, I SALUTE YOU.
(fade to black)
30
*****
EDWARD
(looking at Margaret)
RUINED. USELESS.
Act II, scene iii:
In a courtroom, in early April 1861.
JUDGES
ACT II, scene iv:
in a Courtroom, the next day.
HOW DID THEY COME TO BE RUINED?
Having followed the trial of Margaret Garner with
great interest and curiosity, the townspeople fill the
local courtroom in eager anticipation of her
sentencing by the three presiding judges. Margaret
sits in court surrounded by militia officers; Caroline,
George, and Edward deliver final testimony.
EDWARD
THE ACCUSED DESTROYED THEM, YOUR
HONORS.
JUDGES
JUDGES
BY ACCIDENT OR DELIBERATELY?
WHAT IS THE CHARGE?
EDWARD
EDWARD
DELIBERATELY.
THEFT, YOUR HONORS.
JUDGES
JUDGES
DESCRIBE, PLEASE, THE DESTROYED GOODS.
AND THE VALUE OF THE THEFT?
EDWARD
EDWARD
HUNDREDS, YOUR HONORS.
HUNDREDS OF DOLLARS LOST.
JUDGES
CHILDREN, SIRS.
TWO CHILDREN, BOTH MINE.
I MEAN, BOTH MY PROPERTY.
CAROLINE
(in an aside to Gaines)
HAVE THE STOLEN GOODS BEEN FOUND?
FATHER, THIS IS MADNESS.
EDWARD
EDWARD
(retorting loudly, embarrassing Caroline)
THEY HAVE, SIR.
MADNESS, YES –
HERS, NOT MINE.
JUDGES
AND WHAT IS THE CONDITION OF THESE
GOODS?
CAROLINE AND GEORGE
(pleading)
ALL THE MORE REASON TO SPARE HER.
31
CAROLINE
JUDGE II
YOUR HONORS, MAY I SPEAK?
ORDER IN THE COURT! . . .
(The judges nod their consent.)
JUDGE III
(emphatically)
THE CHARGE IS FALSE.
NOT THEFT, BUT MURDER
IT SHOULD BE.
. . . ORDER IN THE COURT!
ORDER IN THE NAME OF THE LAW OF THIS
COUNTRY!
JUDGES
(Silence suddenly fills the courtroom.)
THAT IS A VERY DIFFERENT MATTER,
YET IT COMES TO THE SAME THING.
CAROLINE
(quietly, with respect but also conviction)
THE ISSUE BEFORE US
IS OF PROPERTY...
A FINANCIAL LOSS ...
NOT A DEBATE ABOUT THE HUMAN SOUL.
SHE BORE THEM, YOUR HONORS.
THEY ARE HERS UNTIL THEY COME OF AGE.
SHE IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR LIVES.
CAROLINE and GEORGE
(together)
RESPECTFULLY, WE BEG TO DIFFER.
A MOTHER WHO KILLS HER CHILDREN
CANNOT BE SAID TO STEAL THEM.
EDWARD
(interrupting angrily)
THEY DID NOT BELONG TO HER.
SHE HAS NO RIGHT TO THEM,
LIVING OR DEAD . . .
LIVING OR DEAD.
IT IS CLEAR IN OUR SYSTEM
SHE OWNS NOTHING -LEAST OF ALL MY SLAVES.
JUDGES
(sarcastically)
WHERE HAVE YOU BEEN, MADAM?
ON AN ISLAND IN THE SEA?
YOU ARE SPEAKING OF A SLAVE,
NOT SOMEONE LIKE YOU OR ME.
THE LAW IS CLEAR
IN THE BIBLE AND HERE.
SLAVERY IS NOT A MATTER
FOR A SLAVE TO JUDGE.
TOWNSPEOPLE
SLAVERY IS NOT A MATTER
FOR A SLAVE TO JUDGE.
CAROLINE
TOWNSPEOPLE
(assertively)
FATHER,
MARGARET IS OF NO VALUE TO YOU,
(looking at Margaret) OR ANYONE.
YES! YES!
LISTEN TO HIM.
HE IS RIGHT!
HE HAS THE RIGHT IDEA.
SHE WAS MORE THAN A MOTHER TO ME.
NOW HER SILENCE SCREAMS A GRIEF
WE DARE NOT KNOW.
JUDGE I
(with authority)
EDWARD
(to himself)
ORDER IN THE COURT! . . .
I HAVE COMMITTED NO CRIME.
32
CAROLINE
BUT YOU CAN HELP CHANGE THE DEBATE
RAGING THE LAND.
SHE IS NOT LIKE YOU OR ME!
AND SHE IS NOT …LIKE YOU …OR ME!
BOUND AND MADE READY
BOUND AND MADE READY
BOUND AND READY FOR EXECUTION.
JUDGES
THE LAW IS CLEAR
IN THE BIBLE AND HERE.
EDWARD
(to Caroline and George)
MARGARET
(quietly, to herself)
I AM NOT LIKE YOU.
I AM ME.
I HAVE COMMITTED NO CRIME.
TOWNSPEOPLE
(to one another)
CAROLINE
SHE IS NOT LIKE YOU OR ME . . .
LET THE CHARGE REFLECT
OUR CRIMES AS WELL AS HERS.
(Margaret suddenly rises from her chair, and glances
around the courtroom, glaring at the onlookers.)
EDWARD
MARGARET
(emphatically)
I HAVE COMMITTED NO CRIME.
I AM NOT LIKE YOU.
I AM ME!
JUDGES
HE HAS COMMITTED NO CRIME.
THE LAW IS CLEAR
IN THE BIBLE AND HERE.
WE DO NOT MAKE LAWS
OR FORSAKE LAWS,
WE FOLLOW THEM PRECISELY.
THE CHARGE IS THEFT,
THE SENTENCE IS JUST:
THIS ONE WILL BE
MADE READY FOR EXECUTION.
(While the judges confer with one another, Caroline
pleads with her father to intervene and have the verdict
overturned)
Judges
(to Margaret)
SILENCE!
YOU HAVE NO AUTHORITY.
MARGARET
(to the judges; refusing to sit down)
YOU HAVE NO AUTHORITY.
I AM NOT LIKE YOU.
(defiantly) I AM ME!
I AM ME!
I AM!
(the militia officers restrain Margaret)
TOWNSPEOPLE
(relieved)
TOWNSPEOPLE
BOUND AND MADE READY
BOUND AND MADE READY
BOUND AND READY FOR EXECUTION.
BOUND AND MADE READY
BOUND AND MADE READY . . .
33
JUDGE III
(pointedly, looking directly at Margaret)
I ORDER YOU
IN THE NAME OF THE LAW OF THIS LAND
TO BE EXECUTED
BY SUNRISE TOMORROW!
(he bangs his gavel resolutely; the three judges
immediately recess to their chambers)
CAROLINE
WE ARE SO AT ODDS
IN THESE PAST FEW YEARS.
OUR LAND WILL NOT SURVIVE
THIS VIOLENT TEST.
EDWARD
DAUGHTER, ARE YOU THREATENING ME?
TOWNSPEOPLE
(reassured)
CAROLINE and GEORGE
SHE IS NOT LIKE YOU OR ME
SHE IS NOT LIKE YOU OR ME…
NO. NO.
WE ARE BEGGING YOU.
(Margaret is led away; the townspeople file out of the
courtroom)
CAROLINE
CAROLINE
(dismayed by the verdict)
FATHER,
YOU MUST URGE CLEMENCY
FROM THE COURT.
THEY WILL HEAR YOU.
THEY WILL LISTEN TO YOU.
DON’T FAIL ME.
IT IS ALL IN YOUR HANDS.
(Edward turns away as George and Caroline start to
leave the courtroom. Caroline looks back at her father,
then impulsively runs to him. She takes his hands, and
presses one against her cheek, kissing his palm.)
(Caroline and George exit.)
GEORGE
DON’T LET HER DIE
WITHOUT DIGNITY.
DON’T LET HER HANG
FOR THE WRONG REASON.
(alone in the courtroom, Edward contemplates the
course of his life.)
Arioso
EDWARD
(examining his hands)
Edward
(disturbed, but betraying no sign of emotion)
SHE MUST SUFFER THE CONSEQUENCES
OF WHAT SHE HAS DONE.
CAROLINE and GEORGE
AND SO MUST YOU.
EDWARD
(angrily)
NOTHING. I SEE NOTHING AT ALL.
NO WOUND, NO RASH.
YET THEY BURN.
WHAT LIGHTS THE FLAME?
IS IT CAROLINE’S KISS,
OR MARGARET’S COALS OF FIRE?
(Edward steps forward a few feet – thereby ‘leaving’
the courtroom – and moves
to a dimly-lit area of the stage)
(dismissing any such questions)
MEANING WHAT, EXACTLY?
34
DAMN IT TO HELL!
I AM APPROVED.
CLEARLY WHAT THE WORLD INSISTS
I SHOULD BE.
LAW AND CUSTOM ENDORSE ME.
somberly into the town square at Richwood Station.
Great sorrow fills the air, for they are accompanying
Margaret Garner to her execution. All are sobered by
the imminence of death. Seemingly, the only person
not in the crowded plaza is Edward Gaines.)
(reconsidering)
(The hangman brings forth the condemned prisoner.
Margaret’s hands, bandaged from the burns she
received from the hot coals, have not yet been tied up
in preparation for execution)
YET MY ONLY CHILD
LOOKS AT ME WITH STRANGE EYES;
COLD APPRAISAL WHERE NAKED ADORATION
USED TO LIVE.
(aggressively)
AM I NOT A LEGAL MAN?
GOD’S BLUEPRINT,
FLAWED IN MERELY ORDINARY WAYS?
(Margaret is led up the scaffold steps. When she
reaches the top of the platform, the hangman places a
noose around her neck and positions her on the
gallows’ trap door. Scattered about are a number of
ropes, which will be used to secure her limbs tightly.)
(Edward Gaines runs in, excitedly waving a document)
(assuming an aristocratic air)
EDWARD
HATS STILL TIP,
GENTLEWOMEN DIP THEIR HEADS
COURTEOUSLY TO ME.
HOLD ON! HOLD ON!
I’M TELLING YOU TO HOLD ON.
THE JUDGES HAVE GRANTED CLEMENCY…
(introspectively)
(in a pointed aside to George and Caroline)
AND YET. AND YET.
THEY SEAR LIKE MOLTEN LEAD.
(inwardly, glancing at his hands)
LOOK AT THEM. LOOK AT THEM!
(upon reflection)
IF THE FLAW IS IN THE BLUEPRINT
WHY MUST I CHOOSE?
IF THE FLAW IS IN THE BLUEPRINT -THEN I MUST CHOOSE.
(the lights dim slowly)
*********
ACT II, Scene 4:
In the town square of Richwood Station, Kentucky;
The next morning, at dawn.
CLEMENCY.
(looking around at the faces in the crowd, seeking
some sign of approval or acknowledgement of his
beneficence)
AND IF THE GUILTY PARTY REPENTS
HER MONSTROUS CRIME,
SHE WILL BE REMANDED
TO MY CUSTODY.
(Upon hearing the stay of execution – which eliminates
the need for him to bind the prisoner’s body -- the
hangman leaves Margaret’s side and walks over to the
edge of the gallows platform to accept the legal
document from Edward)
CAROLINE and GEORGE
(together)
THANK GOD. THANK YOU.
(overjoyed and relieved, Caroline embraces her father.
George shakes Edward’s hand)
(A group of local citizens -- including the town
authorities; Caroline and George; and Cilla, as well
as some slaves from nearby plantations -- processes
35
CILLA
(stepping forward, thrilled)
*****
EPILOGUE
THANK YOU, SWEET JESUS.
(to Margaret)
DO YOU HEAR THAT?
YOU WILL LIVE, DAUGHTER.
PRAISE MY MAKER,
YOU WILL LIVE, MY ANGEL.
MARGARET
(in a state of transcendence)
OH YES. I WILL LIVE.
I WILL LIVE.
I WILL LIVE AMONG THE CHERISHED.
IT WILL BE JUST SO.
SIDE BY SIDE IN OUR GARDEN
IT WILL BE JUST SO.
RINGED BY A HARVEST OF LOVE.
NO MORE BRUTAL DAYS OR NIGHTS.
(The hangman unties the noose around Margaret’s
neck, and holds her in his arms before the townspeople
and slaves. The light begins to dim; eventually, all that
is visible is Margaret’s body, which seems to float
alone and above the crowd.)
ALL
SWEET JESUS,
HELP US BREAK THROUGH THE NIGHT.
THE TOWNSPEOPLE
(white chorus, Caroline and George)
CHASTENED BY THY HOLY MIGHT,
THE SLAVES
(including Cilla)
(making eye contact with Cilla in the crowd)
GOODBYE, SORROW…
DEATH IS DEAD FOREVER.
I LIVE.
OH YES, I LIVE!
(While the crowd’s attention is focused elsewhere,
Margaret deliberately trips the trap door’s lever and
hangs herself. Startled by the onlooker’s screams, the
hangman quickly turns around and is shocked to see
Margaret’s limp body dangling just inches off the
ground. He rushes over in a
futile attempt to save her.)
GUIDED BY THY HOLY LIGHT
INTO THY BLESSED SIGHT.
ALL
(but Cilla)
HAVE MERCY. HAVE MERCY ON US.
HELP US BREAK THROUGH THE NIGHT.
CILLA
CILLA
SOON, SOON MY BOLD-HEARTED GIRL
I’LL BE THERE. I’LL BE THERE.
MARGARET… NO!
MARGARET!
DEAR GOD, NO MORE.
THE SLAVES
(without Cilla)
(Caroilne notices Margaret’s scarf in her father’s front
pocket. She removes, it, silently ascends the scaffold,
and reverently ties it around Margaret’s waist.)
EDWARD
(stunned; looking at his hands)
NO BREEZE, NO COOL STREAM
CALMS THESE PALMS.
UNHEALED, THERE IS NO PEACE.
(He walks away.)
BREAK THROUGH THE NIGHT,
BREAK THROUGH THE NIGHT;
LET HER LINGER A WHILE
AND RIDE THE LIGHT,
AND RIDE THE LIGHT.
(the curtain descends slowly)
********
END OF OPERA
36
Massimo Malavasi
Italia, Novi di Modena
Concerto Per Pianoforte e Orchestra N°1 (op. 5a)
About the artist
Pianist and composer.
A Composition and Piano graduate.
Alongside a very productive compositional activity, he has had an equally intense concert, didactic, musical
arranger, and choir director activity.
He has received rewards and distinctions in Italian and international composition competitions.
With the formation of the group Armonya Nova he has recorded the cd Armonya Nova Gospel.
Among his compositions: the Regina Nivis Mass, the Christmas Oratory The Stone and the Light and the
Oratory of Passion, only for, choir and orchestra, the operas Other Lives and Fragments The musicals Look,
Gramigna's Lover the Saint of Arra The Canterville Ghost "The Angel of Hell's Kitchen","Nix", NIX had an
Equity Showcase production at Planet Connections Theatre Festivity in NYC, and was nominated for 8
Outstanding Awards, including Outstanding Production, Outstanding Music & Lyrics and Outstanding Book
of a Musi... (more online)
Associate:
SIAE
Artist page :
https://www.free-scores.com/Download-PDF-Sheet-Music-massimo-malavasi.htm
About the piece
Title:
Composer:
Copyright:
Instrumentation:
Style:
Concerto Per Pianoforte e Orchestra N°1 [op. 5a]
Malavasi, Massimo
Malavasi Massimo © All right reserved
Piano and Orchestra
Modern classical
Massimo Malavasi on free-scores.com
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Prohibited distribution on other website.
First added the : 2011-11-14
Last update : 2019-06-14 13:38:16
Suite de ballet sur un conte chinois
Introduction
Claude Torrent
adagio
Piccolo
Flûte
Hautbois
Clarinette en Si bémol
Cor anglais
Basson
Cor en Fa 1
Cor en Fa 2
Trompette en Do
Trombone ténor
Trombone basse
Violon I
Violon II
Alto
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Suite de ballet sur un conte chinois
2
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Suite de ballet sur un conte chinois
15
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Suite de ballet sur un conte chinois
4
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b
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ã
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Trombone basse
Contrebasse
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3
∑
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Violoncelle
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J œ œœ J
J
3
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Trombone ténor
Alto
œ œ œ œ.
‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
&b c
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‰
œ
& c ‰œ
Trompette en Do
Violon I
‰ Œ Œ
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J
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J œJ J
Œ
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2
8
Picc.
&b
∑
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˙
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&
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b
Bsn.
8
‰ # # œœ
Cor 1
&
Cor 2
&
Tpt. Do
&b
Tbn. T.
Tbn. B.
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?
b ‰
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b œ
‰
# n œœ
‰
∑
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J
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nœ #œ
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∑
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∑
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∑
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∑
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∑
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>
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>
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>
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‰
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8
∑
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&b ‰
Cb.
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∑
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nœ œ #œ œ œ œ ˙
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∑
∑
Vln. II
Vc.
∑
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‰ œœ ‰ œ ‰ œ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ. # œœ œ œ
. œ. œ. œ.
&b
alt.
∑
∑
Vln. I
8
∑
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Œ
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..
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>
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>
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Œ
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Trgl.
ã
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ã
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8
Hp.
8
Timb.
8
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Hb.
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&
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∑
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#
b
15
Cor 1
&
Cor 2
&
Tpt. Do
Tbn. T.
Tbn. B.
. .
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# œ. œ œœ œ
. . .
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b
&b
Vln. II
&b
15
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J œ ‰
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˙
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∑
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∑
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15
15
‰ œ.
‰ œ.
15
Trgl.
ã
∑
∑
∑
∑
Gong
ã
∑
∑
∑
∑
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J
‰
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#œ
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Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
˙
˙
∑
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J
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∑
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∑
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J
∑
B
&b
15
‰ œ.
œ œ
J J œ.
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?b
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J
‰
‰ œ‰ œ ‰œ‰
∑
Cb.
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J J œ.
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J
∑
∑
Œ #œ Œ
Timb.
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J œ œœ J
J
3
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J
?b œ
Hp.
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‰
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
Vc.
Cél.
‰ œœ
& b œœ. œœ. œœ. œœ œœ # œœ œ œ
. . . œ. œ. œ.
?
∑
b
Vln. I
alt.
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J
Œ
3
∑
3
‰ Œ
œ œ œ œ.
∑
Picc.
‰
œ œ œ œ.
&b
15
∑
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
w
w
4
22
Picc.
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Fl.
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Hb.
&b
∑
Cl. Sib
&
∑
Cor. an.
&
Bsn.
?
#
b
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œ
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∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
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. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ
œ
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Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
w
w
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∑
∑
∑
∑
œ . œ œœ œ œœ
œ œœ
œ
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. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
œ
˙
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∑
∑
∑
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. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
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œ
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Cor 1
&
∑
œ œœ
œ
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Cor 2
&
∑
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Tpt. Do
&b
∑
Œ
Œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
∑
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
b
œ
œ
œ
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Œ
?
œ
œ
œ
œ
b
∑
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
22
Vln. I
&b
∑
Vln. II
&b
∑
œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ. œ œ œ .
œ
alt.
Bb
∑
Vc.
?b
∑
Cb.
?b
∑
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
22
Tbn. T.
Tbn. B.
?
22
Cél.
22
Hp.
?b œ
22
Timb.
œ. #œ œ
Œ
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∑
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
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Œ
Œ
œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ. œ œ œ .
œ
œ. #œ œ
œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ. œ œ œ œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œœœœœœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
22
Trgl.
ã
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Gong
ã
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
˙
˙
∑
∑
&b
29
Picc.
Fl.
Hb.
5
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
w
&b w
‰
& b œ . œ œœ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ œ ˙
#œ
œ. #œ
Cl. Sib
&
Cor. an.
&
Bsn.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
w
w
#
∑
∑
∑
∑
? œ . œ œ œ œœ . œ œ œ œœ . œ œ œ ˙
b
œ
œ
œ
p
œ œ œJ
∑
œ œ œJ
Œ
‰
‰
œ œ œJ
∑
‰ œœ œ Œ
J
p
#˙
p
∑
œ œ œJ
Œ
∑
‰
œœ
‰œ JŒ
∑
œ œ œJ ‰
˙
œœ œ
J‰
œ œ œJ ‰
˙
‰ œ œ œj Œ
j
œœ œ ‰
œ
œ œ œj ‰ ‰ œ œ J Œ
∑
∑
jŒ
#œ œ œ
œ
œ œ œj ‰ ‰ œ œ J Œ
‰
˙
˙
#˙
∑
‰ # œ œ œJ Œ
∑
‰ œœ œ Œ
J
#˙
∑
#œ
œ
#˙
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Cor 1
&
œ œœ
œœ .. # œœ œœ œœ œ .. œ œ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ # œœ ˙
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Cor 2
&
Œ
œ Œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ œœ
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
œ
&b œ
œ
? œ
b
Œ œ
œ
œ
Œ œ
Œ
Œ
∑
∑
∑
∑
Œ
œ Œ
œ
œ
œ Œ
∑
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
? œ
b
Œ œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ Œ
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
œ. œ #œ œ œ. œ œ
29
Tpt. Do
Tbn. T.
Tbn. B.
& b œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ ˙
29
Vln. I
Vln. II
&b
alt.
Bb
Vc.
?b œ
Cb.
?b œ
œ. #œ œ
œ. œ œ œ œ
œ
œ
œ
˙
œ
œ
œ
˙
œ œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ œ #œ. œ œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ œ. œ œ
œ #œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
œ
#œ
œ
œ
œ
#œ
œ
œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ
œ
œ
#œ
œ
#œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
29
Trgl.
ã
Gong
ã
œ œœœœ œœ œœ œ œ œœœœ
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
˙
˙
∑
∑
œ
œ œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ
∑
?b œ
˙
œ. œ #œ œ œ. œ œ
œ
‰
œ œ œJ ‰
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ
∑
29
Timb.
œ œ
˙
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ
∑
29
Hp.
œ œ
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ
œ
&b
29
Cél.
œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ #œ ˙
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ
œ œ œJ
œ
œ
6
&b
∑
36
Picc.
Fl.
&b ‰
Hb.
&b
Cl. Sib
&
Cor. an.
& #˙
Bsn.
?
œ œ œJ
œ œ œJ
Œ
‰
œ œ
‰ œ J Œ
∑
∑
œœ œ
J ‰
‰ # œ œ œJ Œ
∑
# ‰ œ œ Œ
œ J
œ œ œJ ‰
˙
b
∑
∑
‰ œ œ œj Œ
j
œœ œ ‰
˙
#˙
œ œ
J
‰
jŒ
#œ œ œ
j
œ œ
˙
#˙
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
œ œœ
œ
œœ .. # œœ œœ œœ œ .. œ œ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ # œœ œ œœ œœ œœ œ
∑
∑
∑
∑
œ . œ œœ œ œœ
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ
œ
Cor 1
&
∑
∑
∑
œ œœ
œ
œœ .. # œœ œœ œœ œ .. œ œ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ # œœ œ œœ œœ œœ œ
Cor 2
&
∑
∑
∑
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Tpt. Do
&b
∑
∑
∑
Œ
∑
∑
Œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
∑
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
b
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
?
œ
œ
œ
œ
b
∑
∑
∑
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
36
Tbn. T.
Tbn. B.
?
& b œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
36
Vln. I
Vln. II
alt.
Vc.
Cb.
& b œ. œ œ œ œ. œ
?b œ
Timb.
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
#œ
œ
œ
œ
#œ
œ
œ
œ. œ #œ œ ˙
œ
#œ
˙
œ
#œ
˙
∑
∑
œ . œ œœ œ œœ
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
œ œ œ ˙
œ œœ
œœ .. # œœ œœ œœ œ .. œ œ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ # œœ ˙
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ. œ œ œ .
œ
œ. #œ œ
œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ. œ œ œ œ
∑
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
œ. #œ œ
œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ #œ ˙
œ. œ œ œ œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
˙
œ
œ
œ
˙
œ
œ
œ
˙
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
36
?b
∑
∑
Ó
Œ
œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
œ. œ œ œ .
˙
∑
36
Hp.
œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
∑
&b
36
Cél.
œ
œ. œ #œ œ ˙
œ
œ œ #œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ #œ. œ œ œ ˙
B b œ. œ œ œ œ.
œ œ œ
?b œ
œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
œ œœ
œœ .. # œœ œœ œœ œ .. œ œ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ # œœ ˙
œœ œœ œ œ œœœœ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœœ œœ œ œ œ œ œœœœ
36
Trgl.
ã
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Gong
ã
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
&b
43
Picc.
Fl.
Hb.
& b œ . œ œœ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ œ œ œ œœ œœ œœ
#œ œ
œ. #œ
&
Cor. an.
&
#
∑
∑
∑
∑
? œ . œ œ œ œœ . œ œ œ œœ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
b
œ
œ
œ
œ
Cor 1
&
œ œœ
œ
œœ .. # œœ œœ œœ œ .. œ œ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ # œœ œ œœ œœ œœ œ
Cor 2
&
Œ
œ Œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
&b œ
œ
? œ
b
Œ œ
œ
œ
Œ œ
Œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
? œ
b
Œ œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
43
Tpt. Do
Tbn. T.
Tbn. B.
∑
∑
œœ œœ
J
∑
∑
‰ œ.
œ . œ œœ œ œœ
j
œ œ
œ.
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
˙
œ œ œ
œ œœ
œœ .. # œœ œœ œœ œ .. œ œ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ # œœ ˙
Œ
œœ œœ œœ œ
J œ
œœ œœ
JŒ
Œ
‰
œ
œœ œœJ œ
J
œœ œ ‰ œœ
J œ œœ
œ
œœ œœ œœ œ
œœ œ
J œ œœ J
J
‰ œ.
‰ œ.
j
j
œ œ
œ œ .œj
œ
œ. ‰ .
‰
3
‰
Œ
Œ
œœ œœ ˙˙
œœ œœ
JŒ
œœ œœ ˙˙
∑
œœ œœ # œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œ œ
J œ œJ
œœ
œœ
J
‰ # œ œ œJ Œ
‰ œ.
j
j
œ œœ. j
œ œ
œ
.
‰
‰
‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
‰ œœ
‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ # œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
œ ‰
œ
œ‰
œ
œ ‰œ‰ œ ‰
œ œ œ
œ‰
œ
œ ‰œ‰ œ
œ œ œ
œœ
œ
‰œ
œœ œœ
‰
œœ
œ
‰œ
œœ œœ
‰
œ
œ
Œ œ
œ
œ
Œ œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
Œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
Œ
‰
Œ
œ
Œ œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ
Œ
œ ‰
œ‰
œ ‰œ‰ œ ‰
œ‰
œ ‰œ‰ œ
œ œœ
œ
œ. œ œ œ . œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ.
œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ. #œ œ
œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ #œ ˙
œ. #œ œ
œ
œœ
JŒ
œœ
JŒ
œœ
J
œ
œœŒ
J
œœ
œ
J œ ‰
Bb
Vc.
?b œ
Cb.
?b œ
œ. œ œ œ œ
œ œ
œ œ
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
œ. œ œ œ œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ
œ œ
. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ
˙
j j
œ œ œ j
œ
∑
‰ œœ
Œ
alt.
∑
‰ œœ
œ
œ
œ œ
J
˙
‰
& ‰
œ
œ
œ
˙
œ œ
J
œ
œ
œ
˙
œ.
∑
‰
œœœ
J œ
œ
J
‰
‰
œ
œ œJ
J
œœ ‰ œ
J œ
œ œ.
J
œ.
œ œ
J
‰ œ.
∑
‰
œœ˙
œœŒ
J
œ
J
‰
‰
œ.
∑
# œœ ‰ œœ
‰ # œ œ œJ Œ
œ
J
‰
œ
œ
œ œJ œ œj
J
∑
œ œœ œ œœœ
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b œ
43
Trgl.
ã
Gong
ã
œ œœœœ œœ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œ œœœœ œœ œ œ œ œ œœœœ
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
˙
˙
˙
˙
∑
∑
∑
∑
œœ
J œ
∑
∑
43
œœ ‰ œœ
‰ œ‰ œ ‰œ‰
∑
43
‰
œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ j
J
œ
œœ
J
œ œ.
J
‰ œ‰ œ ‰œ‰
œ œ œ
&b
43
œœ
J œ
œœ œœ œ œœ œœ œœ œœ œ œ
#œ
J œ œJ
Œ
&b
Timb.
‰ œœ
œ œœ
œœ .. # œœ œœ œœ œ .. œ œ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ # œœ ˙
‰
7
œ
œ
Vln. II
Hp.
œœ œœ
J
3
œ œ œ œ.
œ Œ
œ
&b
43
œ œ œ œ.
Œ
Vln. I
Cél.
‰
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
w
w
w
&b w
Cl. Sib
Bsn.
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
w
w
w
w
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
˙
∑
8
&b
∑
50
Picc.
Fl.
Hb.
œ
& b ‰ #œœ J Œ
&
Cor. an.
&
?
# œœ œœ # œœ œœ œœ œœ ˙˙
œ œ œ œ.
œœ œœ
J
œœ œ œ œ œœ œ
& b œ # œ œ œ ˙˙
Cl. Sib
Bsn.
‰
œœ
J
∑
‰ œœ
œœ œœ
J
‰ Œ Œ
œ œ œ œ.
œœ œœ œœ œ
œœ œœ
J œ œœ J
J
3
œœ œœ
JŒ
œœ œ ‰ œœ
J œ œœ
œ
œœ œœ œœ œ
œœ œ
J œ œœ J
J
‰ œ.
‰ œ.
j
œœ
œ.
j œ
j
œ˙
b œ
∑
‰
‰ Œ Œ
œœ œœ
JŒ
œœ œœ ˙˙
‰ œ.
j
j
œœ
œ œ .œj
œ
œ. ‰ .
‰
∑
∑
n œ œœ # œ # œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œ n œ œœ # œ # œœ œœ œœ ˙
œ œ
˙
J œJ œ œ
œœ œœ ˙˙
3
œ # œ # œJ Œ œ œ œ ‰ œ # œ # œJ Œ œJ œ
J
œ
œ
# œœ œœ # œœ # œœ œœ œ œ œœ œœ # œœ œœ # œœ # œœ œœ œœ ˙˙
J J
œœ
œœ
J
‰
‰ œ.
j
nœ #œ
œ œœ. j
œ. ‰ J
‰
∑
œœ
nœ
œ J œJ J # œ
J
Cor 1
&
‰ # œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ # # œœ
œ œ
‰ œœ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ # # œœ
Cor 2
&
œ‰ œ ‰œ‰ œ ‰
œ œ œ œ
œ‰ œ ‰œ‰ œ
œ œ œ œ
‰
œ‰œ‰œ‰ œ
œ œ œ œ
Tpt. Do
&b
‰
‰ ‰
œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œœ
œ
œ œ œ
œ
‰œ
œ
‰œ
# n œœ
50
Tbn. T.
Tbn. B.
?
b ‰
Vln. II
alt.
Vc.
Cb.
&b
&b
‰
?b œ œ
J
?b
œœ
J
œœ
J
∑
œ˙
J
∑
&b
œ œ œœœ œ
#œ
?b
∑
œœœ
œœ
J œ œJ J
œœ
JŒ
‰œ
œœŒ
J
œœ
J
‰
œœ
œ‰ œ ‰œ‰ œ ‰
œ
‰
‰
œœ œœ
‰
œœ
œ
J œ ‰
œœ ‰ œ
J œ
œ œ
J J œ.
œ.
‰ œ.
œœ
J
∑
‰
œœ œœ
‰
‰
œ‰ œ ‰œ‰ œ
œœŒ
J
œœ
J
‰ œ.
‰
œœ
J
œ œ
J J œ.
‰ œ.
œ œœ œœ
# n œœ
‰œ ‰
‰
‰
œ‰œ‰œ‰ œ
‰
œ # œ # œJ Œ œ œ ‰
J œ
nœ #œ
J
‰
nœ #œ
∑
œ˙
J
∑
œ
œ œ œ œ œ nœ
#œ
∑
∑
∑
∑
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
∑
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
∑
œ œ ....
‰ œœ ‰ œ ‰ œ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ. # œœ œ œ
. œ. œ. œ.
∑
∑
∑
∑
œœ œœ œœ œ œ œ
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. . .
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
œ ‰ œ‰ œ‰
œ œ œ
œ œœ œœ
‰œ ‰
‰
œ ‰ œ‰ œ‰
œ # œ # œJ Œ œJ œ
œœ
nœ
œ J œJ J # œ
J
∑
∑
nœ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ #œ œ œ œ ˙
J J
œœ˙
œœ
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‰
∑
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J
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œ
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œ
>
œ
>
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œ
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Œ
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œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
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œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Œ #œ Œ
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
∑
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∑
∑
∑
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∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
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50
Timb.
œœ ‰ œœ
œ œ œœ œ œ ˙
50
Hp.
‰
œ
& b ‰ #œœ J Œ
50
Cél.
# œœ ‰ œœ
œœ
? #œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰
b
50
Vln. I
∑
‰
∑
∑
50
Trgl.
ã
Gong
ã
~~~
˙
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Fl.
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Hb.
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Cl. Sib
&
∑
∑
∑
œœ œœ
J
Cor. an.
&
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
∑
∑
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
∑
∑
‰ œ.
?
∑
∑
∑
j
œœ
œ.
∑
‰ œœ
‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
∑
∑
œœ œœ œœ œ œ œ
. . . œ. œ. # œ. œœ œœ œ
. . .
∑
œ‰
œ
œ‰ œ ‰œ‰ œ ‰
œ œ œ œ
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œ œ œ
∑
∑
‰
œœ
œ
‰œ
œ
‰œ
∑
∑
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œ
œœ
JŒ
œœ
JŒ
œ#œ œœœœ œ œ ˙ & ‰ œ
œœŒ
J
Bsn.
#
b
57
Cor 1
&
Cor 2
&
Tpt. Do
Tbn. T.
Tbn. B.
..
œœ œœ œœ. œœ. œœ. œ œ
# œ. œ œœ œ
. . .
∑
∑
& b œœ. œœ. œœ. œœ œœ # œœ œ œ
. . . œ. œ. œ.
?
∑
b
∑
?
∑
∑
b
&b
Vln. II
&b
57
œ
>
œ
>
Œ
Œ
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>
œ
>
Bb œ Œ
∑
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
∑
Vln. I
alt.
∑
œ
Œ
Œ
Œ
∑
∑
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
∑
..
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# œ. œ œœ œ
. . .
∑
∑
∑
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. . . œ. œ. # œ. œœ œœ œ
. . .
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∑
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>
Œ
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>
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>
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œœ
J
‰
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JŒ
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J œ œœ
œ
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J œ œœ J
J
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‰
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JŒ
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j
j
œœ
œ œ .œj
œ
œ. ‰ .
‰
∑
‰ Œ Œ
3
œœ œœ
‰
‰
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œœœ
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J œ œJ J
œœ
œ
J œ ‰
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J œ
∑
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J
œ.
∑
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∑
∑
∑
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∑
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∑
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∑
57
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
&b
∑
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∑
?b
∑
∑
&b
∑
?b
?b
57
57
œ œ
J J œ.
‰ œ.
‰
œœ œœ
‰
œœ˙
∑
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ #œ Œ
œœ
J
j
œ œœ. j
œ.‰
‰
∑
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ Œ #œ Œ
œœ
œœ
J
‰ œ.
œœ
J
Cb.
Timb.
#œ
>
Œ
‰ œœ
‰
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J œ œœ J
J
3
œ#œ œœœœ œ œ ˙
? b œ Œ #œ Œ
Hp.
Œ
Œ
Œ
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
>
>
œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ
Œ
œ
Vc.
Cél.
..
œœ œœ œœ. œœ. œœ. œ œ
# œ. œ œœ œ
. . .
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J
‰ Œ Œ
9
œ œ œ œ.
∑
Picc.
‰
œ œ œ œ.
&b
57
œœ
J
œœ
J
œ œ
J J œ.
‰ œ.
‰ œ.
57
Trgl.
ã
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Gong
ã
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
‰
10
Picc.
&b
Fl.
&b
∑
65
Hb.
œ
& b ‰ #œ œ J Œ
Cl. Sib
&
Cor. an.
&
Bsn.
? œj œ
b
65
&
Cor 2
&
Tpt. Do
&b
Tbn. B.
Vln. II
alt.
Vc.
Cb.
?b
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J
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j
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J
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j
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J
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B
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œ. . œ. œ. œ. ˙
P
œ. . œ. œ. # œ. ˙
˙
˙
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p
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π
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pizz.
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˙
pizz.
Œ
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œ
pizz.
Œ
Œ
Œ
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pizz.
œ
œ
œ
Œ Ó
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Œ Ó
œ Œ Ó
∑
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œ Œ œ Œ
œ Œ Ó
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
&b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
?b
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
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?b
∑
∑
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∑
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∑
∑
65
65
Timb.
j j
œ œ œ
∑
œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ
J
&b
&b
Hp.
∑
œ
& b ‰ #œ œ J Œ
65
Cél.
œ
œ
? œ
b
&b
œœ œœ # œœ œœ œœ œœ ˙
˙
‰ # œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
? ‰
b
65
Vln. I
œ
œ
J
œœ
J œ
# œœ œœ # œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ
J
Cor 1
Tbn. T.
œœ œœ # œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œ
J œ
∑
65
Trgl.
ã
Gong
ã
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
˙
˙
∑
˙
∑
∑