POLITICAL SCIENCE-A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS
Author(s): Neha Saxena
Source: The Indian Journal of Political Science , Jan - March, 2011, Vol. 72, No. 1 (Jan March, 2011), pp. 129-134
Published by: Indian Political Science Association
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42761813
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The Indian Journal of Political Science
Vol. LXXII, No. 1, Jan. March, 2011, pp. 129-134
POLITICAL SCIENCE-A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS
Neha Saxena
Political science is the study of political values, institutions, processes, and policies. It focuses on the system of governanc
which societies set their public priorities and policies and on how government touches the individual. Political science deals
basic questions about power, authority, social values, and political manipulation- the ways that societies determine their collecti
priorities and attempt to bring them into being . This paper is an introduction to political science, the study of politics. Politic
about power- Who has it? Who doesn't? Why? How is it is acquired and exercised ? When and where does it occur? How
itchange? Why is there such popular disdain for politicians and . 'polities'? Is it merited? What comes to mind when you think
„polities'? In other words, we will examine the ideas, institutions, identities and interests that influence and structure politics ar
the world, from the local to the global, from everyday life, to legislatures and courtrooms, to international institutions.
Introduction.
on the policies of government are a source of
conflict and we witness that individuals contribute
The discovery of the laws of evolution
during the last two centuries has revolutionized
to the prosperity and ruin of a particular state or
the study of man giving scientific sanction to the
country. The present paper attempts to trace
idea of human progress. Here Progress shouldTíot
these developments, past and present, in tne
mean only the advancement in scientific learning
ideas and practices behind the organization and
but also the improvement of human society. administration
As
of society as the proper subjects
of Political Science.
the society became organized and people began
to live together problems of organization and
2. Political Science
control arose. People disagreed about how they
should live, who should get what? How power and According to the Oxford English Dictionary,
other resources be distributed? And so on. They
political science refers to that branch of knowledg
also disagree about how these matters should
concerned with political activity and behaviour.
be resolved. How should collective decisions
Considering the very wide varieties of politica
activities and behaviours, and the constant
be taken? Who should have a say? How much
influence each person should have? With changes
the
that they undergo, this definition
development and expansion of human activities
suggests political science is the scientific study
over the period of time , the organization ofof
the
political phenomenon in all its aspects.
society became more defined and laws and
It is an academic discipline which undertakes
norms were developed to control them. The
systematically to describe, analyse and explain
growing consciousness from primitive man the
to aworkings of government and relationship
between political and non -political institutions
fully developed social being has led to a greater
organization and stability in the community
andinprocesses .The traditional subject matter of
which he lived, which later on became villages
political science, so defined, is the state, although
and cities. History gives us the idea that many
this has broadened during the 20th century to
systems were devised by various civilizationsinclude
and
social .economic and other processes
people for the purpose of ruling and governing.
that influence the allocation of values and general
resources.1 Occasionally political science is
Personal and collective interest bearing influences
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130
The Indian Journal of Political Science
institutions.2
interchanged for politics but then it is clearly
the
study of this activity. The two words that makeThe
up Political sphere is seen as an arena
the expression are inclusive of the term political.
populated largely by politicians, political
But what does the word political mean?
parties, elections and the various institutions
of government. Beyond these core actors and
2.1 Political
institutions lies shadowy world of pressure groups
Political is the adjective corresponding, to
thethe
media , which provide the backdrop to political
word politics which comes, from the Greek
wordThis conception of politics is confined
activity.
"polis" meaning city-state. The Greeks were
thegoes on inside the territorial units of
to what
first to develop 'Politics' in its pure and systematic
governance called nation-states. But this is just
form . The Sophists particularly, Protagoras
anof defining politics and the political and
one way
Górgias were the first to deal with this to
mode
ofthe field of the study.3
delimit
thought and thus expound a political theory.
TheLater
restriction of the study of politics being
on Socrates , Plato and Aristotle continued to
confined to mainly public institutions and state
conduct the scientific study of various problems activities is a disputed subject. Those who oppose
concerning State and Government .
the view emphasize processes such as voting
These Greek city States were relatively behavior and public opinion. They recognize
small communities separated from each otherthe need to relate that core political activity to
by Geographical barriers .Each city State had the social and personal factors which affect it,
evolved a compact city life of its own . The including the television viewing habits of different
activities of citizens in their role as members and
sections of an electorate. At this point, the student
operators of the State were termed by ancient of politics often has to draw upon seemingly nonthinkers as 'Polities'. Sometimes a distinction
political factors to aid explanation.
is drawn between public and private spheres
It is said that "when students of political behavior
of life and the usage of the term 'political'
is at government institutions, it is generally
do look
in order to examine how the individual members
confined to the activities and institutions falling
in public domain .Thus Laws , election campaign
behave in office. For example there is now the
, Political processes are part of Politics but faith,
tradition of studying the behavior of individual
worship , content of our education , art , culture
judges rather than being concerned so much with
do not belong to Politics until some regulations
the content of Supreme Court decisions in the
are required to maintain public order and safety.
United States., the consistency with which they
The term 'Political' refers to something which
vote is
along ideological lines and attitudes that can
'Public as distinguished from private or applicable
be inferred from the behavior." 4 This is very far
to limited number of persons. Wolin has pointed
from the traditional study of Political Science but
out that in a society the Political arrangement
it complements the subject..
is singled out with what is common to the whole
2.2 What is Politics?
community . Thus certain functions beneficial to
all like defence, internal order, justice , economyPolitics denotes an activity about which
many people today feel a combination of
are declared primary responsibilities of Political
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131
Political Science-A Conceptual Analysis
cynicism, scepticism and mistrust.6 It is regarded
and ennobling one? Can politics be brought to an
as something away from the practical everyday
end ? Should politics be brought to an end?7
life taking place in the corridors of power. Not
Thus the debate 'What is polities' exposes some
many people claim to understand the affairs of
of the deepest and most intractable conflicts in
government and politics. Politics is considered to
political thought.
be a loaded term. While the subjects like History.
Geography are read dispassionately, the study
of politics is not without any preconceptions .It
is considered to be a 'dirty' word and the fact
that the statement is 'political', portray deceit,
manipulation, hypocrisy and lies.
"Accordingly, people often mistrust and dislike
politicians, who are thought to be concerned first
2.2.1 Politics as Social Activity
It may be regarded as the oldest activity of the
humanity. When we define 'Politics it is important
to note that politics is a social activity .It is always
a dialogue and never a monologue. It is the
activity through which people make, preserve and
amend the general rules under which they live.8
Given that there are many aspects to social
and foremost with their own careers and hence
life and social cooperation , there are three
all too likely to sidestep pressing questions and
dimensions of social activity i.e in relation to
to downplay or ignore problems. The discipline of
interpersonal relations ,in relation to state personal
politics (or political science or government) does
relations, in relation to international relations The
little, if anything, to dispel this image of politics and
three aspects deal with the key questions such as
politicians. Focusing as it often does on the nature
how should individual relate to other individual in
and structure of government as a decision-making
the society , how should the benefits and burden
process and on those who press their claims upon
of cooperative activity be divided, what action
it, it tends to portray politics as a distinct and
should be taken against the people who violate
separate sphere in society, a sphere set apart
the rules of the society, why should the individual
from, for instance, personal, family and business
obey the state, what are the limits of state power
life. By focusing on governmental institutions, the
and what are power and prerogatives of the state
discipline of politics marginalizes and provides
if the individuals have consented to be under state
little basis for understanding the very stuff of
power. Finally the principles that govern the state
politics, that is, those deep prooted problems that
are applicable within the boundaries of the given
actually face us all daily as citizens, for example,
territory or they can be extended beyond the
issues of war and violence, unemployment and
poverty, health and welfare."6
frontiers of state. How should the relation between
states in the global context be governed and what
The attempt to define politics raises a series
are the those principles that guides the conduct
of difficult questions . For example , is politics a
of international relations. If possible whether the
restricted activity .confined to what goes on within
states should opt for the world government .
the state and the government , or does it occur in
Politics thus is an activity that includes the conduct
all areas of social life? Does politics in other words
of individual to an individual , individual to a state
, take place within families , schools colleges
and the state to a state. Politics in this sense is
and in workplace? Similarly , is politics , as many
everywhere and of undoubted significance to the
believe , corrupting activity, or is it rather a healthy
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132
The Indian Journal of Political Science
quality of people's lives. Politics is in essence
not can result in revolution or civil war. Every
conflict
necessarily a separate sphere of human existence
political system has devices for accomplishing this
somehow apart from all other aspects of task.
life. In
The best known is the great number of our
many ways it is our life.9
2.2.2 Politics as A Source of Conflict
and Cooperation
governing bodies, political offices and places of
political power in nongovernmental organizations.
Perhaps more important than the large number of
political offices is the consensus on the rules of
Politics is all about 'who gets what when and
political game. One thing that reduces tension in
how'. Individual groups and political parties seek
politics is the fact that the losing party knows it will
political power for its own sake and to use that
get another chance in the next election. In the less
power to pursue their other interest. Obviously
stable part of the world , politics can be a bloody
there is not enough political power to go around .
business in a nation where the winning party
Scarcity of political power like other scarcities lead
outlaws its opposition and execute its leaders as
to conflict. Conflict arises not only out of who shall
traitors. The democratic electoral process ensures
govern , but also about basic ideas , political ideas
rotation of political offices among large number
and values. These conflicts are not only about
of politicians reducing in the conflict that arises
sharing power but the value conflicts finds a place
from politics. Sometimes a conflict can actually be
in politics. Some people have such intense beliefs
resolved. In the example given above both groups
about what society should be like. Radical socialist
may cooperate to back a combined irrigation and
, extreme right wing conservatives and militant
park project and settle for less than they originally
ethnic separatists may refuse to compromise on
wanted. However, each gets more than it could
their vision of an ideal society.
have gotten if they had not joined forces. The
Issue lead to conflict because a basic fact
farmers get a smaller irrigation project than they
of politics is scarcity. Many things people want do
could have had if there were no park with which to
not exist in sufficient quantity to satisfy everyone.
share the land, but they do get some land irrigated.
For example the farmers of an area might want
The environmentalists have a small park instead
a new irrigation project. They will not be able to
of none at all.
get it without the support of the environmentalists,
Politics so observed may show it as an
who want to preserve the same land for a park.
activity involving decisions .collective decisions
Without the farmers support, there will be no
which are in some way regarded as binding upon
park. We see there is simply not enough land
a group of people .It is through such decisions that
to give both farmers and the environmentalists
conflict is resolved.
all that they wanted. There probably is the
2.2.3 Politics as a Mechanism for
scarcity of time . Money is also in short supply.
Achieving Societal goals
Politics develops out of diversity , the existence
Politics is not always about conflicts . It is a
of a range of opinion , wants ,need or interest.10
about organizing collective effort to achieve s
Keeping that conflict to an acceptable level is an
goals that individual or private groups find diff
important function of any political system. Without
doing on their own. The government respon
mechanism for sharing and transferring of power ,
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133
Political Science-A Conceptual Analysis
the needs of the people taking the measures for
Politics is, in essence, power: the ability to achieve
social and economic welfare. Government builds
a desired outcome, through whatever means.
roads and dams , give aid to the poor .look after
Politics concerns the production, distribution and
the law and order, mamage the economy and
use of resources in the society. While human
and desires are infinite, the resources
protects against foreign enemies . Governmentneeds
is
one way of operating collective enterprise and available
of
to satisfy them are always limited. From
focusing social resources to deal with problems,
this perspective, politics therefore be seen as a
but it is not the only means .Many hospitals and
struggle over scarce resources, and power can
schools are run by private enterprises offering the
be seen as the means through which this struggle
is conducted.
same services. How much should government
own, operate , regulate are themselves political
3.Can the study of Political Science be
Scientific?
question ,the answers of which lie in a given
political system. Political parties and government
The attraction of science in the study of
also make endeavours that the government works
politics is clear. It promised an impartial and
. Campaigns are organized , elections conducted
,
reliable
enquiry thereby giving access to objective
legislations deliberated .passed and administered
knowledge about political phenomenon. Any
, court cases heard and so on. Such collective
attempt to discuss about politics is based more on
political effort may also build a sense of politicalempirical evidence or facts rather than on normative
community among the people of a nation . It notor ethical beliefs which are a matter of opinion and
only produces things they want, but also helps subjective in nature. However the attempt to make
them to express their common beliefs and valuesthe science of politics analogous with natural
in ways that foster mutual faith and support.
2.2.4 Politics as Power
sciences has made the subject controversial.
Professor W.J. M Mackenzie has pointed to
thethe
advantages of the term 'political science'.
The concept of power is central to
discipline of politics distinguishing it from"So
allfar as I can judge , 'political science'is still
the
name
other social sciences. This view sees that politics which carries meaning to the general
publicand
The word science here indicates simply that
pervades everywhere ,in all social activities
in ail corner of human existence.
there exists an academic tradition of trhe study of
Adrian Leftwich stated in What is Politics? The
politics , a discipline communicated from teacher
to pupil, by speech and writing ,for some 2,500
Activity and Its Study that 'politics is at the heart
years now. It does not mean that this discipline
of all collective social activity, formal and informal,
claims to be a'natural science'.or that it could be
public and private, in all human groups,, institutions
improved by copying the methods of physics and
and societies'. In this sense, politics takes place
chemistry exactly."
at all level, within families and amongst small
groups of friend as much as amongst nations Political Science is now being studied much
more scientifically though the studies may not be
and on the global stage. However, what is it that
as formalized as the natural sciences. Any attempt
make politics a distinctive activity from all other
social behavior?
to construct a science of politics is confronted with
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134
The Indian Journal of Political Science
challenges
natural sciences. It may be conditioned by factors
It is said that political Science is an inexact
such as family background, social experiences,
Science. Political Scientists can never predict
economic position and so on .Whereas in natural
accurately since the human beings cannot
sciences the studies may be undertaken in an
be subjected to controlled environment in the objective and impartial manner without holding
laboratory. Humans cannot be experimented withany presuppositions. Political scientists may
and like matter the weight, volume temperatureclaim being objective in their approach but the
etc. cannot be quantified. In the absence of exactstatements given by them do not hold the same
data the learning about human behavior is limiteduniversal validity as natural scientists.
and superficial. They may behave differently under
References:
similar conditions owing to the variability of the
1. Andrew Heywood, "What is Politics?" in Politics.
human behavior. There is bound to be a difference
Palgrave, 2002 Barrie Axford , Gary K. Browning,
of opinion for almost all political questions and 2.
it O.P. Gauba, 'An introduction to Political Theory' ,
may become difficult, if not impossible to draw
Macmillan India Ltd., 2003
3. Barrie Axford , Gary K. Browning, Richard Huggins,
precise conclusion from political phenomenon as
to make exact forecast about the future. Secondly,
Ben Rosamond, s Politics : An Introduction',
Routledge ,2002.
4. Allan R. Ball and b. Guy Peters, 'The study
the question of existence of human values in all
the models and theories of politics poses another
challenge .The theories cannot be made value
free as they are 'constructed on the basis of
assumptions about human nature, society and
the role of the state that have hidden political and
ideological implications. Heywooď. Thirdly, for
of politics' in Modern Politics & Government ,
Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
5. David held, ' A discipline of Polities' in Political
Theory and the modern state , World view
PuDlications ,1998.
6. Ibid
7. See supra note 1
8. Ibid
any political analysis scientific objectivity remains 9. See supra note 2
an unachievable goal and it may not show the 10. See supra note 1
same degree of impartiality and neutrality as in
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