lOMoARcPSD|36460418
How to teach English - Jeremy Harmer
Didáctica Especial (Universidad Nacional de Tucumán)
Scan to open on Studocu
Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
How to teach English –
Jeremy Harmer
Summary by Emanuel Manrique and ChatGPT
1) Chapter – Learners
Reasons for learning
The reasons why students learn English vary greatly depending on their individual circumstances. Some students
learn it as part of the curriculum, while others may need it to function successfully within a target-language
community or for a specific purpose such as business, academics, or travel. The purpose of learning English
determines what students want and need to learn and influences their lessons and materials. Understanding why
students are learning English is important in catering to their individual needs as learners.
Different contexts for learning
English is taught and learnt in various contexts, affecting how and what is taught. EFL students learn English to
communicate with other speakers of English or for travel, while ESL students learn it to live in the target-language
community. However, in a global context, the distinction between EFL and ESL may not be satisfactory, so the term
ESOL is used to describe both situations. Schools, language schools, large classes, and one-to-one teaching are
different contexts that affect teaching methods. The size of the class determines the use of pair work, group work,
or whole-class teaching. In-school and in-company are the two different settings where language classes take
place. Real and virtual learning environments have similar issues of motivating students and offering help, but
virtual learning sites have online tutors who interact with students via email or chat forums.
Learner differences
There are differences in learners in terms of age, individual abilities, knowledge, and preferences. Learners are
categorized into children, adolescents, and adults. Children learn from their surroundings and are attentive to
touch, sight, and sound. They respond well to individual attention and activities that focus on their experiences.
They have a short attention span and a great ability to acquire new languages. Adolescents have a greater capacity
for abstract thought and can talk about more abstract ideas. They have a great capacity for learning, enormous
potential for creative thought, and a passionate commitment to things that interest them. Adolescence is bound
up with a search for identity and a need for self-esteem, often the result of the students' position within their peer
group. Adults have a wider range of life experiences and are more disciplined than adolescents. They can sustain
their motivation by perceiving and holding on to long-term learning goals. However, they may also come with a lot
of previous learning experiences, which may hamper their progress, such as having negative learning experiences
in the past or strong views about teaching methods. Teachers need to consider these differences in teaching
different age groups, such as offering a greater variety of games, songs, and puzzles for younger children or taking
special care when assigning roles within an activity for adolescents. Teachers of all age groups may experience
problem behavior, causing difficulties for the teacher, the student, and others in the classroom.
Learning Styles
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
The author discusses the concept of learning styles, which refers to the idea that different people have different
preferences for the way they learn best. The Neuro-Linguistic Programming model identifies three main learning
styles: visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic. Visual learners remember things better when they see them, auditory
learners respond well to things they hear, and kinaesthetic learners learn best when they are involved in physical
activity. The Multiple Intelligences theory, first introduced by Howard Gardner, expands on this idea by suggesting
that people have different intelligences, such as mathematical, musical, interpersonal, spatial, and emotional
intelligence.
The author emphasizes that it is important for teachers to recognize that there are different learning styles in their
classroom and to try to cater to individual differences as much as possible. This can be achieved by offering a
variety of different activity types in lessons to cater to different learning styles and preferences. However, there
are certain habits and activities that can be beneficial for all students, such as homework and reading for pleasure.
The article concludes by stating that while individual differences should be acknowledged, there are certain
activities that are good for all students, although the way they are organized may vary.
Levels
This text explains how teachers of English categorize their students' language knowledge into three levels:
beginner, intermediate, and advanced. While these categories are used in institutions worldwide, they can
vary in their exact meaning. In addition to these categories, other descriptive terms are used, such as false
beginners and pre-intermediate, to describe students' specific language proficiency. The Council of Europe
and the Association of Language Testers of Europe have defined language competency levels for learners,
resulting in the Common European Framework and a series of ALTE levels ranging from A1 to C2. The text
then explains what each level means in practice for students and notes that abilities within a level can still
vary.
Beginners are easy to motivate as success is visible, but failure is also evident. Some adult beginners may find
language learning more stressful than expected, leading to reluctance to continue. Intermediate students may
experience a plateau effect where progress is not as noticeable, and the teacher must challenge them with more
difficult tasks and help them set clear goals for themselves. Advanced students already know a lot of English, and
the teacher must create a classroom culture where students understand what still needs to be learned and
provide evidence of progress. Activities and language used also differ for each level, and teachers need to
ascertain what students know before deciding what to focus on.
Educational and cultural background
The educational and cultural background of students is an important factor that can influence their learning
experience. Students from supportive educational backgrounds may perform better in school than those who lack
such support. Cultural differences among students may lead to different responses to classroom practices and
varying expectations of teaching and learning. Teachers need to be sensitive to these differences, use appropriate
materials and teaching techniques, and offer different options to suit individual preferences. Multilingual classes
are common in English-speaking countries, and teachers must be able to engage and challenge students while
avoiding offense.
The importance of student motivation
Jeremy discusses the different factors that can create a desire to learn, including love for a subject, curiosity, and
practical reasons. The motivation to achieve a goal is crucial for learning and can be extrinsic (influenced by
external factors) or intrinsic (generated by what happens inside the classroom). The teacher plays an important
role in helping students sustain their motivation by selecting appropriate activities, displaying teacher qualities,
considering the issue of affect, and giving students some agency. However, ultimately, real motivation comes from
within each individual.
Responsibility for learning
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
The author discusses the importance of giving students agency and encouraging them to take responsibility for
their own learning. It suggests that teachers should gradually extend the students' role in learning, such as getting
them to investigate a grammar issue or solve a reading puzzle on their own. The article also recommends various
ways to promote student self-reliance, including homework, reading for pleasure, and finding their own resources
for language practice. Additionally, the article notes that not all students are equally capable or interested in being
autonomous learners, and therefore, teachers should encourage agency without forcing it upon them.
2) Chapter 2 - Teachers
Describing good teachers
The text discusses how it can be difficult to identify what makes a good teacher as different teachers are
successful in different ways. Factors that may make a teacher special can include their personality, interesting
content, love for their job, and interest in students' progress. The idea that good teachers are born, not made is
challenged, as some may learn their craft through a mixture of personality, intelligence, knowledge, and
experience. The text concludes by stating that teaching is a necessary and rewarding job, and the chapter will
explore what is necessary for effective teaching.
Who teachers are in class
The author discusses the different roles and qualities of teachers in a classroom. Teachers have individual
differences, but they should be able to present themselves in a professional manner in front of students. A good
teacher should be able to adopt different roles in the class and react to different events that occur. Teachers
should be adaptable and flexible to work with unexpected events and situations that arise during lessons. The
personality of the teacher is also important, as it is a blend of who they really are and who they are as teachers.
The article concludes that good teachers should be able to balance these qualities and roles to effectively teach
their students.
A good teacher is able to adopt various roles in the classroom depending on the students' needs and activities. If a
teacher always acts as a controller, dictating everything and being the focus of attention, students may have little
agency in their own learning. Instead, teachers may need to act as prompters to encourage and push students in
cooperative activities. They may also need to provide feedback and assessment to help students evaluate their
performance and progress. Teachers should also function as resources for language information and as language
tutors who respond to students' needs and advise them on what to do next. A teacher's ability to perform these
roles with care and ease is essential to facilitate the different stages and facets of learning.
Rapport
The perception that students have of their teacher and how they are treated by them is a significant factor in their
intrinsic motivation. Good rapport between the teacher and the students is a key aspect of this relationship.
Rapport refers to the positive, enjoyable, and respectful relationship that exists between the teacher and the
students. This relationship is established by the teacher's professionalism, as well as the way they listen to and
treat the students in the classroom.
The text discusses some key aspects of good teaching: recognising students, listening to them, respecting them,
and being even-handed. Recognising students refers to teachers knowing their students' names, developing ways
to remember them, and showing an interest in who they are. Listening to students involves being available to
them and showing genuine interest in what they say, as well as being aware of their reactions to the teaching
activities. Respecting students means correcting them without offending them, treating them with respect, being
positive and professional, and not reacting negatively to unplanned things. Finally, being even-handed means
being impartial and trying to reach all students, not just the talkative ones or those who are easy to teach.
Teachers who show these qualities can establish good rapport with their students and create successful classes.
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
Teacher tasks
The author discusses the tasks that teachers are expected to perform in addition to teaching students. These tasks
include preparation for lessons, keeping records of what has been taught and student progress, and being reliable
in terms of timekeeping and homework. Effective teachers should be well-prepared for their lessons, and they
should have some learning outcomes in mind. Keeping records is important for teachers to reflect on their
teaching experiences and amend their teaching practices accordingly. Lastly, teachers need to be reliable in terms
of timekeeping and homework to set a good example for their students.
Teacher skills
The text discusses the essential skills that teachers must possess to be effective in the classroom. Classroom
management is an important skill that involves setting up procedures to ensure the success of activities, deciding
on instructions, seating arrangements, groupings, and preventing or reacting to disruptive behavior. Matching
tasks and groups is another important skill that involves making sure that students are interested and stimulated
by the activities and topics presented in class. Teachers should think carefully about how to match different
activities and topics to the different groups they teach. Variety is also important in keeping students motivated
and interested in learning. Teachers should vary activities and topics over time and ensure that learner roles are
not always the same. Finally, the text emphasizes the importance of having a clear destination or learning
outcome for every activity. Students need to have an idea of where they are going and recognize when they have
achieved the intended outcome. A summing-up or feedback session at the end of an activity is valuable in
ensuring that students leave the class with a tangible result, even if the activity did not have a fixed end.
Teacher Knowledge
This text discusses the knowledge that English language teachers need to have to be effective in their job. Firstly,
teachers need to have good communication skills and teaching abilities to foster relationships with their students,
organize successful lessons and be aware of the materials and equipment available in their school. Additionally,
they should stay informed about new developments in teaching approaches and techniques by consulting a range
of print material, online resources, and attending development sessions and teacher seminars.
Language teachers must know how the English language works, including the grammar and lexical system. They
must also be knowledgeable about pronunciation features such as sounds, stress and intonation. Students expect
their teachers to be able to explain grammar concepts, know the difference between formal and informal
language, and help them to pronounce words correctly and with appropriate intonation. However, sometimes
students may ask difficult questions that require time to research and answer. Teachers need to be able to say
things like “I will check and bring you a more complete answer tomorrow” or “You can find the answer yourself if
you go to this book. We’ll discuss it tomorrow” to address such situations.
Teachers should know where to find answers to complicated questions and have at least one good reference
grammar at the appropriate level, or a good monolingual learners’ dictionary (MLD), and be able to direct
students to a library or a website where they can find these things. If teachers are using a coursebook, students
expect them to know how the materials work and to have looked at the material they are using before the lesson.
The text also addresses the increasing availability of classroom equipment, such as tape recorders, video
machines, the overhead projector, computers, data projectors, and interactive whiteboards. Teachers need to be
comfortable with these different types of educational technology and learn how to use them as part of their
training. However, it is essential to remember that the equipment is only worth using if it can do things that other
equipment or routines cannot. The essentials of good teaching, including rapport, professionalism, and using good
activities, will always be more important than the actual means of delivery.
Finally, the text highlights the need for teachers to avoid being overzealous about equipment and to focus on the
essentials of teaching. Technical innovation has allowed students to do things they were unable to do before, such
as writing their own blogs and listening to modern podcasts, which offer many more listening opportunities than
ever before.
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
Art or science?
The article explores the question of whether teaching language is an art or a science. It argues that teaching has
both scientific and artistic elements. Understanding the language system and finding the best ways to explain it
require scientific rigor. Technical skills like innovation in educational technology and materials design also require
scientific knowledge. However, teaching is also an art. The relationship between teacher and students is essential
to establish a good rapport and foster creativity. Good teachers listen and watch, using professional and personal
skills to respond to what they see and hear. The success of instant decision-making and the creativity that can be
unleashed is often the result of the teacher's feelings or judgment at that very moment. Therefore, teaching
language is both an art and a science, and good teachers use both elements to enhance their teaching skills.
3) 3 Chapter – Managing the classroom
To manage classrooms effectively, a teacher must be able to handle various variables such as the organization of
the classroom space, group work, and time management. The way a teacher appears to the students and their use
of voice is also important, as well as the role of the mother tongue in lessons. Successful classroom management
also involves being able to deal with difficult situations.
The teacher in the classroom
The physical presence of teachers in the classroom is an important aspect of managing the environment. Teachers
should consider their proximity to students, appropriacy of their physical behavior, movement around the
classroom, and awareness of student behavior and emotions. How teachers sit, stand, and move can affect
student engagement, and teachers must be aware of their behavior and modify it accordingly to establish rapport
with their students. Additionally, teachers need to be self-aware and understand how their students perceive
them. Finally, the teacher's voice is another tool for effective class management.
Using the voice
The voice of a teacher is a crucial instrument in the classroom, and there are three main issues to consider when
managing it. Firstly, teachers must be audible, but shouting is unpleasant, and good voice projection is more
important than volume. Secondly, teachers should vary their voice quality and volume according to the lesson and
activity. Finally, teachers must conserve their voice by breathing correctly, avoiding shouting whenever possible,
and planning their workload. Speaking quietly can be just as effective as shouting, and the occasional shouted
interjection can have a dramatic effect.
Talking to student
The manner in which teachers interact with their students is a crucial skill that requires establishing a good
rapport with them. Rough-tuning is a skill that both parents and teachers use to simplify language and increase
comprehension, adjusting the complexity of grammar, vocabulary, and voice tone to the listener's level of
understanding. Experienced teachers adapt their language and use physical movements, gestures, facial
expressions, and mime to show emotions and demonstrate actions, which become a natural adjunct to language,
especially with students at lower levels. Newer teachers need to pay attention to their students' comprehension
and adjust their speaking style accordingly.
Giving instructions
The issue of how teachers talk to students becomes crucial when giving instructions, as even the best activity is
useless if students don't understand what they are supposed to do. There are two general rules for giving
instructions: keep them as simple and logical as possible. Before giving instructions, teachers should ask
themselves questions such as what information is important to convey, what students must know to complete the
activity successfully, and in what order the information should be presented. It's also important for teachers to
check that students have understood the instructions, which can be achieved through various methods such as
having students explain the activity or translating the instructions into their mother tongue as a check.
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
Student talk and teacher talk
This paragraph discusses the debate about how much time teachers should spend talking in class and the
importance of student talking time (STT) in language acquisition. It suggests that while excessive teacher talking
time (TTT) can be detrimental to student learning, good TTT can offer students comprehensible input and help
them acquire language. The paragraph concludes by proposing that the quality of teacher talking (TTQ) is also
important in creating effective language lessons.
To maximize student learning, teachers should aim to reduce their TTT and increase STT in the classroom. When
teachers talk too much, students have less opportunity to practice their own speaking, and it can interfere with
other important language skills such as reading and writing. However, good TTT can offer students
comprehensible input, which is an important feature in language acquisition. Teachers who can rough-tune their
language to the students’ level and engage them in stories and interactions can help students understand and
acquire language.
In addition to the quantity of teacher talking, the quality of their speech is also crucial. Teachers who use
appropriate comprehensible input and engage students with their stories and interactions will help students
acquire language. Therefore, it is not only the difference between STT and TTT that matters, but also TTQ. The
best language lessons are ones where STT is maximized, but where the teacher is not afraid to summarize, tell a
story or enter into discussion at appropriate moments during the lesson. Good teachers use their common sense
and experience to get the balance right.
Using the L1
The article discusses the use of students' mother tongue (LI) in English language classrooms. While it is important
to create an English environment, at beginner levels students will naturally translate into their LI, so it can be
beneficial to acknowledge and utilize the LI in certain situations. This can include using the LI for instructions or
explanations, asking students to translate words or sentences, or finding equivalent sounds in the LI for
pronunciation practice. However, using the LI does not mean a return to a traditional grammar-translation
method. Teachers should still prioritize an English environment and use English as much as possible, especially
since they are the best provider of comprehensible input.
Creating lesson stages
Teachers need to include different stages in their lessons to provide variety and engage students. The lesson
should start in a way that arouses students' interest and provides clarity on what they will be doing. Teachers
should also clearly indicate the end of one activity and the beginning of the next. To redirect students' attention,
teachers can use various techniques such as clapping, speaking quietly, or raising their hand. It is essential to
provide closure at the end of the lesson, such as summarizing what happened or previewing the next lesson.
Planning the stages of a lesson is crucial for successful teaching.
Different seating arrangements
The author discusses various seating arrangements that teachers can use in their classrooms, including orderly
rows, circles and horseshoes, and separate tables. Orderly rows provide clear visibility to both the teacher and the
students and work well for lectures and language practice, but teachers should ensure they keep all students
engaged. Circles and horseshoes promote equality and intimacy among students, making it easier to share feelings
and information through talking and body language. Separate tables offer more individualized attention, allowing
teachers to work with small groups and tailor tasks to different ability levels. However, this arrangement can lead
to some problems, such as students not wanting to be with the same colleagues and their preferences changing
over time.
Different student grouping
The text discusses different ways of organizing students in a language classroom: whole class, group work, pair
work, and solo work. Whole-class teaching is useful for presenting information and practicing, but it limits
individual opportunities for speaking and reflection. Group and pair work foster cooperation and active
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
participation, and provide greater independence for students, but may lead to some students dominating the
activity, or being uncomfortable without teacher supervision. Solo work allows students to work at their own
speed, with more thinking time, and as individuals. Additionally, class-to-class interactions can be beneficial for
surveys, discussions, and lectures, especially in different-level classes, where higher-level students can help lowerlevel ones, and the latter can engage with better language users. However, group work can be disruptive, and
students may resort to their native language when not working with the teacher. Strategies to deal with such
issues are provided throughout the text.
4) Chapter 4 – Describing learning and teaching
Children and language
The article discusses how children seem to acquire language effortlessly, especially before the age of six. They are
able to learn multiple languages and pick them up quickly when moving to a new country. Acquisition of language
requires exposure to language, as well as simplified language that fits the child's age and situation. Children also
have a strong motivation to communicate, which is necessary for language acquisition. As children grow older,
language acquisition becomes more difficult. The article suggests that exposure to language, motivation to
communicate, and opportunities to use language are essential for language acquisition to take place.
Acquisition and learning
The author discusses the question of how students should learn a second language, given that children acquire
language subconsciously. Some theorists argue that teachers should focus on acquisition rather than learning and
provide comprehensible input in an anxiety-free atmosphere to replicate the child's experience. However, the
ability to acquire language easily tends to deteriorate with age, and teenagers and adults may want to think
consciously about how language works. Therefore, a rich classroom environment that offers both acquisition and
learning opportunities, including studying language and the way it works, may be the key to success for language
learners beyond childhood.
Different times, different methods
The article discusses the ongoing debate of acquisition versus learning in language education. The distinction
between spontaneous and studial capacities was introduced by linguist Harold Palmer in 1921 and since then,
numerous techniques and theories have been debated, debated, and incorporated into teaching practice. The
article highlights some of these, including the Grammar-translation method, which is still relevant today, and the
Audio-lingual method, which originated in the army education of the 1940s. The article argues that Audiolingualism lost popularity as it failed to expose students to real or realistic language and that drilling is still
considered a useful technique, especially with low-level students. Overall, the article suggests that language
teaching is constantly evolving, with techniques and theories going in and out of fashion, and that the ongoing
debate between acquisition and learning is not likely to be settled any time soon.
The Grammar-translation method originated in Germany in the 1780s and was first introduced as a reform in the
German secondary school system. The method involved presenting students with short grammar rules and word
lists and then testing their understanding through translation exercises. While still relevant today, this method is
not widely used as it primarily focuses on teaching people about language rather than helping them communicate
effectively in the target language.
The Audio-lingual method, which originated in army education in the 1940s, was developed in the 1950s and
enhanced by the arrival of the language laboratory in the 1960s. It emphasized the description of grammatical
patterns and encouraged students to repeat and learn them through drilling. The structures were carefully graded
so that students learned the easy ones first before moving on to more complex ones. This method is based on
behaviourist theories of learning, where students are conditioned to learn the language through repetition and
rewards. While drilling is still considered useful, Audio-lingualism lost popularity because language learning is
more subtle than the formation of habits, and it does not expose students to real or realistic language.
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
PPP (Presentation, Practice, and Production) is a modern equivalent of Audio-lingualism and structuralsituationalism. In PPP lessons or sequences, the teacher presents the context and situation for the language,
explains and demonstrates the meaning and form of the new language, and the students then practice making
sentences before moving on to the production stage where they talk more freely. The PPP procedure is still widely
used in language classrooms worldwide, especially for teaching simple language at lower levels. However, it takes
no account of other ways of learning and understanding, and it is very learning-based and takes little account of
students' acquisition abilities.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a teaching approach developed in the 1970s that emphasizes the
importance of language functions and appropriacy in addition to grammar and vocabulary. The approach
emphasizes giving students opportunities to communicate in real-life situations to facilitate language acquisition.
Task-Based Learning (TBL) is an extension of CLT, where the focus is on completing a real-life task rather than
language study. TBL starts with a pre-task, followed by a task cycle where students plan, gather information, and
produce a piece of writing or oral performance. Finally, in the language focus phase, students analyze and improve
the language used during the task. Both CLT and TBL emphasize communicative activities and language use over
strict grammar and vocabulary instruction.
Elements for successful language learning (ESA)
The current language teaching approach involves a combination of various language learning ideas and elements,
recognizing the importance of language exposure through comprehensible input while also providing
opportunities for learners to focus on language forms and how they can be used. It offers controlled practice and
encourages learners to use any language they know. However, the danger of eclecticism is that it can result in
disorganized lessons with no coherence or underlying philosophy. To avoid this, principled eclecticism suggests
that teaching sequences should have certain characteristics or elements, which are Engage, Study, and Activate.
The article will discuss these elements and how they can occur within typical language teaching sequences.
The text discusses the ESA model for language teaching, which consists of three elements: Engage (E), Study (S),
and Activate (A).
Engage (E): This element refers to the emotional engagement of students in the learning process. Teachers can use
various activities and materials such as games, music, discussions, pictures, stories, and anecdotes to engage
students. By doing so, students are more likely to be involved in the study and activation stages of learning,
resulting in greater benefits.
Study (S): This element involves the focused construction of language, including grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation, and usage. Study activities can take various forms, such as repetition, discovery, reading, and
listening. Teachers can use different language areas such as vowel sounds, verb tenses, lexical phrases, pronoun
usage, paragraph organization, and more for study activities.
Activate (A): This element involves exercises and activities that encourage students to use language freely and
communicatively. The objective of activate activities is to use all and any language that may be appropriate for a
given situation or topic. Personalization is a way to bridge the gap between the study and activation stages, while
genuinely activating exercises include role-plays, simulations, debates, and discussions.
Overall, the ESA model emphasizes the importance of engaging students emotionally, focusing on language
construction in a variety of ways, and encouraging free language use and communication.
ESA lesson sequences
The article explains that although ESA (Engage, Study, Activate) elements should be present in lesson sequences,
they do not necessarily have to be in the same order. The order can change depending on what the teacher wants
to achieve. If the teacher is running a task-based lesson, the study event may come after activation. However, if
the teacher is introducing a piece of grammar, they may study the language first before asking the students to try
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
to use it. Using the same order of ESA in every lesson sequence can lead to predictability and boredom for
students and teachers.
The article discusses three possible teaching sequences using ESA elements. The first one is called Straight Arrows,
where the teacher first engages the students, then they study something, and finally, they activate the language
by using it. This sequence is appropriate for straightforward language, such as teaching the usage of "can" and
"can't". However, this sequence may not be suitable for advanced learners or for more complex language
structures, discussions, or reading texts.
The second teaching sequence is called Boomerang. In this sequence, the teacher first engages the students in a
topic, then they activate the language by doing a role-play, and only then does the teacher work with the students
on the grammar and vocabulary which caused them trouble. The teacher only teaches the language if the
students have shown a need for it during the activation phase. This sequence can be more transparent as it
connects what the students need to learn with what they are taught. However, this sequence requires more work
from the teacher to find appropriate teaching material based on the unforeseen problems that arise during the
activation phase.
The third sequence is called Patchwork. In this sequence, the teacher does not follow a strict order of ESA
elements. Instead, they follow the needs of the students, and each lesson can be different. For example, if the
students need more vocabulary to talk about a particular topic, the teacher can focus on vocabulary during the
study phase.
In conclusion, the ESA elements should be present in lesson sequences, but the order can change depending on
what the teacher wants to achieve. Different teaching sequences using ESA elements can be used to cater to
different needs and learning styles of students.
ESA and planning
The article discusses the importance of planning lessons with a clear goal in mind, whether it's for the end of a
lesson or a longer period. To ensure student engagement, the author emphasizes the need to balance the three
ESA elements: engage, study, and activate. The article also highlights the value of providing opportunities for
students to use the language they are learning. Even when using a coursebook, teachers should manipulate the
activities to ensure that the ESA elements are present in appropriate sequences. Varying the sequence of events is
also essential for effective learning.
5) Chapter 5 – Describing language
Meaning in context
The author discusses how the meaning of a sentence depends on the context in which it is said and what the
speaker wants to convey. The same sentence can have different meanings depending on the situation and the
speaker's intention. Language functions, such as requesting or suggesting, are determined by the context in which
the sentence is used. The meaning of language also depends on its relationship with what comes before and after
it in a larger stretch of discourse. Speakers and writers need to be able to string utterances together to
communicate effectively. Our ability to function in conversation or writing depends on reacting to the context and
understanding the relationship between words and ideas in longer texts.
The element of language
The text discusses how the meaning of a sentence is constructed through the arrangement of its constituent
elements, such as subject, verb, object, and adverbial, and how grammatical rules regulate the sequence of these
elements. The author explains that certain elements can be changed or omitted to alter the meaning of a
sentence. The text also highlights the importance of using appropriate words in their correct forms, which
includes understanding synonyms, antonyms, and morphological rules. Finally, the text explains how complex
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
sentences can be created by joining and amalgamating multiple clauses, but the selection of words and their
arrangement must be appropriate and permissible within the context of the sentence.
Forms and meaning
The text highlights the fact that, similar to the inconsistency between sounds and spelling in English, there are
instances where the same language forms can express different meanings, or where a meaning can be expressed
in many different forms. For example, the present continuous verb form can refer to both the present and the
future, and can express a temporary uncompleted event or a series of completed events. Similarly, words can have
multiple meanings and can be different parts of speech. The context in which a word is used determines its
meaning. Moreover, a meaning or concept can be expressed in various ways, and the choice of expression
depends on the speaker's intention. Even words that seem to be synonyms have distinct connotations.
Parts of speech
The text provides an overview of the different parts of speech that determine the grammatical structure of a
sentence. It covers topics such as noun phrases, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and discourse. Nouns can be
countable or uncountable, singular or plural, and collective. Compound nouns, adjectives, and pronouns are also
discussed, including personal pronouns, object pronouns, reflexive pronouns, possessive pronouns, and relative
pronouns. Determiners are a class of words that identify or indicate the type of reference of the noun phrase.
The text then delves into adjectives and prepositions, discussing their relationship and how certain adjectives are
followed by specific prepositions. It also explores how some adjectives can function as nouns and how some
words can be both adjectives and adverbs. Verbs are then examined in detail, including tense, aspect, and
auxiliary verbs such as modal verbs. Main verbs express the main idea, while auxiliary verbs occur when main
verbs are present. Phrasal verbs are also introduced, and there are four basic types: intransitive, transitive and
inseparable, transitive and separable, and transitive and separable with two objects. Verb forms and verb
complementation, as well as adverbs and adverbial phrases, are also covered.
The text emphasizes that English has instances where the same language forms can express different meanings or
where a meaning can be expressed in many different forms. Multiple meanings and parts of speech can occur, and
context is important in determining the meaning. The text also discusses how even words that seem to be
synonyms can have distinct connotations.
Lastly, the text explores main verbs in English, including the present and past tenses, which can take simple or
continuous forms. The two participle forms, present and past, are explained, along with regular and irregular
verbs. Perfect verbs, including present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect, are also covered. Finally, the text
explains the difference between active and passive sentences.
Hypothetical meaning
The article discusses how hypothetical situations are expressed in English through modal verbs and conditional
sentences. Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs used to indicate the likelihood of something happening. For example,
'It might rain' is a hypothetical possibility, and 'I can't go' is a statement of fact. Conditional sentences are formed
using the conjunction 'if' to preface a condition, and the result of that condition. The likelihood of the result
happening can be expressed through different verb forms. For instance, 'If it rains, you'll get wet' is a first
conditional statement, suggesting the result is possible. In contrast, 'If it rained, you would get wet' is a second
conditional statement, indicating a hypothetical situation, and 'If it had rained, you would have got wet' is a third
conditional, representing an impossible situation. The article provides examples of real and hypothetical
situations, which can be expressed in the present, future, or past. The order of clauses can be reversed with little
change in meaning. The article concludes by mentioning that many variations of conditional sentences exist, using
a range of tenses and verb types, but some expressions may be considered unacceptable by certain speakers of
British English.
Words together
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
The text discusses how we use and understand language not by putting together individual words but by using
collections of vocabulary items that frequently occur together, such as collocations, lexical chunks, and idioms.
Collocations are two or more words that occur together more often than just by chance, such as "fast asleep."
Knowledge of collocations is important for understanding a word, and dictionaries like the Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English list common collocations for words. Corpus studies, which analyze collections of electronic
texts, allow us to better understand when and how often word collocations occur.
Lexical chunks are strings of words that behave almost as one unit, some of which are fixed (e.g., "over the
moon") and some of which are semi-fixed (e.g., "nice to see you"). Our ability to use language effectively depends
largely on knowledge of lexical chunking. Idioms are a type of lexical phrase where the meaning of the whole
phrase may not be comprehensible even if we know the meaning of each individual word, such as "full of beans"
meaning energetic. Many idioms are culture-specific and may not be useful in international contexts. Phrasal and
multi-word verbs can also cause problems for language learners because they are often idiomatic.
Language functions
The text discusses the various ways in which a teacher can make a recommendation to a habitually late student.
The teacher's choice of tone and language depends on how exasperated she is and how formal or informal she
wants to be. The examples of how the teacher can make recommendations include "Get here on time next class if
you know what’s good for you," "I strongly recommend that you get here on time next class," "I suggest you get
here on time next class," and "It would be a good idea if you tried to get here on time next class."
The text explains that a language function is a purpose that a speaker or writer wishes to achieve when
communicating, such as apologising or promising. These functions can be performed without using verbs
explicitly, such as using "sorry" to apologise or "Do you fancy coming round for a meal?" to invite someone. The
text notes that there are many functional exponents, which are patterns or phrases used to perform language
functions.
The text concludes by emphasising the importance of knowing how to perform language functions appropriately
in different situations, considering factors such as who is being talked to, the situation, and the speaker's level of
determination or tentativeness. Issues of register, or the level of formality, are also crucial in determining which
functional exponents are appropriate to use.
Text and discourse
The chapter discusses the importance of being able to use language effectively in longer texts and spoken
discourse. The concepts of cohesion and coherence are introduced as crucial factors in making a text successful.
Cohesion refers to the devices used to connect ideas and sentences together, such as lexical and grammatical
cohesion. Coherence is the internal logic of a text that allows the reader to understand the writer's purpose and
follow their line of thought.
In spoken discourse, participants need to be proficient in turn-taking, which involves knowing how to take turns,
signal when someone else can take their turn, and show that you are listening. Speakers should also avoid long
silences. Discourse markers are essential in spoken language to perform conversational skills effectively. Some
typical English discourse markers are 'You may be right, but...', 'Hold on, I'd just like to say that...', and 'Yes, but...'.
English speakers need to recognize and use these markers to operate effectively.
Language variables
This text discusses how English speakers use grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation in various contexts. In
speech, speakers tend to use more contractions than in writing, but the choice of whether to use speaking-like or
writing-like language depends on the register. Register refers to the topic and tone of the conversation, and it
affects the speaker's choice of words. Language varieties also affect the way English is used, with differences in
pronunciation, grammar, and word choice between British English, American English, and other varieties. The text
emphasizes the importance of recognizing these differences to use English appropriately in different situations.
Writing, on the other hand, allows writers to use punctuation and other writing-specific language features to
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
create rhythm and effect, but it is important to get it right the first time. Finally, the text notes that as English is
becoming more widely used as a second language, the number of language varieties will continue to increase.
6) Chapter 6) Teaching the language System
Teaching specific aspects of language
The author discusses two approaches to introducing specific aspects of language: deductive and inductive. In the
deductive approach, students are given explanations or grammar rules, and then make phrases and sentences
using the new language. The teacher models a sentence and draws attention to the grammar rules, and the
students repeat the sentence. The inductive approach, on the other hand, involves students seeing examples of
language and trying to work out the rules themselves. For example, after reading a text, students might find
examples of different past tenses and say how and why they are used. In the inductive approach, students
discover language patterns themselves, rather than having everything handed to them by the teacher. The text
suggests that the choice of approach will depend on factors such as the level of the students and what elements
of language they are studying. Some students prefer the deductive approach, while others prefer the discovery
activities of the inductive approach.
Explaining meaning
There are various ways to explain the meaning of words and concepts to students. Showing objects or actions
through gestures, miming, or facial expressions can make meanings instantly clear. Pictures and diagrams can also
be used to explain situations and concepts. If none of these methods work, describing the meaning of the word or
listing vocabulary items can be useful. Check questions can ensure that students have understood correctly.
Translation is also a way to make meanings clear, but it can be difficult with idioms and phrases that have no direct
equivalent in the other language. The key to effective explanations is to choose the best method that fits the
meaning that needs to be conveyed. Teachers often use a combination of these techniques, and check questions
are important to determine if students have understood correctly.
Explaining language construction
There are different ways of demonstrating and teaching grammatical constructions in language instruction. The
author suggests using various visual aids, such as gestures, diagrams, overhead transparencies, interactive
whiteboards, individual word cards, and Cuisenaire rods to demonstrate language patterns and constructions. The
goal is to help students understand the structure and rules of the language in a way that is easy to understand.
The author emphasizes the importance of using language that is appropriate and understandable to the students
being taught. The article also mentions the use of models to demonstrate sentence construction, including
isolating essential features and stressing and intonation patterns. The text provides specific examples, such as
explaining the rule for third-person singular in the present simple, and notes that students may have different
preferences for learning and understanding grammatical concepts.
Practice and controlled practice
This text discusses language acquisition and the importance of practice and repetition in helping students
internalize a new language. The author explains that controlled practice is important for helping students move
new language from short-term to long-term memory. Repetition is an effective method for this, whether it is done
in unison (choral) or individually. When practicing language, it is important to avoid predictable patterns so
students stay engaged. Once students have had enough repetition, cue-response drills can be used to encourage
spontaneous language use. Finally, freer practice can be used for higher-level students who need less controlled
practice.
Examples of language system teaching
The text discusses different approaches to teaching grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and language functions.
One approach is the "explain and practice" procedure, where the teacher models and explains a concept, and
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
then guides students through practicing it. Another approach is the "discovery" approach, where students explore
a concept on their own or in groups and then discuss and analyze what they have learned. The goal is to provide
students with opportunities to use the language in meaningful ways, such as describing daily routines or
discussing adjectives that describe grandparents.
The text suggests various techniques for teaching pronunciation, stress, intonation, and rhythm, including
activities like listening to audio tracks, showing unpunctuated phrases, sorting words by stress, matching phrases
with the same stress pattern, and using songs and chants.
For teaching vocabulary, the text suggests using flashcards for beginners and encouraging advanced students to
research and learn new words through dictionaries, search engines, or conversations with each other.
The second half of the text focuses on teaching language functions, such as making invitations, through activities
like miming a conversation and encouraging students to practice the language function by engaging in similar
conversations with each other. The text recommends that readers consult other resources for more ideas.
Mistakes, slips, errors and attempts
The text discusses the different types of mistakes that language learners can make and how teachers can provide
feedback to address them. The three categories of mistakes are slips, errors, and attempts. Slips can be corrected
by the students themselves, errors require explanation, and attempts result from a lack of knowledge. The way
feedback is given depends on the type of mistake made. Various factors can cause mistakes, such as not fully
understanding new information, interference from the student's first language, and developmental errors.
Teachers must understand that making mistakes is a natural part of language learning and use them as an
opportunity for students to learn more about the language.
Correcting student
The text discusses the use of correction during language learning activities. It highlights that instant and intrusive
correction during speaking activities can hinder the flow of the activity and inhibit students' language knowledge.
However, during study sessions, correction can be helpful to clarify language in students' minds. Teachers must be
careful when correcting students and avoid being insensitive, which can upset students and dent their confidence.
The teacher's job is to point out when something has gone wrong and see if students can correct themselves, but
sometimes students need help. Teachers can ask fellow students to help or explain the problem themselves. It is
important to ensure that students who make mistakes are not humiliated by the correction process. The text also
emphasizes the importance of praising students for their success, as it is just as important as correcting their
mistakes. Praise should be used effectively and not overused, so it retains its value. Teachers need to listen out for
mistakes, identify the problem, and correct it in the most efficient and tactful way possible.
7) Chapter 7) Teaching reading
Reasons for reading
The text discusses the importance of getting students to read English texts. Firstly, many students want to be able
to read texts in English for their careers, study purposes, or for pleasure. Reading is also useful for language
acquisition and helps students to improve their understanding of vocabulary, spelling, and writing. Reading texts
also provide good models for English writing and can be used to demonstrate how to construct sentences,
paragraphs, and whole texts. Finally, good reading texts can introduce interesting topics, stimulate discussion,
excite imaginative responses, and provide the foundation for well-rounded and fascinating lessons. In summary,
encouraging students to read English texts can have a positive impact on their language development, writing
skills, and overall learning experience.
Different kinds of reading
The article discusses the importance of reading English texts for students and highlights two types of reading:
extensive and intensive. Extensive reading is when students read for pleasure, and it can involve novels, web
pages, newspapers, or magazines. Students who read extensively often progress faster in their language
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
acquisition. On the other hand, intensive reading involves detailed focus on reading texts, usually in classrooms,
and is accompanied by study activities. Teachers may ask students to look at various genres and topics depending
on their specialties or interests. Intensive reading can help students understand the construction of texts, develop
their vocabulary and grammar, and improve their overall writing skills. Overall, reading is an essential part of
language learning, and teachers should encourage students to read extensively and intensively.
Reading levels
The text discusses the importance of selecting appropriate reading materials for students. Authentic texts are
desirable, but beginner students may find them too difficult to understand. A balance should be struck between
real English and students’ capabilities and interests. Students will be able to deal with higher-level material when
reading with the support of a teacher and other students, but when reading for pleasure, lower-level students are
encouraged to use simplified or graded readers. These readers are graded so that they use language appropriate
for each level, allowing students to enjoy reading even when there is no teacher to help them. It's important to
choose texts that are as much like real English as possible, and to differentiate between extensive reading (reading
done away from the classroom for pleasure) and intensive reading (detailed focus on the construction of reading
texts usually done in the classroom accompanied by study activities).
Reading skills
The text discusses the importance of teaching reading skills to students. Students need to be able to scan a text to
find specific information and skim it to get a general idea of what it is about. These skills are crucial as they allow
students to efficiently gather information without reading every word. However, reading for detailed
comprehension requires a different set of skills, such as looking for specific information or picking out examples of
language use. It is important to offer a variety of materials and activities to help students practice using these
various reading skills with English text.
Reading principles
The text outlines six principles for effective reading instruction.
Principle 1 emphasizes the importance of encouraging students to read as often and as much as possible, both
extensively and intensively. Teachers should discuss this principle with students.
Principle 2 highlights the importance of student engagement with reading material, particularly joyful reading
outside of lesson time. During lessons, teachers should ensure students are engaged with the topic of the reading
and related activities.
Principle 3 stresses the importance of encouraging students to respond to the content of a text and explore their
feelings about it, rather than solely focusing on its construction. Students should be allowed to express their
personal engagement with the topic and language.
Principle 4 discusses the role of prediction in reading and suggests teachers give students “hints” to help them
predict what is coming. Students should be encouraged to look at book covers and back cover copy to help them
select what to read.
Principle 5 advises matching reading tasks to the topic when using intensive reading texts. Good reading tasks
should be appropriate for the level of challenge for the class, and should be interesting and imaginative to keep
students engaged.
Principle 6 emphasizes the importance of fully exploiting reading texts in class. Good teachers integrate the
reading text into interesting lesson sequences, use the topic for discussion and further tasks, use the language for
study and activation, and use a range of activities to bring the text to life.
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
Reading sequences
The text describes three different examples of reading tasks that teachers can use to improve their students'
reading skills. The first example is for pre-intermediate students and involves looking at a picture and discussing
how to protect oneself from the sun. Students are then asked to read a text, identify its source, and put skin, hair,
and eye colors in order of vulnerability to the sun. The second example is for intermediate students and involves a
role-play activity in which students read a text, answer questions, match words and meanings, and correct
sentences before engaging in a radio discussion role-play. The third example is for advanced students and involves
reading a longer text and then answering a series of questions and discussing them with classmates. The text
emphasizes the importance of engaging students in reading and following up with other skills such as speaking
and writing.
More reading suggestions
The article discusses different ways to make reading activities more interesting and motivating for students. The
first technique mentioned is called "jigsaw reading," where students read a short text that sets up a problem, and
then read three different texts about the same thing in groups. Afterward, students come together to share their
information and work out the whole story. The author also suggests other reading puzzle activities such as giving
students texts that have been chopped up or mixed up, as well as using newspapers for matching exercises, roleplaying, and following instructions. Another idea is to use poetry, play extracts, and predicting from words and
pictures as ways to engage students in reading activities. The article emphasizes that these techniques not only
make reading more interesting but also give students a reason for reading and sharing what they have found out.
Encouraging students to read extensively
The text highlights the importance of extensive reading for students at pre-advanced levels, and provides four key
factors that contribute to the success of this approach. Firstly, students need access to a library or collection of
readers at their level and above and below it. The library should have a variety of genres available, such as factual,
novels, and adaptations of films. Secondly, students should be able to choose what they read, both in terms of
genre and level, as this increases their enthusiasm for reading. Thirdly, students should have the opportunity to
give feedback on what they have read, which can be done informally through quick comment forms or a folder
with different forms for different titles. Lastly, time should be given for reading, including a dedicated ten-minute
reading period during classes, and it is important for teachers to model the activity by reading themselves. While
not all students will become active readers, it is important to encourage them to do so by providing the necessary
support and resources.
8) Chapter 8) Teaching writing
Reasons for teaching writing
The text discusses the importance of writing for students both in and outside the classroom. Writing allows
students more time to process and think about language, which is particularly useful for reinforcing language
learned in class. Writing-for-learning activities are used to help students practice and work with language they
have been studying, while writing-for-writing activities are designed to develop the students’ skills as writers. In
writing-for-learning activities, the focus is on the language itself, while in writing-for-writing activities, the focus is
on the whole text, including appropriate language use, text construction, layout, style, and effectiveness. It is
important to offer different types of writing activities and to provide feedback and correction based on the type of
writing the students are doing.
Writing issues
The article discusses how the type of writing and the way it is taught to students depends on their age, level,
learning styles, and interests. It emphasizes the need to consider three main issues when teaching writing: genre,
the writing process, and building the writing habit.
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
Regarding genre, the article explains that genres are types of writing recognizable to members of a discourse
community, and students need to be exposed to examples of different genres to understand their conventions. At
lower levels, students may imitate models, but as their language level improves, they should be encouraged to
express their own creativity within a genre.
The writing process involves planning, drafting, reviewing, and editing, which should be encouraged even though
it may be time-consuming and initially met with resistance. By engaging students in this process, they can become
better writers and succeed in exams and real-life situations.
Finally, building the writing habit is important to engage students in writing activities, even if they lack confidence
or think it is boring. Activities should be easy and enjoyable to create opportunities for students to achieve success
and develop enthusiasm for writing.
Overall, the article stresses the importance of considering individual students' needs and interests when teaching
writing and engaging them in the writing process to develop their skills and confidence.
Writing sequences
This text is about three examples of writing exercises that teachers can use to help students improve their writing
skills. The first example is about writing postcards, which is a guided writing sequence for pre-intermediate to
intermediate level students. Students are taught how to write postcards by reading a sample postcard and
deciding where the missing words should go. They then write their own postcards and pay attention to the
structure of postcards. The second example is about conducting an email interview with a celebrity, which is a
highly effective way to help students write communicatively. Students are first shown an example of this kind of
interview and then write their own questions to ask a classmate. The classmate responds to the questions and
then the students write up the interview appropriately. The third example is about writing a report, which is a
detailed sequence for upper-intermediate students. Students are asked to read a report and match sections of it
with specific headings. Then, they complete the report using linking words and synonyms. Finally, they write their
own report in six stages. The text emphasizes that writing often leads to work in other skills, such as speaking and
reading.
More writing suggestion
The article suggests various strategies for developing writing skills in learners. One of the strategies mentioned is
to encourage instant writing, where students respond to teacher requests by writing immediately. Activities like
dictating half sentences for completion or asking students to write two sentences about a given topic can help
develop this habit. Pictures and music can also be used as stimuli for writing. For example, students can write
descriptions of pictures, write inner thoughts or articles about portrait characters, or imagine and write a scene
based on music.
Newspapers and magazines can also be used for genre analysis, followed by writing within that genre. Students
can analyze how headlines and articles are constructed and write their own articles about real or imaginary news
stories. They can also learn from agony column letters and write their own. Brochures and guides can be used to
analyze how they are put together, and students can write their own brochures or town guides using this analysis.
Poetry writing is suggested as an engaging way to encourage creative expression. Students can be asked to write
acrostic poems or poetry alphabets, or use sentence frames to write about what they like and dislike.
Collaborative writing is also encouraged, where students work together to build up a letter on the board.
Correcting written work
The article discusses the issue of correcting students' written work, which can be demotivating for students,
especially when it is heavily marked with red ink, underlinings, and crossings-out. Even when students' work is full
of mistakes, over-correction can be discouraging. Therefore, teachers need to find a balance between being
accurate and truthful while treating students sensitively and sympathetically. One way to avoid the overcorrection problem is to correct only specific aspects, such as punctuation, spelling, or grammar. Teachers can also
use a list of written symbols to underline discreetly and write the symbol in the margin. For electronic media,
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
teachers can use editing tools like Track Changes to make it easier for students to write the correct version.
However, teachers need to use such applications carefully as they can also be discouraging. While students are
involved in the writing process, correction may not help them learn to edit their own work, whereas responding
by making suggestions and teasing out alternatives will. Therefore, teachers need to react to both the form and
content of students' writing and ensure that students understand the corrections and why they are necessary.
Handwriting
The article discusses the importance of legibility and neatness in writing, particularly for students who still use
pens and pencils. It acknowledges that many nationalities have different scripts, making it doubly difficult for them
to write in English. While teachers cannot ask students to change their handwriting style, they can encourage
neatness and legibility, which is important for students intending to take pen-and-paper exams. Teachers can
organize special classes or group sessions to help students having difficulty with English script by showing them
examples of certain letters and demonstrating the strokes necessary for making those shapes. Students can also
be shown where to start the first stroke of a letter and be asked to write in the air to give them confidence or
trace letters on lined paper that demonstrate the position and height of letters before imitating them. The article
concludes that despite the increasing use of electronic media for writing, handwriting remains important for many
people and should not be ignored.
9) Chapter 9) Teaching Speaking
Reasons for teaching speaking
The article discusses the importance of speaking activities in the classroom for language learning. Firstly, speaking
activities provide opportunities for students to practice real-life speaking in a safe environment. Secondly, they
provide feedback for both the teacher and the students, allowing everyone to see how well they are doing and
what language problems they are experiencing. Thirdly, regular opportunities to activate the various elements of
language stored in their brains help students become autonomous language users. Speaking activities should be
engaging and involve students using any and all of the language at their command to achieve a purpose. The
article emphasizes that the activities should not just focus on specific language constructions but should be
designed to foster better speaking skills. The article suggests that the teaching of speaking depends on having a
classroom culture of speaking, and that classrooms need to become "talking classrooms" to improve students'
confidence and abilities.
Speaking sequences
The text describes different speaking activities that can be used in language learning. The activities aim to provide
students with a purpose for their speaking and to activate any and all of the language they know to talk about
something other than learning English. The text provides two examples of speaking activities with different levels
of difficulty: a photographic competition and a role-play.
The photographic competition activity involves students working in groups to become judges of a photographic
competition. Before seeing the finalists, students need to discuss criteria for choosing the winner. Once they see
the finalists, they have to use the criteria they agreed upon to choose the winning photograph. Finally, the groups
have to report back on their choices and say exactly why they chose them. This activity allows the teacher to feed
useful words and phrases into the discussion and provides a lot of examples of student language, which can be
used later in study sequences.
The role-play activity involves setting up a dramatic situation and giving the participants role-cards, which tell
them how they feel and what they want to achieve. In this specific role-play, students are divided into five groups:
the suspect, two police officers, a lawyer, and a parent. Each member of the group is given the role-card for the
part they are to play. The aim of this activity is to simulate a real-life situation and have students speak and act
from their new character’s point of view. The activity can help students improve their communication and
negotiation skills.
Discussion
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
The text discusses the benefits of spontaneous and planned discussions in language learning. While spontaneous
discussions can be rare, they can be highly gratifying and provoke fluent language use. However, planned
discussions can be less successful if students are not given time to assemble their thoughts before the discussion.
Therefore, it is important to provide pre-discussion rehearsal time for students, such as putting them in small
groups to explore the topic before organizing a discussion with the whole class. Teachers can also help students by
providing cards with brief statements of arguments, making the discussion the end of a lengthier process, getting
students to rewrite statements to represent the group's opinion, and suggesting things they can say to push the
discussion along. Teachers can also put students into opposing groups and give them time to prepare arguments
for or against a proposition to encourage more structured discussion. Overall, it is important to give students time
and support to prepare for discussions to promote more successful language learning.
More speaking suggestions
The article suggests various activities that can help students to practice speaking as a skill. Some of the activities
are level-specific and more appropriate for higher-level students, while some are appropriate for lower-level
students but can also be used with advanced classes. Information-gap activities such as Describe and draw and
Find the differences can be useful in getting students to share different bits of information to complete a whole
picture. Students can also be encouraged to tell stories in English, either by using the information-gap principle or
by retelling stories they have read or heard. The article also suggests activities such as Favourite objects, Meeting
and greeting, and Surveys that can help students to communicate in different social situations and interview each
other. The article emphasizes the importance of ensuring that students understand the details of the task before
engaging in the activities.
Correcting speaking
The article discusses the importance of correcting mistakes made during speaking activities in a way that is
appropriate and does not disrupt the flow of conversation. It suggests that when students are practicing
pronunciation, the teacher may correct every mistake, but during a discussion, interrupting to correct mistakes
can harm the purpose of the activity. Instead, the teacher should note down mistakes and provide feedback after
the activity has ended. It is important not to single out students for criticism and to ensure correction is done in a
non-obtrusive way. The article also notes that different students may prefer to be corrected in different ways and
that talking to them about it can help in providing appropriate correction. Overall, the goal of correction during
speaking activities is to help students improve while also maintaining the conversational flow and purpose of the
activity.
What teacher do during a speaking activity
The text discusses the involvement of teachers in speaking activities. Some teachers tend to participate actively in
the activities, which can be beneficial as long as they don't dominate the discussion. However, it's better for
teachers to stand back and observe the activity, but they can participate appropriately. If the activity is not going
well, the teacher may need to intervene by deciding if the activity should be stopped or if it can be restarted with
careful prompting. Teachers should be sympathetic and sensitive while prompting, just like correction.
10) Chapter 10) Teaching Listening
Reasons for listening
The article discusses the importance of listening for students learning English, both for understanding spoken
language and improving their own pronunciation. It highlights that spoken English can be significantly different
from written English, and that exposure to different regional varieties of English is important for students. While a
teacher's voice is an important source of listening practice, students should also be exposed to different Englishes
from around the world. However, teachers need to exercise judgment in deciding which varieties to expose their
students to, based on their level of competence and previous exposure.
Different kinds of listening
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
The article discusses the differences between intensive and extensive listening. Extensive listening is done outside
of the classroom and for pleasure or other reasons, such as listening to CDs, MP3 players, DVDs, videos, or on the
Internet. Extensive listening materials should be texts that students can enjoy and understand without the
intervention of a teacher or course materials. Students can use tapes and CDs to listen to coursebook dialogues
again after they have studied them in class. There are also growing numbers of podcast sites from where students
can download free materials. Encouraging students to go to English language films with subtitles is another way of
getting them involved in a form of extensive listening.
Intensive listening, on the other hand, is done specifically to work on listening skills and to study the way in which
English is spoken. It usually takes place in classrooms or language laboratories, with teachers present to guide
students through any listening difficulties and point them to areas of interest.
The article also discusses listening sources. A lot of listening is experienced from recorded extracts on CD, tape, or
via MP3 players of some kind. These recordings can be commercially produced or recorded by teachers
themselves using modern recording technology available through a range of media. Live listening, which is the
name given to real-life face-to-face encounters in the classroom, is also discussed. In particular, live listening refers
to situations in which the teacher brings visitors into the class or role-plays different characters for the students to
talk and listen to. The advantage of live listening over recorded extracts is that the students can interact with the
speaker on the basis of what they are saying, making the whole listening experience far more dynamic and
exciting.
Listening levels
The article discusses the importance of teaching listening skills to students and the different types of listening,
which include extensive and intensive listening. Extensive listening is done outside the classroom and should
consist of audio material that students can enjoy without the intervention of a teacher or course materials.
Intensive listening, on the other hand, is done specifically to work on listening skills and to study the way in which
English is spoken. This type of listening usually takes place in the classroom or language laboratories, with
teachers present to guide students through any listening difficulties.
The article also highlights the different sources of listening materials, such as recorded extracts and live listening,
and emphasizes the need for teachers to expose students to a variety of genres and registers. However, when
selecting materials, teachers must decide whether to use authentic speech, which is spoken by native- or
competent speakers of English, or inauthentic speech, which doesn't sound like the real thing. While authentic
speech is preferred, it may be too difficult for lower-level students, so teachers must aim for realistic language use
that matches the students' level.
In conclusion, the article stresses the importance of exposing students to authentic English as soon and as often as
possible while also providing them with materials that match their level to develop their listening skills effectively.
Listening skills
The article discusses the importance of students being able to listen to a variety of materials in different ways.
Students need to be able to recognize paralinguistic clues such as intonation to understand mood and meaning.
They also need to be able to listen for specific information, as well as for more general understanding, depending
on the type of material they are listening to. The article highlights that students are usually good at listening to
different things in their own language(s), and our job as teachers is to help them become skilled in this area when
listening to English. Finally, the article mentions that if students have difficulty with multiskilling in listening,
further strategies will be discussed in Chapter 14.
Listening principles
This text outlines six principles for teaching listening skills in English. The first principle emphasizes the importance
of encouraging students to listen as often and as much as possible. This can be achieved by incorporating listening
activities into classroom instruction and encouraging students to listen to English through various mediums
outside of class. The second principle involves helping students prepare to listen by engaging with the topic and
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|36460418
predicting what is coming, which can improve comprehension. The third principle recognizes that listening may
need to be repeated multiple times, and students should be encouraged to ask for clarification when needed. The
fourth principle suggests that teachers should encourage students to respond to the content of a listening, not just
the language, to facilitate understanding and engagement. The fifth principle suggests that different listening
stages require different tasks, with initial listening tasks being more general and later tasks focusing on specific
details or language use. Finally, the sixth principle stresses that good teachers should exploit listening texts to the
full by using them for multiple applications and incorporating them into teaching sequences.
Listening sequences
This text discusses two examples of listening activities that can be used to develop language skills. The first
example is a live interview, which can be done with a visitor to the classroom or through a webcam. Students
prepare questions to ask the interviewee, listen carefully to their answers and follow up with further questions.
The activity helps students to develop listening skills and encourages them to use phrases to help them
understand the conversation. The second example is about buying tickets, where students match four
conversations to four pictures and then listen again to fill in blanks from the audio script. This activity helps
students to focus on the specific language used in the conversation and encourages them to activate their
language skills by having similar exchanges with a partner. The text emphasizes that these listening activities are
skill-based and can be used to lead into work on other language skills.
More listening suggestions
The text discusses various methods for teaching listening skills in language classes. One method is called "Jigsaw
Listening" where students listen to three different tapes or recordings about the same topic and compare notes to
assemble all the facts and solve a mystery. Another method is "Message-taking" where students listen to a phone
message and write down the message on a message pad. Students can also listen to announcements in airports or
on railway stations and match them with pictures or respond by saying what they are going to do next.
The text also suggests using music and sound effects in language classes, such as filling in blanks in song lyrics or
using instrumental music to get students in the right mood for creative tasks. News and other radio genres can
also be used, such as listening to a news broadcast and identifying topics from a list or converting facts and figures
into chart or graph form. Radio commercials and phone-ins can also be used for matching speakers with topics or
analyzing safety messages.
Poetry can be used in various ways, such as listening to poems being read aloud and identifying the mood or color
they suggest, putting in punctuation where students think it should occur, or predicting the words in a poem
based on its title. Finally, storytelling and monologues can be used for different listening tasks, such as putting
pictures in the order of a story, guessing the end of a story, or identifying the subject and opinion of a speech.
Audio y video
The text discusses the use of video as a tool for teaching listening skills to language learners. Video content can
provide additional visual clues such as body language and setting to aid in understanding meaning. However, it is
important to select material that is appropriate to the level and interests of the students to keep them motivated
and engaged.
Some teachers are concerned that video may be less effective than audio because the visual component may
distract from the audio content. Students may also treat video content passively like television, which can lead to
a lack of engagement with the language.
The text suggests four techniques for using video content effectively: playing the video without sound to
encourage discussion and prediction of dialogue, fast forwarding or rewinding to check predictions with sound,
playing audio without video to focus on listening skills, using freeze frames to predict action and language, and
dividing the class in half to describe visual images to each other.
Overall, the use of video content can be a valuable tool for teaching listening skills, but it is important to use
appropriate material and engage students actively in the learning process.
Downloaded by Tu?ba I??ko?lu (isikoglutugba@gmail.com)