LECTURE NOTES
4TH QUARTER
Lecture Note 01
ESSAY
An essay is a short piece of writing that presents ideas,
arguments, or information about a specific topic. It usually
has an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
THREE MAIN PARTS OF AN ESSAY
•
•
•
Introduction – the opening paragraph that introduces the topic
and provides a brief overview. It usually includes a thesis
statement, which presents the main idea of the essay.
Body – the main part of the essay, consisting of multiple
paragraphs that explain, support, and develop the main idea with
facts, examples, and arguments.
Conclusion – the final paragraph that summarizes the main points
and gives a closing thought or reflection on the topic.
Note: A thesis statement is a sentence or two that summarizes the main
idea of a piece of writing. It usually appears at the end of the introduction
or first paragraph.
Lecture Note 02
EXPOSITORY ESSAY
➢
Expository writing is defined as
presenting reasons, explanations, or
steps in a process.
➢
The main purpose of an expository essay
is to present completely and fairly, other
people's views or to report about an
event or situation.
➢
It is designed to convey information or
explain what is difficult to understand.
Lecture Note 03
NARRATIVE ESSAY
The purpose of narrative writing is to:
• entertain the reader
• tell stories—realistic or imaginary
• spark emotion and creativity
Narrative writing is, essentially, storytelling.
Storytelling comes in many forms.
Whether you are recounting factual or
fictional events, narratives tell a story with
emotion, descriptive details and clear event
sequences. Common examples include:
short stories, screen plays, drama or plays,
novels.
Lecture Note 04
PERSUASIVE ESSAY
A persuasive essay is a type of writing that aims
to convince the reader to accept a particular
viewpoint or take a specific action. It uses logic,
reasoning, and emotional appeals to support its
argument.
Purpose of a Persuasive Essay
•To convince the reader to agree with the writer’s
opinion.
•To influence the reader’s thoughts, beliefs, or
actions.
•To present strong arguments supported by
evidence.
•To engage the reader through logical reasoning
and emotional appeal.
Features of a Persuasive Essay
1.Clear Thesis Statement – The main argument or position is clearly stated in
the introduction.
2.Logical Organization – Ideas are structured in a logical manner, usually
with an introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.
3.Strong Evidence – Facts, statistics, examples, expert opinions, and logical
reasoning are used to support the argument.
4.Persuasive Techniques – Use of rhetorical devices such as ethos
(credibility), pathos (emotional appeal), and logos (logic).
5.Counterarguments and Rebuttals – Acknowledging opposing viewpoints
and refuting them with strong arguments.
6.Engaging Language – Convincing and persuasive tone with strong, clear,
and compelling language.
7.Call to Action – Encourages the reader to take a specific step or change
their opinion.
TIPS IN WRITING A PERSUASIVE ESSAY
1. Start with a Strong Thesis Statement
•Your thesis should clearly state your position on the topic.
•Keep it concise and debatable.
•Example: "School uniforms should be mandatory because they
promote equality, reduce bullying, and improve focus in class."
2. Know Your Audience
•Consider who will be reading your essay and tailor your
arguments to appeal to them.
•Use language and evidence that resonate with their values and
beliefs.
TIPS IN WRITING A PERSUASIVE ESSAY
3. Use Strong Evidence and Examples
•Support your claims with facts, statistics, expert opinions, and
real-life examples.
•Cite credible sources to strengthen your argument.
•Example: "According to a 2022 study by the National Education
Association, schools with uniforms saw a 30% decrease in bullying
incidents."
TIPS IN WRITING A PERSUASIVE ESSAY
4. Address Counterarguments
•Acknowledge opposing views and refute them logically.
•This shows you’ve considered different perspectives and makes
your argument stronger.
•Example: "While some argue that school uniforms limit selfexpression, students can still showcase their individuality through
extracurricular activities and personal accessories."
TIPS IN WRITING A PERSUASIVE ESSAY
5. Use Persuasive Language and Rhetorical Devices
•Utilize techniques like:
• Ethos (credibility): Referencing experts or personal authority.
• Pathos (emotion): Using anecdotes or powerful language to
evoke emotions.
• Logos (logic): Presenting clear and logical reasoning.
•Example: "Imagine a world where no child is judged for their
clothing—where confidence, not fashion, defines a student's
success."
Lecture Note 05
MAKING ASSERTIONS,
CLAIMS, INFERENCES, AND
CONCLUSIONS
Assertions, claims, inferences, and
conclusions are all related to reasoning
and argumentation, but they have distinct
roles.
Lecture Note 05
MAKING AN ASSERTION
Definition: A statement that is presented as fact, often
without supporting evidence.
"Teenage pregnancy rates are high in many developing
countries."
This is a statement of fact, but it does not provide any
supporting data or evidence.
Key Feature: Simply states something without proving it.
Basic Assertion Phrases:
-
It is evident that…
- Studies have shown that…
Clearly,…
- Research suggests that…
Without a doubt,
- It is undeniable that…
Data indicates that… - The fact remains that…
Experts agree that… - There is no denying that…
Lecture Note 05
MAKING A CLAIM
Definition: A position or opinion that requires justification or
evidence.
"Lack of proper parental guidance is a major cause of
teenage pregnancy."
This takes a position and requires evidence, such as studies
showing the impact of parental guidance on pregnancy rates.
Key Feature: Can be debated and needs support.
Basic Claim Phrases:
-
I argue that…
- Findings demonstrate that…
My position is that
- Research indicates that…
It is my belief that…
- This study proposes that…
The fact remains that…
- The data suggests that…
One must acknowledge that…
Scholars have argued that…
Lecture Note 05
MAKING AN INFERENCE
Definition: A logical conclusion drawn from available
evidence and reasoning.
"Since many teenage mothers drop out of school, they are
likely to have fewer job opportunities in the future."
This is not directly stated but is a reasonable conclusion based
on the known link between education and employment.
Key Feature: Not directly stated but logically derived.
Basic Inference Phrases:
-
This implies that…
- Scholars infer that…
It can be inferred that…
The evidence indicates that…
Research findings imply that…
These patterns indicate that…
Lecture Note 05
MAKING A CONCLUSION
Definition: The final judgment or decision reached after
evaluating evidence and reasoning.
"Therefore, proper parental guidance can help reduce
teenage pregnancy rates and improve young mothers' futures."
This is a final takeaway after considering different causes and
consequences.
Key Feature: The final takeaway or result of an argument.
Basic Conclusion Phrases:
-
In conclusion,…
To sum up,…
To conclude,…
- All in all,…
- As a result,…
- It is clear that…
-
In summary,…
- Therefore,…
Lecture Note 05
Term
Definition
Key Feature
Example
"Teenage pregnancy is
A statement
No proof
Assertion
a serious issue
presented as fact required
worldwide."
A debatable
"Teenage pregnancy is
Claim
Needs support caused by a lack of
position that
needs evidence
parental guidance."
"Teenage mothers often
A logical
Derived from struggle financially
Inference conclusion based
reasoning
because they cannot
on evidence
finish school."
"To reduce teenage
The final decision
pregnancy, society must
End result of
Conclusion after considering
focus on education,
reasoning
healthcare, and parental
all evidence
involvement."
Lecture Note 05
TYPES OF EVIDENCES
When analyzing supporting evidence to validate assertions
and counterclaims, we assess how reliable and persuasive
the evidence is. Below is an explanation of different types
of evidence and how they support assertions or
counterclaims:
1. Factual Knowledge
Definition: Information that is verifiable and universally
accepted
as
true.
Example: “Reading print materials engages more
cognitive
functions
than
digital
reading.”
Use in Argument: Strong support for assertions
because it is objective and can be checked.
Counterclaim Challenge: If outdated or incorrect,
counterclaims may use more recent or specific facts
Lecture Note 05
TYPES OF EVIDENCES
2. Statistical Inferences
Definition: Data-based conclusions drawn from
research and numerical analysis.
Example: “A national assessment shows that 80%
of Filipino students struggle with reading
comprehension.’’
Use in Argument: Provides concrete, researchbacked evidence.
Counterclaim Challenge: Opponents may argue
data is outdated, biased, or misinterpreted.
Lecture Note 05
TYPES OF EVIDENCES
3. Informed Opinion
Definition: An expert’s viewpoint based on
knowledge, experience, or research.
Example: "A literacy expert argues that traditional
reading habits are declining due to gadget dependency."
Use in Argument: Strengthens assertions by
providing professional perspectives.
Counterclaim Challenge: Critics may question the
expert’s credibility or present another expert with a
different viewpoint.
Lecture Note 05
TYPES OF EVIDENCES
4. Personal Testimony
Definition: A firsthand account or personal
experience supporting a claim.
Example: "A teacher shares how students who read
books regularly perform better in comprehension tests."
Use in Argument: Makes an argument relatable
and emotionally persuasive.
Counterclaim Challenge: Lacks broad
applicability—one person’s experience doesn’t mean it
applies to everyone.
Lecture Note 05
HOW TO VALIDATE AN
EVIDENCE?
Check sources – Are they credible (e.g.,
academic journals, government reports)?
Verify accuracy – Can the facts or statistics
be
cross-checked?
Assess bias – Is the evidence neutral or
pushing
an
agenda?
Consider relevance – Does the evidence
directly support the assertion?