Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41872-023-00222-w
REVIEW
The effectiveness of total loss control approach in accident prevention
in industries in Zimbabwe
Tapiwa Shabani1 · Steven Jerie1 · Takunda Shabani1
Received: 24 February 2023 / Accepted: 19 April 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Society for Reliability and Safety (SRESA) 2023
Abstract
Accident prevention in industries is an important phenomena in Zimbabwe. This review paper looks at the effectiveness of
total loss control approach in accident prevention in industries in Zimbabwe. The review looks at the literature on the total loss
control approach and how it has been implemented in Zimbabwean industrial settings. Articles were searched from different
databases notably PubMed, African Journals Online, Science Direct, Scopus, Springer, Google Scholar and Sage Publications. The paper reviews the studies conducted in Zimbabwe on the total loss control approach, identifying its strengths and
weaknesses. The review indicates features which are applied for total loss control approach such as hazard identification,
risk assessment, safety audits and inspections, safety communication, safety education and training, safe design, accident
investigation, accidents reports and use of hierarchy of controls. It finds that the total loss control approach is effective in
reducing the number of accidents in Zimbabwean, as long as it is implemented properly. The findings suggest that the total
loss control approach could be further improved by better enforcement of safety regulations and more stringent safety papers.
Keywords Industries · Accidents · Loss prevention · Total loss control · Injury control · Damage control · Hazard
identification · Risk assessment · Hierarchy of controls
1 Introduction
Accidents are unfortunately a common occurrence within
the industrial sector in Zimbabwe, resulting from a variety of factors such as inadequate safety regulations, lack of
protective equipment, and improper training (Singo et al.
2022a, b, c; Mabika 2018). Modern industries are associated with accidents which causes injuries, disabilities and
illnesses as well as economic waste (Gwezuva and Jerie
2018; Chikova 2013; Moyo et al. 2017). This points out that
workers are affected with fatal and non-fatal accidents in
industries which causes different losses. Nevertheless, the
total loss control approach has been used in many developed
* Takunda Shabani
shabstaku@gmail.com
Tapiwa Shabani
tapiwashaban@gmail.com
Steven Jerie
jeries@staff.msu.ac.zw
1
Department of Geography, Environmental Sustainability
and Resilience Building, Midlands State University, P. Bag
9055, Gweru, Zimbabwe
countries in an effort to reduce the number of occupational
accidents. In 2005 the United States construction industry
recorded 1, 243 fatal accidents according to the Center for
Construction Research and Training (2008), however the
number of fatal accidents decline to 971 in 2017 due to use
of different methods to manage accidents including total loss
control approach (US Bureau of Labor Statistics 2018). This
reveals that total loss control approach proves its effectiveness in developed countries since it manages to reduce fatal
accidents in construction industries of United States. This
implies that even if Zimbabwe’s industries applies total loss
control approach it become effective in accident prevention.
When the loss control method is used to control both human
injuries and property losses within the industry it is regarded
as total loss control (Chen et al. 2019; Dora et al. 2020).
Total loss control approach is a practical, systematic method
to prevent mishaps and their effects to the work environment,
equipment and the employees by incorporating occupational
safety and health within the workplace (Lees 2012; De Rademaeker et al. 2014; Lee et al. 2019). Total loss control is
also regarded as Total Loss Prevention when the concept is
achieved through engineering controls. Total loss control
approach was developed in the early 2000s to reduce the
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Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
number of occupational accidents in the industrial sector
(Loow and Nygren 2019). It is based on the belief that when
people, equipment, and materials are managed properly, the
risk of accidents and work-related death can be minimized.
A company in Nigeria called Federal Ministry of Labour
and Productivity Inspectorate recorded 29 deaths in 2002
due to work related accidents and the figure falls to 6 deaths
in 2008 due to use of different components of total loss control approach (Nnedinma Umeokafor 2014). The total loss
control approach focuses on three main components which
are Hazard Identification, risk assessment and control measures (Kim et al. 2019; Ghahramani and Salminen 2019).
This postulates that the main objective of total loss control
approach is to identify hazards, assess the associated risks,
and then implement control measures to reduce or eliminate
the hazards.
In less developed countries the level of occupational injuries is 10 to 20 times greater than that of countries which are
regarded as developed (Kortum et al. 2010). These statistics
demonstrate a tip of iceberg since most occupational accidents, injuries and deaths as well as work-related illnesses
go unreported by employees within formal and informal
industries as a result of poor reporting systems in developing
countries. In addition, the situation cannot spare Zimbabwe
since it is among developing countries. As a result, total
loss control approach is significant part of any organisation
in order to support its safety program. This is vital because
occupational safety and health regulations only serve about
10% of the working population in less developed countries,
neglecting numerous risky industries (LaDou 2003; Kheni
et al. 2010), majority of small and medium industries in
developing countries like Zimbabwe are not registered so
that they cannot be protected by safety laws (International
Labour Organisation 2010; Gwezuva and Jerie 2018). This
points out that some of the industries in developing countries
have little access to occupational safety and health information as a result they lack awareness on how to implement
safety measures to protect workers from accidents. This
occurs because small and medium scale industries which
employ most of the workers in developing countries fail to
meet the occupational safety and health guidelines set by
ILO and WHO to protect workers (World Health Organisation/International Labour Organisation 2001; Tadesse
and Kumie 2007). This means that the overall informality
of things and high level of poverty triggers environmental
degradation and poor standards of occupational health and
safety in African countries like Zimbabwe, which increase
the frequency of accidents in industries. In less developed
countries accidents which affect industries are 3 to 6 times
greater than accidents which affect industries in developed
countries (Gurcanli and Mungen 2013). This clearly indicates that total loss control approach is working effectively
in developed countries, as a result developing countries
13
must adopt it to control industrial accidents effectively and
Zimbabwe must not ignore since it is among the developing
countries.
The economic melt-down which affect Zimbabwe since
the introduction of Economic Structural Adjustment Programme crippled the proper operation of major industries
in Zimbabwe and led to the formation of small and medium
industries which expose employees to a myriad of accidents
(Gwezuva and Jerie 2018; Bomani et al. 2015; Chigwenya
and Mudzengerere 2013). In developed nations for example
Australia, Europe and North America occupational injuries
are low because they plan and budget for occupational safety
better than developing countries (Khan et al. 2019; Akhter
et al. 2019). Even most of secondary data sources focusing
on different methods for accident prevention including total
loss control approach are published in developed countries
than in developing countries and this is supported by Fig. 1
developed using data generated from Scopus. This implies
that there is few literature focusing on accident prevention in
developing countries therefore, this paper will focus on the
effectiveness of total loss control approach in accident prevention in industries in Zimbabwe as a developing country.
It is estimated that only 16% of industries in Zimbabwe have
approved and applied the safety policies, and some raise
challenges which hinder the use of safety policies such as
lack of knowledge, lack of resources and poor management
commitment (Mkungunugwa et al. 2022). This posits that in
Zimbabwe there is shortcomings in the provision of occupational safety and health systems within work environments.
Generally, industries in Zimbabwe are affected with both
chemical, biological, physical, psychosocial and mechanical/ergonomic risks due to poor OHS (Gwezuva and Jerie
2018; Muchemwa 2018). This indicates that Zimbabwean
industries are affected with both major and fatal injuries
which needs attention to be eliminated to create a safe work
environment.
The consequences of risks affecting industries can be
reduced by use of total loss control strategies such as hazard
identification, risk analysis and assessment, safety design
and engineering, safety management and communication,
training and education, use of legislations as well as safety
audits and inspections (Brauer 2022; Chen et al. 2019). In
Zimbabwe, according to laws for example Labour Act, Factories and Works Act and National Social Security Authority
(NSSA), industries are required to provide safe work environments to workers. Despite the use of laws and legislations
governing safety in Zimbabwe industrial accidents continue
to rise (Moyo et al. 2015; Jerie 2012; Taderera 2012). This
implies that safety laws and regulations in Zimbabwe are
inadequately enforced due to shortage of labour in regulatory authorities notably National Social Security Authority
(NSSA) and Local Authorities. Gwezuva and Jerie (2018)
opined that there is shortage of labour at NSSA since it
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
Fig. 1 Hierarchy of controls.
Source: National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) (2015)
consists of 30 inspectors who cover the whole of Zimbabwe however, 12 of the inspectors are allocated for Harare
region which means they cover Harare as a whole, Harare
metropolitan province and Mashonaland Central and East
provinces.
Most of the accidents are affecting both small and
medium industries in Zimbabwe (Mudavanhu 2013; Nyanga
2022; Matsa et al. 2022). Wood processing industries are
positioned among industries which are affected with serious accidents, work-related injuries and illnesses in Zimbabwe (NSSA 2009). According to Jerie (2012), the safety of
processing machines, equipment, and tools and their connection to health requirements have received little attention
in Zimbabwe's woodworking industries. This means industries in Zimbabwe are operated under unfavourable conditions which expose workers to accidents hence the requirements of SDG number 3 on health and well-being are not
achieved. The trend of industrial accidents is disturbing
the economic status of Zimbabwe hence serious interventions by the government, employers and workers as well
as researchers is needed. Though methods used to prevent
accidents are there in Zimbabwe, Fig. 2 there is inadequate
evidence for the assessment of the effectiveness of the occupational safety and health strategies to improve the safety
of workers in industries. However, there is no evidence of
studies focusing on total loss control approach as a method
of preventing accidents in Zimbabwe as evidenced by Fig. 3
developed using Scopus data. Figure 3 shows studies which
were done in other African countries focusing on accident
prevention using different methods including total loss
control approach. Therefore, this review will examine the
effectiveness of the total loss control approach in accident
prevention in industries in Zimbabwe.
2 Study area
The study was conducted in Zimbabwe which consists of
15.1 people (ZIMSTAT, 2022). Most of the population
in Zimbabwe is employed in informal and formal sectors
(Tawodzera 2023; Zvitambo and Masukume 2023). Zimbabwe consists of small and medium industries which improves
the economy of the country. Industrial sector is regarded as
the most valuable sector in Zimbabwe since it contributes
25.1% of the gross domestic product (GDP) (World Atlas
2018). The contribution of industrial sector to the GDP is
high because there are different types of industries in Zimbabwe for example agriculture, construction, mining, tourism,
energy and wood processing industries. Agriculture is also
among important industries since it contributes 15–18% of
the total gross domestic product (Mujeyi et al. 2021). However, some of the industries are not registered as a result they
do not comply with safety regulations hence workers are
exposed to both fatal and non-fatal accidents which needs to
be monitored to reduce losses. Therefore, this review focuses
on examining the effectiveness of the total loss control
approach in accident prevention in industries in Zimbabwe.
13
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
Selected Countries
Fig. 2 Number of accident
prevention documents published
under Scopus at Global Level.
Source: Authors
Selected Countries
Fig. 3 Number of accident
prevention documents published
under Scopus in Africa. Source:
Authors
3 Methodology
Already published literature was used to compile the
review paper. Literature review was done to retrieve
information related to effectiveness of total loss control
approach in preventing industrial accidents. There is
scarcity of literature of effectiveness of total loss control
approach in preventing accidents as a result other industrial accidents documents which consists of aspects such
as hazard identification, risk assessment and accident loss
prevention were included. English literature which was
published until 2022 was retrieved to increase the validity
and reliability of the data used during the compilation of
13
the review. The relevance of the data was measured using
the abstract and key words of the review paper. Keywords
used to search the data were Industries, Accidents, Loss
prevention, Total loss control, Injury control, and Damage
control. Important articles were searched from different
databases notably PubMed, African Journals Online, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Springer, Google Scholar
and Sage Publications. The data collected was screened
and extra reduction was done to focus more on vital data
shown in current researches, results and methodologies
of published papers. Different review papers and journals
were used during the compilation of data for the study
because they were essential in providing data for different
headings found in the study.
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
4 Evolution of total loss control approach
According to the domino theory proposed by Heinrich,
Bird and Germain (1966, 1996), accident prevention is
best achieved by considering the potential damage it may
cause. Bird’s Accident Causation Model consist of 5 sets
however, it focuses much on the improvement of 2 dominoes of Heinrich’s model (Bird and Loftus 1976). Bird’s
accident causation model is represented by 5 dominoes
which link to each in line and it is also known as the Loss
Causation Model as stated by Health and Safety Professional Alliance (Borys et al. 2012). The Accident Causation Model proposed by Bird and Germain categorise
the basic causes into two factors which includes personal
and job factors. Bird and Germain’s model indicated that
deficiency of skills and knowledge of safety, inappropriate safety behaviour, psychological and physical flaws are
personal features which causes accidents.
Chemical plants which were built between 1950 and
1960s become bigger than the ones which were build earlier and their operations were associated with high temperatures and pressure and this intensifies serious accidents
(Townsend 2020; Jones and Lubinski 2014). This caused
the industries to introduce the use of new efficient and practical method to reduce accidents acknowledged as total loss
control approach. The total loss control approach consist of
different features notably hazard identification, risk assessment, safety audits and inspections, safety management and
communication, safety education and training, safe design,
accident investigation, accidents reports which distinguishes
it from other accidents management controls (Lees 2012;
Pitblado 2011; Musasa and Jerie 2022; Jerie and Matunhira 2022). This points out that a well organised modern
safety program should encompass factors such as training,
education, inspections, safety audits, hazard identification
and risk assessment hence it become effective in managing
accidents. According to Krzemien and Krzemien (2013) in
Poland mining industry is well modernised and mechanised,
and this causes the mining industry to record 311 fatal accidents in 10 years between the year 2000 and 2009. This
occurs because total loss control approach requires organised
modern and mechanised safety programs. Methods of hazard
identification (HIRA) such as hazard operability (HAZOP)
was quickly adopted by industries to manage accidents than
safety design which needs new technological designs and
processes (Khan et al. 2020; Rajkumar et al. 2021). Frank
Lees also mentioned that Loss Prevention in industries differs from traditional safety measures since it focus on hazard
identification and estimate consequences which might occur
as a result of hazards (Lees 2012).
Total loss control approach come into place as a result
of expansion of industries. The scale-up of the industries
was caused by the expanding economic activities and the
total loss control approach was developed to promote
occupational safety and health and increase sustainable
development (Gwezuva and Jerie 2018; Almeida et al.
2020). In the European countries, the issue of total loss
control commenced in the sixties because several hazards were occurring in industries (Pasman and Fabiano
2021; Chen and Reniers 2020). The European government authorities reacted (George and Rosamond 2018),
in Netherlands the Committee for Prevention of Industrial
Disasters was formed in 1964 (Swuste et al. 2014) and in
United Kingdom the Robens Committee formed the Health
and Safety Executive in 1972 (Clutterbuck 2019). Gul and
Ak (2018) and Buniya et al. (2021) opined that proper
application of occupational safety and health within the
work environment is equally fundamental to employee,
organisation (employer) and the nation as a whole. Kumarasinghe and Dilan (2022) revealed that due to increase of
technology which led to changes in industrial operations, it
is necessary to assess the effectiveness of safety measures
used to combat accidents in industries.
Globally, interest in total loss control approach is growing
since there is continuous cooperation of industries in terms
of occupational safety and health. In countries like Japan,
Singapore and Australia total loss control groups are formed
and safety and health firms are proliferating in Europe (Chen
et al. 2020; Wong et al. 2019). Feng et al. (2015) opined that
29% of the working population in Singapore is employed in
the construction industry however, 40% of work-related mishaps occur in the construction industry. This causes developed
countries to introduce different methods such as total loss control approach to prevent accidents in industries effectively. The
International Social Security Association which focus on the
Prevention of Risks in Chemical Industries organized safety
conferences, although much of the conferences focus on safety
in transporting materials which are hazardous (Zwetsloot et al.
2020). After the occurrence of the LPG accident in the city of
Mexico bodies like the World Bank and the United Nations
organisations become active in sponsoring safety meetings
focusing much in developing nations (Sonwani et al. 2021;
Adekitan et al. 2018). The meetings put much attention on
occupational safety training focusing much on work permit
systems, human errors, safe handling of hazardous materials,
emergency accidents and control of electrostatic risks (Lingard
et al. 2021; Caxaj and Cohen 2019). This shows that the concept of accident prevention is getting attention from different
stakeholders.
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Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
5 History of total loss control approach
in Zimbabwe
Total loss control approach is an approach to managing
accidents and injuries that has been developed and implemented in Zimbabwe’s artisanal and small-scale gold mining (Singo et al. 2022a, b, c; Becker et al. 2021; Matemera
2021). This approach aims to reduce the risks associated
with mining operations by focusing on the prevention and
control of mishaps and the management of losses (Moyo
et al. 2022; Mavhura 2019; Nunu et al. 2021). Total loss
control approach uses a combination of strategies, including training, use of personal protective equipment/clothes
and the implementation of safety regulations (Singo et al.
2022a, b, c; Mabika 2018; Musasa and Jerie 2022). This
reveals that the approach also focuses on the establishment of effective communication between supervisors and
lower employees, as well as the development of health and
safety awareness campaigns. In addition, total loss control
Approach put more attention on monitoring of safety regulations and the implementation of safety audits to ensure
compliance with the regulations (Musasa and Jerie 2022;
Nyanga 2022; Musungwa and Kowe 2022). This clearly
indicates that total loss control Approach requires the
effective management of accidents, including the proper
documentation and investigation of the incident, as well
as the implementation of preventive measures.
Numerous industries around Zimbabwe have shown an
increasing interest in the idea of safety culture as a means
of reducing the number of workplace accidents (Nyanga
2022; Moyo et al. 2015, 2017; Jerie and Matunhira 2022).
This gives an impression that in Zimbabwe the dawning of
Occupational Safety and Health in industries is increasing
since many industries are now prioritizing in the wellbeing of workers and prevention of accidents. The issue
of occupational safety and health is now getting its popularity in managing risks and now most of the information
of OSH is available online so industries can easily access
the measures to manage accidents (Singo et al. 2022a, b,
c; Mkungunugwa et al. 2022). In addition, Zimbabwe have
recognize the importance of OSH in managing accidents
as a result Zimbabwe established safety regulations for
example Factories and Works Act: Chapter 14:08 (1996)
and National Social Security Authority Statutory Instrument 68 of 1990 to guard against work-related accidents,
death and ill-health (Mapuvire et al. 2022; Shabani and
Jerie 2023; Mugwagwa 2021). This indicates that OSH
improvements are done in Zimbabwe to meet the needs
of Sustainable Development Goals such as Good Health
and Well-being and Decent Work and Economic Growth,
and to prevent losses in industries using statutory instruments, laws, Acts and regulations. According to Kim et al.
13
(2019) and van Zanten and van Tulder (2021) the total loss
control Approach is the best approach to meet the demands
of Sustainable Development Goals since it involves the
implementation of corrective measures to reduce the risk
of future accidents and injuries.
6 Accidents affecting industries
Industries for example manufacturing, wood processing,
construction and mining industries are affected by accidents notably falls, slips, falling objects, explosions, fires
and machinery failures (Maloney 2012; Jerie 2012; Jerie and
Matunhira 2022). This implies that most of accidents which
affect industries are same and they are only different in terms
of severity they cause and durability as well as degree of
injuries they cause. Occupational safety expects classified
causes of industrial mishaps in three groups’ namely unsafe
acts, unsafe conditions and other causes (Cesar and Kudzanayi 2018; Mudavanhu 2013). This means accidents do not
happen intentionally, they are caused by some aspects such
as unsafe acts performed by employees due to poor training,
lack of knowledge, poor safety attitude, stress and lack of
skills. As a result, it is essential to inculcate a sense of social
responsibility in Zimbabwe’s industries on issues related
to occupational safety and well-being of workers so that a
positive safety culture is developed. Skeepers and Mbohwa
(2016) opined that since culture influences behaviour, it is
essential for an organization's management to promote a
behaviour-based safety culture to manage causes of accidents within the work environment.
A work environment which is unsafe also triggers accidents within the workplace (Musasa and Jerie 2022; Musabayana et al. 2021). This occurs because the work environment consists of machines, tools, lighting, ventilation, safety
equipment and storage areas which expose workers to accidents if they are not monitored properly. A study carried by
Cesar and Kudzanayi (2018) in Zimbabwe on workplace
accidents and diseases affecting informal construction workers indicated that some accidents are caused by negligence
although some occur as a result of failure of equipment.
This reveals that industries in Zimbabwe shoulder the burden of accidents as a result of poor working equipment and
negligence which is caused by poor management. A study
carried in China by Tam et al. 2004 revealed that accidents
which affect industries occur as a result of poor training, lack
of safety awareness, careless operation, shortage of skilled
workers, shortage of equipment, poor management commitment, shortfall of first aid and poor conformity to occupational safety and health regulations. This concurs with
a study carried in Zimbabwe's woodworking industries by
Jerie 2012which reveals that little attention has been paid to
the safety of processing machines, equipment, and tools and
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
their connection to health requirements. As a result, factors
which triggers fatal and non-fatal accidents within the industry are not much different in both developed and developing
countries if occupational safety and health is neglected.
According to International Labour Organization (ILO)
(2019) 374 million workers are affected with non-fatal occupational accidents globally. The rate of fatal accidents in
Sub-Saharan Africa is 21 per 100 000 workers. In Zimbabwe 76 fatal accidents and 5666 work-related injuries were
recorded in 2013 (NSSA (Occupational Safety and Health
(OSH) Annual Report, 2013). Despite the fact that both
employers and employees are aware that accidents result in
injuries and deaths and pose a threat to an organization's
ability to pay its bills, no significant efforts are being made
to halt the increasing accidents in industries. In addition,
Nyanga et al. (2020) argued that the extractive, construction,
and agro-food industries where accidents are more frequent
and severe as a result there is need to develop a health and
safety culture. Hence, it is clear that occupational safety and
health management systems are important in any industry
despite the size, type and location of the industry as a result
total loss control can be effective in preventing industrial
accidents even in industries of Zimbabwe (Table 1).
7 Effects of industrial accidents
Industrial accidents causes lost time injuries within the company and expose workers to different sufferings (Cesar and
Kudzanayi 2018; Singo et al. 2022a, b, c; Dida et al. 2019).
Hence, total loss control approach come in place to prevent
losses which are caused by accidents which occur as a result
of the interaction between the worker and industrial equipment. The occurrence of occupational accidents disrupts the
level of operation in different industries which affects the
economy of the world (Rossello et al. 2020; Min et al. 2019).
The global economy is strained by work-related accidents,
since it is estimated that the economy’s GDP lost $2.8 trillion annually as a result of work-related mishaps (ILO 2018;
Jain et al. 2018; Adei et al. 2021). Accidents also affects
the reputation of the company. Industrial accidents expose
workers to minor and major injuries which causes direct and
indirect losses through medical bills, pain, death of experienced workers and loss of productivity as well as cost of
hiring and training new labour force. Failure to use effective
OSH methods to prevent accidents in industries triggers the
increase of work-related injuries such as broken legs and
back injuries (Jerie and Matunhira 2022; Mkungunugwa
Table 1 Major accidents which lead to evolution of total loss control in industries
Year
Type of accident and number of people affected
1984 In December 1984 in Bhopal a methylisocyanate gas leak from the
city's Union Carbide plant resulted in the deaths of over 4000
people, making it the worst chemical disaster ever. Thousands of
people's health was permanently damaged
1985 In December 1985 in Delhi, workers and residents of the Sriram
foods and fertilizers plant in Delhi were severely impacted by an
oleum gas leak
1985 In December 1985, Rourkela: accident in the blast furnace at the
Rourkela steel plant. Eighteen (18) employees were affected
1987 June 1987, Durgapur: the Durgapur chemical factory's chlorine leak
caused widespread panic. Trains traveling long distances were
halted. Over 100 people were impacted
1988 November 1988, Bombay: 32 people were killed in a fire at the
bharat petroleum refinery in Mahul, north-east of Bombay
1989 In September 1989, Ramagundam: 7 people were killed in a major
gas leak at a fertilisers corporation of India unit in Ramagundam
1990 In November 1990 in Nagothane an explosion at the Indian petrochemicals, Nagothane complex killed 35 people and expose more
than 50 people to 70% of burns
1991 In July 1991, Bombay: seven employees were killed in an accident
at a Hindustan organic chemicals unit near Bombay
1992 In August 1992, 11 people were killed and many were injured
when an ammonia leak occurred at the national fertilizers plant
in Panipat
1992 In October 1992, Kahalgaon: 11 people were killed and several
were injured when a boiler at the National thermal power corporation (NTPC) exploded
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Pahari et al. (2020); Oprisan (2011)
13
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
et al. 2022; Mugwagwa 2021). These injuries are significant since they cause different losses both to the employer
and employee such as loss of money as a result of medical
bills. This fact clearly shows that much attention is needed
to safeguard the employees from accidents in any safety
program within industries. This is in line with studies done
by Muchemedzi and Charamba (2006); Chigara and Moyo
(2022) and Christian (2020) which reveals that health and
safety programs should be applied by employers to protect
employees. However, any successful safety program must
include proactive measures designed to reduce the risk of
total loss. This implies that total loss control approach is an
effective method which should be implemented to prevent
all hazards that can lead to a total loss, including human
error, mechanical failure, natural disasters and international
sabotage.
Industrial accidents triggers 2. 78 million deaths to
employees and occupational diseases causes 2. 4 million
deaths (ILO 2019). Global data indicated that the highest
number of work-related injuries and deaths occur in forestry,
agriculture, construction and mining industries (Cesar and
Kudzanayi 2018; Shewiyo et al. 2021; Moyo et al. 2022).
Work-related injuries which were recorded in Zimbabwe
from the year 2004 to 2009 revealed that agriculture industry
experienced an average of 553 injuries per year, metal fabrication 556, metal production 633, wood production experienced 302, transport and storage industry 481 and mining
and quarrying industry experienced 648 injuries per year as
a result of occupational accidents (Gwezuva and Jerie 2018).
This implies that between 2004 and 2009 reports revealed
that injury statistics were significant in metal fabrication and
metal production as well as mining and quarrying industry.
A report produced by ILO in 2019 revealed that 1000
people die daily as a result of industrial accidents and 6
500 people die as a result of diseases which affect workers in industries at global level (ILO 2019). In Sub-Saharan
Africa 42 million industrial accidents occur which causes
almost 3 days non-attendance to work and 54 000 deaths as
a result of occupational accidents (Alli 2008; Kibret et al.
2018; Gizaw et al. 2014). In many developing nations, occupational accident-related mortality rates are five to six times
higher than those in developed nations (Dida et al. 2019).
The mining industry of Zimbabwe recorded 106 deaths as a
result of accidents and 5, 390 work-related injuries in 2014
(NSSA 2014). This revealed that 20% of deaths occur as a
result of mining accidents in 2014 compared with 10% of
deaths which were recorded in 2013 (National Social Security Authority Report 2014). This denotes that Zimbabwe
is experiencing a steady increase of occupational accidents
recorded each year. However, the increase of accident is
not acceptable in Zimbabwe where the economy is operating below half of its capacity. Therefore, a critical analysis
of injury statistics is required to identify accidents which
13
causes injuries and propose measures that can be used to
eliminate work-related accidents.
Five-thousand two hundred and thirty-one injuries and
seven-six fatalities were recorded by NSSA in 2018 (Mugwagwa 2021). These statistics demonstrate a tip of iceberg
since most occupational accidents, injuries and deaths as
well as work-related illnesses go unreported by employees
within formal and informal industries in Zimbabwe as a
result of poor reporting systems. Tadesse and Kumie (2007);
Mohammadi et al. 2018; Gwezuva and Jerie (2018) and
Jerie and Matunhira, (2022) opined that, the precise number of occupational injuries is unknown because of a poor
recording system and a lack of documentation. A study carried by Musasa and Jerie (2022) at a mine in the Midlands
Province of Zimbabwe indicated that workers fail to report
work-related incidences as a result of poor training, lack of
awareness on the importance of reporting accidents, negative
safety behaviour and fear of victimization. This alludes that
safety regulations and safety campaigns aiming to control
work-related accidents in Zimbabwe’s industries have partial
effect. Studies (Nyanga et al. 2020; Mpedi and Nyenti 2016;
Mudavanhu 2013) have indicated that inherent shortages and
shortcomings exist in occupational safety and health systems
which are used by different organisations. As a result, there
is need to use different methods applied by total loss control
approaches to cover shortcomings of traditional occupational
safety and health systems used in industries.
8 Methods used for total loss control
in industries
8.1 Hazard identification and risk assessment
Hazard identification is important in the construction of
safety management and identification of hazards within
industries (Chigara and Moyo 2022; Singo et al. 2022a, b,
c). The use of hazard identification as a total loss control
approach address specific shortcomings of traditional hazard
operability processes (Cameron et al. 2017). This reveals
that traditional hazard operability processes are poor in
identifying the causes of hazards in industries. This concurs
with Lee et al. (2019) that safety processes are improved
by replacing traditional hazard identification methods with
new hazard and operability processes. In industries hazard
and operability studies (Hazops), which were developed at
Institute of Chemical Engineering in 1963, are used to identify hazards (Marhavilas et al. 2020; Pasman et al. 2022).
This indicates that the issue of hazard identification started
long back to be used in managing industrial accidents as a
result it must continue to replace traditional methods used to
manage hazards in different industries. In addition, scholars
such as Nyanga et al. (2020); Purohit et al. (2018) revealed
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
that hazard identification should be performed throughout
the work process in construction industries to identify any
possible risks that may occur. This implies that efforts to
improve occupational safety and health in industries should
be done continuously since new operations emerge in industries every day.
Hazard identification information within an industry is
collected from workplace inspections, accidents reports,
safety audits, observations and environmental safety and
health monitoring (Yousefi et al. 2019; Abidin et al. 2021).
In the Zimbabwean context inspections performed within
industries helps the industries to recognize risky conditions within the workplace and draft measures to correct
the risky conditions (Nunu et al. 2021; Becker et al. 2021).
This view shows that inspections are regarded as the suitable
method to use as a total loss control approach in industries
in Zimbabwe. Workers should be regularly inspected and
monitored by management with the assistance of health and
safety personnel to ensure that they adhere to safe working rules, regulations, and ethics (Nyanga 2022; Gwezuva
and Jerie 2018). The information gathered during inspections is vital since it is used to identify risks and obstacles
to working safely and without harming the environment so
that they can be addressed, such as changing procedures or
purchasing different personal protective equipment/clothes
(Purohit et al. 2018; Cesar and Kudzanayi 2018; Chikwanka
and Chiluba 2020). This implies that safety inspection is
vital in preventing industrial accidents since it is effective in
detecting hazardous areas within the work environment and
the top management used the information to come up with
corrective actions. In industries workers are informed about
incidents reports and occupational safety observations which
are obtained during inspections at toolbox safety seminars
(Musasa and Jerie 2022; Mugwagwa 2021). This infers that
incidents reports are getting popular in managing industrial
accidents since safety measures are built from data of near
miss incidents reported within the industry. In addition,
although some industries prefer to audit more traditional
safety activities than loss prevention ones, safety audits
are now widely practiced as hazard identification sources
(Mususngwa and Kowe 2022; Musabayana et al. 2021;
Mavhura 2019). The formalization of safety auditing in the
UK stems from the publication of two Chemical Industries
Association reports in 1969 and 1973, which were compiled
following trips to the United States (Bennear 2015). A study
carried by Gwezuva and Jerie (2018) focusing on SMS metal
fabrication enterprises in Willowvale in Harare, Zimbabwe
revealed that audit should be done at an initial stage if alterations are made to any safety programme for example Noise
Induced Hearing Loss Programme (NIHLP). This reveals
that safety auditing is getting its popularity in preventing
accidents in industries located in both developed and developing countries.
After the risk has been identified, it is necessary to evaluate the threat it poses to workplace employees through
risk assessment (Jerie and Matunhira 2022; Gwezuva and
Jerie 2018). This implies that after hazard identification
and risk assessment, safety performance standard may be
introduced, indicating clearly, what employers and workers
should do to manage accidents practically and check if the
safety management system is reviewed through both internal and external audits. Risk assessment is referred as the
science that has been developed over the past 40 years to
assist in comprehending and controlling risks which occur
as a result of occupational accidents (Zio 2018; Shabani and
Jerie 2023; Mutetwa et al. 2023). This entails that using risk
assessment we can measure the risk and decide priorities
that should be done to provide correct actions to reduce the
level of the risks. The point was also upheld by Musasa and
Jerie (2022) and Manjengwa, (2022) that part of the hazard
identification process known as risk assessment which looks
at the likelihood (probability) and severity (consequences)
of the hazards that have been identified is fundamental in
analysing risks associated with industrial activities. According to Hedge and Rokseth (2020) once the likelihood and
severity of the hazard has been estimated it become easy to
allocate measures to manage the occurrence and severity of
accidents. This suggest that to meet the challenges of the
present and the future as well as take into account emerging
technologies and systems, risk assessment needs to evolve.
Moreover, risk assessment is regarded as a total loss
control approach which is effective in managing risks
since it is considered in safety design (Shen et al. 2020;
Lee et al. 2019). Risk assessment has dominated the design
and procedures used in industrial systems (Zio 2018). Zio
(2018) opined that risk assessment prove its effectiveness
in safety design when it was applied in nuclear industry,
aerospace industry, transportation and chemical industry.
This indicated that risk assessment can be applied as a total
loss control approach in any industry safety design in both
developed and developing countries like Zimbabwe since
most of the industries found in developed countries are in
developing countries. Risk assessment is effective in safety
design because it uses system failures such as Failure Mode
Effect (FME) which provides an in-depth understanding of
the system failures which create safety awareness and lead
to overall upgrading of the safety system design (Aven 2015;
Scheu et al. 2019). In the case of Zimbabwe, industrial systems are exposed to different hazards which causes accidents
(Mavhura 2019; Chigara and Moyo 2022) for example system failures (Chigara and Moyo 2022). Therefore, in Zimbabwe risk assessment is used to help risk management team
to figure out how to protect against losses from disruptive
events notably through safe design. Safety design is fundamental in loss prevention concepts presented, and perhaps
this is why it has taken longer to be implemented than the
13
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
other concepts used to manage hazards (Singo et al. 2022a,
b, c; Mkungunugwa et al. 2022). Recent surveys have shown
that the majority of safety and loss prevention engineers are
aware of the idea of safer design (Lees 2012; Lakhe et al.
2019), however, they do not fully appreciate its potential
because the majority of senior managers are unaware of it
(Wu et al. 2017) This implies that most managers would
not adopt it because they realize that it requires a fundamental shift in the design process to meet the demands of
total loss control approach. This is normally perceived by
lack of commitment by the top management to an extent
that they tend to ignore the importance of Safety Health and
Environment (SHE) at work. However, the most vital challenge which affect the issue of HIRA in Zimbabwe is lack of
funds to engage factory inspectors, labour inspectors, safety
engineers for better safety design and other safety advisory
boards.
8.2 Hierarchy of controls
Hierarchy of control is the best method of determining the
effective measures to control accidents in industries (Morris
and Cannady 2019; Boakye et al. 2022). There are five levels
of actions to reduce or eliminate hazards in the hierarchy of
controls. The methods of controlling hazards on the hierarchy of control are grouped according to their effectiveness in
managing losses. The order of the methods on the hierarchy
of controls is 1. Elimination; 2. Substitution; 3. Engineering
controls; 4. Administrative controls; 5. Personal Protective
Equipment/Clothes (PPE/C) as shown in Fig. 1 (NIOSH,
2015). The use of hierarchy controls has the potential to
lower worker exposures and the likelihood of illness or injuries since it uses a combination of different safety measures
(Musasa and Jerie, 2022).
8.2.1 Elimination
Elimination eliminates the risk at its source. This could
mean changing the way work is done so that toxic chemicals,
heavy objects, or sharp tools are no longer used. Elimination is regarded as the first priority in reducing accidents
losses because no risk of exposure occur (Jerie and Musasa
2022; Manjengwa 2022). Elimination is effective for preventing accidents in industries since it eliminates all process
that leads to system failure. Elimination become effective
because it develop policies that isolate people from risky
areas (Shabani and Jerie 2023; Chigara and Moyo 2022;
Singo et al. 2022a, b, c). This implies that elimination is
appropriate in protecting even workers in Zimbabwe’s industries to occupational hazards since it create the room for use
of safety policies.
13
8.2.2 Substitution
Substitution is important in total loss control approach since
it is performed after hazard identification is performed (Jerie
and Musasa 2022; Moroe et al. 2019). This means when
chemicals or hazardous materials have been identified as a
risk, the best course of action is to switch them out for safer
alternatives. As a result employers must keep in mind that
abnormal and continuous use of equipment result to wear
and tear hence, continuous replacement and repair is relevant
to industrial equipment to reduce accidents (Ncube et al.
2021). However, to prove the effectiveness of substitution it
is vital to compare the new risks which can occur as a result
of new substitute with the usual risks caused by the old system. Substitution is effective in preventing industrial accidents because it is involved in design of safe work process
and equipment. This denotes that prevention of accidents
through substitution is a strategy which involves prevention
of accidents through replacing old designed working tools
with new design which are friendly to the work environment, workers and work operations. In Zimbabwe, machine
maintenance has been effective in reducing industrial accidents, particularly in the mining sector (Musasa and Jerie
2022; Singo et al. 2022a, b, c; Nunu et al. 2021). However,
the use of substitution is more challenging to replace existing operations since it requires more resources and expects
(NIOSH, 2015).
8.2.3 Engineering controls
Engineering controls reduce hazards from getting into contact with employees. Equipment or workspace modification, the use of protective barriers, and ventilation are all
examples of engineering controls (Moyo et al. 2022). The
NIOSH engineering control database indicate most active
engineering controls which includes guards, ventilation,
isolation, enclosures, physical barriers and sensing systems
(The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) 2015). Compared to personal protective equipment or administrative controls, engineering controls may
have a higher initial cost. However, when protecting multiple
workers, long-term operating costs typically fall. In addition,
other aspects of the work process or facility operation may
benefit financially from engineering controls. This gives an
impression that the design engineer is important in controlling risky conditions in any plant within the industries since
most risky conditions are predicted at the design stage of
plant operation.
8.2.4 Administrative controls
When dealing with hazards, administrative controls may be
used to limit the amount of time employees are exposed
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
to hazards. The management can effectively practice this
through safety training, education and rotating employees as
well as providing breaks to employees. The effect of administrative controls are taken as a cornerstone in managing
safety by numerous researches carried across various work
settings (Taderera 2012; Mkungunugwa et al. 2022). This
concurs with Choudhry, (2014) safety procedures become
more effective in managing risks when it is combined with
supervisors who are highly committed to safety issues. This
clearly means the administration’s commitment determines
the success of total loss control approach. The management
team improve the safety system by improving the communication system between employer and employee (Gwezuva
and Jerie 2018). This causes the workers to buy-in safety
laws proposed by the management and improves their safety
behaviour since they feel involved in safety communication
system. According to Nyanga et al. (2012) in Zimbabwe
the behaviour of engaging workers practised by managers
motivates the employees and they buy-in total loss control
approach methods used to manage hazards. The top management of most industries in Zimbabwe provide personal
protective equipment/clothes to workers to protect them
to work-related hazards (Mugwagwa 2021; Manjengwa
2022). In addition, workers and supervisors should be properly trained by employers on how to use total loss control
approaches. This implies that adequately trained workers
are a key factor in reducing accidents. According to Mkungunugwa et al. (2022) and Nyanga (2022) total loss control
approach priorities employee training, with particular focus
on safety education. Felix and Sibongiseni (2019) opined
that risk management which is the core centre of total loss
control approach has been effective in reducing industrial
accidents in South Africa and Zimbabwe particularly in the
manufacturing sector where it is supported by the administration team. Therefore, administrative controls need important and ongoing effort from both employees and supervisors
to continue to be effective in reducing accidents in industries
in Zimbabwe.
8.2.5 Personal protective equipment/clothes
Personal protective equipment involve clothing which is officially approved as suitable for use by the worker at work and
is provided by the employer (Purohit et al. 2018). Instances
of PPE incorporate gloves, safety glasses, ear plugs, helmet,
and respirators (Mugwagwa 2021; Manjengwa 2022). In
Zimbabwe ministries such as Ministry of Mines and Mining
Development and mine owners are putting much attention on
raising awareness of workers on use of PPE/C (Singo et al.
2022a, b, c; Becker et al. 2021). This reveals that employers
should implement a personal protective equipment program
when employees use PPE/C within the workplace. Elements
of PPE/C program depends on hazard assessment, safety
inspection and training of employees to select the effective
PPE/C (Mkungunugwa et al. 2022; Manjengwa 2022; Moyo
et al. 2022). However, the provision of PPE does not completely eliminate the risk; rather, it merely protects individuals from it (Jerie and Musasa 2022; Nunu et al. 2021). This
alludes that employers should not rely solely on personal
protective equipment (PPE) to control hazards when there
are other viable options such as substitution and elimination. Nevertheless, training on how to use the equipment
in the right way is required to improve the effectiveness of
PPE/C in Zimbabwe (Musasa and Jerie 2022). This entails
that employers should put more attention on training workers so that they understand the importance of PPE/C and
they continuously use it properly. The view is in line with
Boakye et al. (2022) that PPE can be useful, but only when
used correctly and consistently by workers.
9 Benefits of total loss control approach
The total loss control approach is a powerful, proactive
tool for preventing accidents (Musasa and Jerie 2022). This
entails that total loss control approach involves careful planning and implementation of strategies to reduce the risk
of harm within the workplace. Through total loss control
approach, employers can identify potential risks and take
preventive measures to reduce their occurrence (Jerie and
Matunhira 2022; Gwezuva and Jerie 2018; Jerie 2016).
However, this can be achieved by conducting safety audits,
inspections and implementing safety policies and procedures
(Jerie 2012; Taderera 2012; Mabika 2018). This clearly indicates that employers can use total loss control approach to
identify and anticipate hazards, as well as to evaluate and
improve safety performance. Moreover, by implementing
the total loss control approach, employers can reduce the
costs associated with accidents, such as medical bills, lost
productivity and insurance costs (Musasa and Jerie 2022;
Mapuvire et al. 2022). This implies that total loss control
approach can help employers to improve their financial position by reducing their liabilities and cost related to accidents.
According to Nyanga, (2022) total loss control approach
increase morale among workers within the industry. This
entails that morale cause the workers to feel secured and
safe when performing their duties hence risks are reduced.
Mlambo (2022) opines that employers who implement the
total loss control approach can protect themselves from
legal claims by demonstrating that they have taken proactive
measures to reduce the risk of harm in the workplace. The
findings clearly indicates that total loss control is an effective
tool for preventing accidents and mitigating their potential
costs. As a result, employers should take the time to properly implement the total loss control approach to ensure a
safe and healthy workplace for all their employees (Singo
13
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
et al. 2022a, b, c; Mkungunugwa et al. 2022; Musasa and
Jerie 2022). However, the introduction of total loss control
approach is challenging in most industries located in developing countries (Min et al. 2019; Boadu et al. 2020). As a
result, Zimbabwe as a developing country its industries are
not spared from the hazards which affect industries in other
developing countries.
10 Challenges encountered
in implementation of total loss control
approach
Although, total loss control approach is associated with different benefits, implementation of total loss control approach
is challenging in Zimbabwe due to complexity of industrial
sites, shortage of resources, poor collaboration between the
workers and management team and the difficulty of changing
long-standing safety practices (Mavhura 2019; Mugwagwa;
2021; Jerie and Matunhira 2022). Industrial sites often have
a variety of different activities taking place, many of which
may be unfamiliar to some of the total loss control team
members (Kashiri 2020; Mkungunugwa et al. 2022; Chigara
and Moyo 2022). This entails that it’s difficult to identify
potential hazards and develop appropriate solutions since
there is need to monitor every hazard associated with each
activity performed within the industry. In addition, the complexity of the environment can make it difficult to put the
total loss control approach into practice (Mugwagwa 2021;
Manjengwa 2022). Therefore, it is important to take the time
to understand the industrial environment and ensure that
the total loss control approach team is equipped to identify
and respond to potential hazards. Moreover, implementing
total loss control approach require change to long-standing
safety procedures (Singo et al. 2022a, b, c; Mavhura 2019;
Becker et al. 2021). As a result, it can be difficult to achieve
total loss control approach, as personal may be reluctant
to change their habits or may not be familiar with the new
safety practices. This denotes that it is important to ensure
that everyone involved understands the need for the changes
and is willing to work collaboratively to implement total loss
control approach. According to Moyo and Chigara, (2021)
and Chigara and Moyo, (2022) total loss control approach
requires collaboration among a range of different disciplines,
such as safety engineers, management, general workers and
maintenance personnel. This view denotes that it is difficult
to achieve implementation of total loss control approach, as
each discipline may have different priorities and approaches
on hazards affecting its departments. Therefore, it is significant to ensure that all team members understand the
importance of total loss control approach and are willing
to implement it in their departments. A study carried by
Musungwa and Kowe, (2022) at Harare Beverage Company
13
in Zimbabwe indicate that hazards affecting industries in
Zimbabwe occur due to lack of finance to purchase safety
resources such as personal protective equipment, shortage
of incentives to boost their safety morale, lack of money to
promote safety training workshops and lack of support from
other organisations which support the well-being of workers.
This indicates that the implementation of total loss control
approach can be challenging in Zimbabwe, but with the right
approach and dedication, it can be an effective way to reduce
accidents in industries. As a result, this review provide recommendations for further improvement of total loss control
approach in Zimbabwe.
11 Conclusion and recommendations
In conclusion, the total loss control approach has been
shown to be an effective tool in reducing workplace accidents in the industrial sector of Zimbabwe. It provides an
organised system that allows companies and organisations to
monitor safety related operations, while reducing accidentrelated hazards. The total loss control approach serves to
improve hazard identification, risk assessment, safety audits
and inspections, safety communication, safety education
and training, safe design, accident investigation, accidents
reports and use of hierarchy of controls to ensure that safety
regulations are enforced. The total loss control approach provides an effective and efficient system for accident prevention and is an important tool for companies and organisation
in the industrial sector in Zimbabwe. However, companies
are associated with different challenges of using total loss
control approach as a result some measures are needed to
improve effectiveness of total loss control approach.
Further, the effectiveness of hazard identification, risk
assessment and use of hierarchy of controls as total loss control approaches in managing accidents in industries needs
to be monitored through continuous evaluation. Evaluation must be done to determine whether the implemented
changes reduce the previously assessed risk. Hazard identification, risk assessment, and risk control steps must be
repeated every time to ensure that all industrial accidents
are controlled.
The Government of Zimbabwe should advice the National
Social Security Authority (NSSA) to carryout safety awareness campaigns in industries to create workers who are fully
aware with occupational safety. This will increase the effectiveness of total loss control approach in managing industrial
accidents. The National Social Security Authority should
also administer the necessities of Factories and Works Act
in industries to increase the effectiveness of total loss control
approach in accident prevention in industries.
Industries in Zimbabwe should consider Job Safety Analysis during their operations to identify hazards in any stage
Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering
of operation and develop safety safeguards to prevent accidents. Job Safety Analysis will be useful to industries since
it is vital in planning plant layout, designing machinery and
starting safety processes.
The review also recommends that industries in Zimbabwe
should analyse other safety models such as Heinrich’s Domino Theory of 1931, James Reason 1990’s Swiss Cheese
Model and the Loss Causation Model developed by Bird
and Germain (1966) against Occupational Safety and Health
Management Systems they plan within the industries. This
is important because it increases the effectiveness of loss
control measures they apply to manage industrial accidents.
Acknowledgements All sources were acknowledged.
Author contributions TS (Tapiwa Shabani) and TS (Takunda Shabani)
were responsible for coming up with the idea, doing literature search
and data analysis under supervision of the SJ. TS (Tapiwa Shabani)
and TS (Takunda Shabani) developed the final draft and proof read the
document and further adjustment were done by SJ.
Funding The authors have no affiliation with any organization with a
direct or indirect financial interest in the subject matter discussed in
the manuscript.
Data availability The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on
reasonable request.
Declarations
Conflict of interest This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is
under review at, another journal or other publishing venue.
Ethical approval Approval was granted by Midlands State University to
carry out the research as well as to publish under its name. All sources
were properly cited to avoid plagiarism.
Consent to participate All authors participated and agreed to participate up to final revision of the manuscript.
Consent for publication Authors agreed to let the paper published
when considered for publication.
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