NO T ES
O N TH E
T H E O RY
N E BU LA R
I N R EL AT I O N T O
STE LLAR, S OL AR , P L AN E TAR Y, OO M E TARY,
AN D G E OL O G I C A L P H E N O ME N A
.
W I L LI A M F O R D S T A N L E Y
,
F R M ET S O C
.
.
AU T H
.
O R O F T REA TISE S O N TH E P R O P ERTI E S AND M O TI O N O F FLU I D S ,
”
”
D RAW IN G I N S T R U M E N T S ,
SU RV E YIN G IN STRU M E N T S ,
ET C
”
.
i
’
i
A ca u se q u il ne con vi e nt pa s s i b en 5 l a s ou ve rai ne perfect on q ui
,
es t e n
D ieu d e le fa i re au te u r d e la con fu s ion q u e d e l ord re et a u ss i q u e la noti o n
q u e n o u s en avon s e s t moi ns di s tin cte j ay crfi dev o ir icy p ré férer la propor tion
” —
et l O rd re R la con fu si on d u C h a os
D escar tes
’
,
’
.
,
’
.
.
LONDON
R E GAN
P AU L,
T RENOR ,
T R U BNER
189 5
.
CO
LT D
.
P
R I N T E D B Y T A Y L O R A N D F R A N C I S,
RED LIO N C O U RT . FLEET S TRE E T.
l O AN STAC"
P R EFA C E
.
T HE
subject of the followi n g pages as a study commenced
to fascinate me in my youth when , deeply imb u e d with
,
the study of N ewton
,
I
was try ing vainly to unravel the
theoretical possibilities of
th e
ori gin al struct u re of the
marvello u s mec hanism of the universe
.
It has been ever
present with me throughout a busy life and has been
often reconsidered leading me to the conclusion that a
,
modified form of the N ebular Theory of L aplace might
be established on some n ew ideas which I formed and by
certain calc ulations that I felt sure the actual con ditions
warranted
.
T hese
sp e c u lations are
scientific world for approval
I arranged thi s
n ow
o ffered to the
.
matter as it presented i tself to my mind
originally in papers upon sep a rate part s of the subject a s
,
a less con fi dent mode of introduc t ion
b u t I was advised b y
orthodox authorities that such papers were too speculative
to com municate to the learned so cieties that I tho u ght
at the time best adapted for their conside ration
.
These
p apers which I n ow edit in abs tract , have been put asi de
,
6 2
P RE FA C E
iv
for many years
.
.
Upon the permissible borders of the subj ect
read a paper before the G eologists A ssociation in March
’
I
“
1 88 3 ,
Upon the Causes of the E levation and D epression
”
’
of the E arth s S urface
,
which I considered to represent
the contin u ity of e ffe cts of neb ular conditions upon the
t
a ture
reported
in
N
March
9
h
ome
2
S
(
of the speculative unpublished matter of this paper is in
‘
E arth
’
,
,
cluded in the following p ages with copies of my diagrams
,
I
wrote a paper in
C onditions
of the
1878
U
“
pon
S ome
H y poth etical
and Motions of Comets
P roperties
.
”
,
that
I ass u me to depend upon original nebular conditions which
,
after some correspondence with a high authority
the
‘
E nglish
Mechanic
’
,
,
I
,
sent to
a j ournal in which astro n omical
subjects are freq u ently discussed ( publis hed 2 2 nd J une
This matter is incorporated herein with some con
e
lusions arrived at after fu rther consideration of the su bject
,
.
A t the B ritish A ssociation in 1 8 8 3 I re d a p aper entitled
N otes u pon the R otation period of the E arth and R evo
la tion period of the Moon deduced from the N eb u lar
B
rit
A
ssoc
eports
p
H ypo the s S of L aplace
R
1
8
8
5
(
a
“
-
-
,
”
I
.
.
,
,
.
The s ubj ect of this paper is more fully treated in the
present work
.
I also read a paper before the G eological S ociety showing
’
the error in Mallet s theory of the contraction of the E arth
in
cooling , which process was assumed to prod u ce the
P REFA C E
t
rea
elevation
and
in
lination
of
strata
observed
in
nature
c
g
P
( hil
Trans vol clxiii p art
.
.
.
This theory
.
w
,
hi c h has
been very generally accepted , derived most of its s u ppor t
I think from a large acci dental error whi ch I w as able to
,
,
point out in t he mathe m atical c alc u lations (P roc G eol S oc
.
.
.
so that the Ca u ses of elevation and i nclination of
J u ne
strata discu ssed herein as a process of the continuity of
.
neb u lar conditions may be said to remain u nexplained by
any hypothesis fo u nded upo ncorre c t da ta .
I
have also rea d several papers before the B ritish A sso
tion and the G eological S ociety contrave ning some points
in the popula r theory of a universal glacial age which I
think was only loca
l at any period and is opposed to the
N ebular Theory w hich I tho u ght at the time I wrote the
papers demanded a uniform decre m ent of heat in time
'
in the e ntire CO s mic system
This idea as reg ards the
per iodic amo u nt of solar radi a tion to the E arth I have
somewhat modified in these pages by considering the e ffects
of critical tempera tu res u pon the solar neb ula ; b u t as I
ha
e en deavo u red to bri n g the whole subj ect together as
v
briefly as possible as it presents itself to my mind it is
u n necessary to discuss more partic u larly what I have
attempted to do in this direction
The greate r
already
part of this atter has re mained unpublished except partly
in short abstracts being at present somewh at out of concord
with prevailing theories
ci a
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
m
.
,
,
.
P REFA C E
vi
.
What 1 most regret in this matter is that I a m unab le
to fu lly disc uss many theoretical ideas that have been pro
posed by scientific men without extending this sketch very
much beyond the limit necessary for the brief stateme nt of
my o w n ideas
.
This is unfortunate , a s I find in reading
up the subj ect for the most part since I wrote these pag e s
,
that o ther ideas approach my ow n in a fe w particulars
,
.
O ne feels also th at in the discussion of a speculative
,
s u bject in proportion as ideas are original they must be
,
di ffi c u lt to correlate with the more or less established scienti fi c
theories
.
The whole s u bject however is undoub t edly in a
,
,
tentative state and must be st u died gen erally upon a broader
,
an
d
more exact basis in detail t h an it has heretofore been
if a satis factory theory is to be establish ed
tigation
,
F o r this inve s
.
some acceptable data must be found befo r e refi ned
m athematical
analysis can be of much value
F or
.
this
theory I can only hope I have put forward some available
s u ggestions
.
I am indebted to Mr W T L ynn
.
.
.
F
B
A
,
,
.
for
.
itical ex amination O f my proo fs both for reading and for
cr
calcu lations
Crookes ,
.
I am indebted to the kindness of Mr
and P rofessor G
.
F
.
.
William
F itzgerald ,
for some suggestions which have enabled me to render the
m atter in the second
logical
who
.
I
and twelfth chapters more defi nite and
am indebted to an eminent practical geolo gist
,
withholds his name for reading and suggestion in
,
P REFA C E
Chapters
X to X V I
.
to Mr
.
v ii
.
Charles
Kirk fo r care in
the reproduction of th e P lates ; and to Mr W Francis of
.
.
,
’
my printe rs firm fo r care in c orr ecting my p r oofs
,
S outh N orw ood, M arch 1 8 9 5
.
.
C O NT E N T S I N D E X
-
.
C HAP TE R I
.
—
—
T
D
I
IN R O U C T I O N
H ST O R I C AL N O T E S
A ncient Id eas Re
—
D es ca rtes Wright, p 3
Kant, p 4
naissance , p
L ambert— S ir Wm
L aplace , p 7
6
-
.
.
.
.
.
“
.
.
.
.
11
Mayer, p 9 H elmholtz p 1 0 L ane
P rojectile Theory—L imits of Theory to be discussed ,
p 15
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
C H A P TE R II
.
0
C O ND I TI ON S O F MATTE R P O SSI BLY A C TI V E I N T HE C O NDENSA
TI O N O F AN E X TE N SI V E S YS T E M O F C O SMI C N EB ULE
O riginal S tate of Matter p 1 8
Time and S pace p 17
Separation of S ystems of O riginal Matter p 1 9 Com
pari son with As tronomical N ebulae p 2 0 Tenuity of
—
1
i
O ri ginal Matter p 2
M lky Way Atomic Theory
i B enj Brodie 5 Theory of O riginal Matter
22
S
p
p 23 S uggestion sfo r the Constitu tion of the Nebulae
W
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
.
.
r
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
’
.
,
Locky e r s D issociation
p 23
Crookes s
P n eu mite s p 2 6
F ractionation p 2 5
Chemical
A cti on in a P neuma S ystem , p 3 0 Cohesion of Matte r
p 32
O bservation of A s tronomical N ebulae, p 3 5
C ondition of the S un , p 3 6
’
P neuma ,
’
.
.
.
.
,
,
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
C H A P T E R III
.
—F ormation
F O R M A TI O N O F S T ELLA R AND S O L AR S Y STEMS
of N ebul ae fro m the original P neuma S ystem , p 3 8
S uggested Motive C onditions in the original P neuma
p 40 Cyclone inducing C o ndi t ions, p 42 F ormatio n
of S piral Neb u lar S ystems , p 4 5
S olar P lan etar y
inducing conditions in Nebul ae, p 4 6 P e r manency of
D istance s u nder whic h G ravi ta
S tellar S y stems p 4 7
—
tion may be active Acti on of G ravity in fo rmation of
C ircular O rbi ts p 4 9
.
.
,
.
-
.
.
-
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
,
.
.
C H AP T ER IV
S T ELLAR AND S O LAR C O ND E N S A TI O N
.
.
—
F O R M A TI O N O F O R B IT S
— S eparate S tellar and S olar P lanetary inducing con
-
dition s according to am ount of R otation , p 5 2
.
.
L imits
A ctio n
of a S olar P lanetary C ometa ry S ystem , p 53
of G ravity on distant C ondensations p 55 C ondensatio n
to a S olar C entre p 56 D irection of A pproach to the
S u n of exterior Matter— F ormation of O rbits , p 5 8
C ometary O rbits , p 6 0
F ormation of a P lanetary
P lanets formed at t h e P eri h elio n o f
P lane p 6 2
C ometary O rbi ts p 6 3
-
-
.
,
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
.
.
CH A P T E R V
.
DI S C U SS I O N O F T HE ME C HANI C AL P RIN C IP LES U P O N WHI C H
O U R S O LAR P LANE T ARY S YS T E M M AY H A V E B E E N F O R M ED
— D E M O NS T RA TI O N O F T HE T H E O RY O F L AP LA C E WITH
S O M E M O D IF I C ATI O N S — LI MIT S O F A C O M E T ARY S YS T E M
E nergy of the S olar S ys tem— Its A symmetry p 6 5
-
.
,
.
,
.
o f a S ymmetrical G as eous S olar P lanetary
S ys tem p 6 7
Mod es of Con de nsati on of Interior
Mode
P lanets in a S pheroidal N ebula r S ys tem p 7 1
of Condensation of E xtreme O uter S olar Neb u la
p 7 2 B reaki n g u p of Ga seous Zone S ystems p 7 3
—
Influencing Conditions of P lanet formation Critical
Temperatures , p 7 4 S ome Modifying Conditions p 7 7
S cheme
-
.
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
.
-
-
,
.
.
.
.
-
.
.
,
C HAP T E R V I
.
C ER TAIN C O ND I TI O N S IN T HE EA R LY S O LAR S Y S T EM WHI C H
M AY BE I NFERRED FR O M T HE DI S TAN C ES AND M A SSES O F
T HE P LANE T S U P O N T HE N EB U LAR T H E O RY — The D i
tances of the P lan ets from th e S un— B ode s Law p 8 0
s
’
,
.
.
Masses of the P lanets , p 8 1 P roportional D ensities
p 8 2 P robable Form of the O rigi nal P lanetary Neb u la,
p 8 4 E ffects of the voluminous R ing of Jupiter u pon
the Intra Jupiter S olar S ystem p 8 5 Re lative Ra te of
C ooli n g of the Intra J u piter Syste m —with th e E arth
p 86
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
-
,
.
.
-
,
.
.
C H A P T E R V II
.
S U GGES TI O NS F O R C A U SE S O F DI RE C TI O N O F R O T A TI O N O F T HE
V EL OC IT Y O F R O T A TI O N
S A T EL LIT E S — D irection of the S o
.
p 8 8 D irection of the P lanets A
of the S un p 9 0 Mom e ntu m
O rbital V elocity of a P lanet , p
p 97
Calc u lated R otation of
p 1 0 1 S tate of J u piter and S atu
—
of the A steroids of Mars , p 1 0 6 R otatio nof the E arth ,
p 108
’
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
C H AP TE R V III
.
—
R E V O L U TI O N O F S A T ELL ITES
DI R E C T
—
M O TI O N
RETRO
.
.
GRADE M O TI O N —C O MP AR I S O N O F T HE R E V O L U TI O N O F
T HE M OO N WIT H T HE R O T A TI O N O F T HE E AR TH
R evolu tion of S atellites with D irect Motion , p 1 1 0
C alculation of R evolution of the S atellites of J u piter and
S aturn p 1 11
The Moon ,
S at ellites of Mars p 1 1 3
p 1 1 4 Retrograde Moti on of S atelli tes , p 1 1 6 .
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
CH A P TE R IX
.
C O M E T S CO NS I DERED AS O RD INARY G RAV ITA TI V E MA TT ER I N
R O T A TI O N CO NS T R U C TI V ELY A s A P AR T O F T HE PL ANE T A R Y
S YS T E M —D iscussion of P rinciples p 1 2 1
C omets o f
L ong P eriod p 1 2 5 C omets of S h ort P eriod— S ym
.
,
,
.
-
.
.
metrical E lements o f C ome t formation , p 1 2 6 Comets
considered as G ravitative Matter, p 1 2 8 Conditions
-
.
.
.
.
under which a Comet may be considered as a P lanetary
—
—
B ody p 1 3 0 H eat E lectricity O rbital Moment u m
p 1 3 1 E lon gat ion of the C o metary Mass near P eri
helion p 1 3 6
O rbi ts Of the outer parts of a C omet
F ocal P oint p 1 3 9
D irection of a C ometary Train I n
relation to the S u n p
Widening Cu rvature o f the
Trai n by crossing O rbits 14 2
F ormation of a N e w
H ead to a Com et p 144
S ome general conditions
.
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
.
‘
.
,
.
,
.
.
,
’
.
.
,
,
C HA P T E R X
.
TH E E A RT H , CO NS I DERED
IN E VI DEN C E O F F O R M ER N EB U LAR
C O ND ITI O N S — IT S I N T ERNAL F L U I D IT Y T I DAL FR I C
TI O N — F IG U RE D U E T o ROT A TI O N —The E arth con
s i d e r e d as a Model P anet p
14
F
E
7
actors
of
arth
l
form ation , p 14 8 F rom a G aseous S ystem , p 1 4 9
From aggreg ation of P lanetoids p 1 50
Internal
E ffects o f
Fl uidity of the E arth disc u ssed p 150
Tidal Friction p 1 5 6 Change of fig u re d u e to Rota
tion V e lOc ity p 1 57
-
.
.
'
.
,
.
.
'
.
.
.
.
'
'
.
,
,
.
.
.
.
,
J
-
.
,
.
C HAPTE R III
.
C O ND ITI O NS O F T HE EAR TH D U E T o D I S C RE T E
C ONDENSA TI O N S F O R M ED B E TW EEN T HE E AR TH S O R I
—
Z
A
L
N
EB
U
LA
O
NE
AND
T
HE
O
RB
IT
O
F
M
ARS
I
G N
Fo
z
mation of L and are s by Inclusion of P lanetoids p 1 6 0
S U PERF I C IAL
’
,
r
-
-
P roje ction
,
.
.
of a larg e I nt ra Mars P lane t oid upon the
Formation of a C ontine nt therefrom ,
E arth p 1 6 5
p 16 6
.
,
‘
a
.
.
-
.
C H A P TE R X II
H YP O T H ESIS
T HE E ARTH U NDER
—
B
R
E
U
LA
P U RELY N
C O ND ITI O NS Conditions specialized
D isti nct P eriods of D eposition —P eriod o f
p 169
C ondensation of highly R efractory Mat te r p 1 7 0
P eriod of Condensation of Volatile Metals , O xygen , and
H alogens wi th Metals and Metalloids, p 1 74 D is tri
b u tion of L and areas , p 1 8 0
P eriod of D eposition of
Water p 1 84
OF
F O R MA TI O N
.
T HE
OF
,
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
-
.
.
.
.
,
C H AP TE R X III
.
C O ND ITI O N S O F T H E C OO L I NG E AR T H D U E T O F O R MA TI O N O F
IC E
T HE
AT
P O LE s z— P re G lacial and G lacial P eriods ,
-
—
p 1 8 9 D istribution of Ice at th e P oles, p 1 9 2
P resent Conditions brought about by D eposition of Ice ,
p 1 9 3 W here Ice pressures are most active, p 1 9 7
E xtrusion o f V olcanic Matter th roug h Ice pressures ,
p 1 9 9 P ressure of Water and S team in V olcanic
N otes u po n Theories proposed
E r u ptions p 2 0 1
.
.
.
.
-
.
.
.
.
-
.
.
,
7
20
p
.
.
.
.
C HA P TE R XIV
P E RI O D I C
.
C O ND I TI O N O F E AR T H F O RMA T I O N P R O D U C ED B Y
T HE E FF E C T S IN C I DEN T AL T o T HE N E B U LA R C L O U D ING
A T I NFE RI O R P LAN ET ARY F O RM A T I O N AN D A T C R ITI CAL
T E MPE RA T U RES O F M A TT ER S U RR O U ND I N G T HE S U N
-
C ondition of the S un
durin g E art h formation ,
p 2 10
D istinct S olar heating P eriods p
D ivision of
S pecial P eriods , p 2 1 4
G eneral e ffects of the L arge
Neb ulou s S u n u pon Meteorological Conditions, p 2 1 8
-
-
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
C H AP TE R XV
C O N SI DE RA TI O N O F T IM E E L E M EN TS IN T HE S O LA R S Y ST EM
PA RTI C U LA RLY F O R E STIMA TI NG T HE A G E O F T HE E AR T H
—
IT
S
E
O
L
O
G
I
C
P
ER
I
O
D
S
Time of C onde n
D
F
R
AL
G
AN
O
.
,
sation of the S olar S ystem p 2 2 0 Calc ulation of Time
of C ondensation for the N eb ula extending to the O rbit of
Neptu ne p 2 2 2 The same for the O rbit of the E arth
p 2 2 3 D istribution of Time upon the E arth through
o u t the Varying P eriods of C ondensation of the S u n
and the Inferior P lanets p 2 2 4 Table in millions of
years— P eriod of the Formation of the N eb ulou s E arth,
p 225
.
,
,
.
.
.
,
.
.
,
,
.
.
.
.
C H APTE R X V I
G E O L O G I CAL P E RI O D S CO R R ELA T ED WITH A S T R O N O MI CAL P H E
.
— D iscussio n of G eological P eriods
p 2 28
A rchaean P eriod , p 2 3 1 A rchaean Time in Relation
to the C onditions of A nimal L ife p 2 3 3 —Camb ro
S il u rian P eriod p 2 35
D evonian P eriod p 2 39
P ermian P eriod p 2 4 1
Triassic and Rh aetic P eriods
—
Jurassic P eriod Cretaceous to Tertiary P eriods p 243
G lacial P eriod , p 2 4 6
F ut u re P eriod p 2 4 9
N O M ENA
.
,
.
,
.
.
,
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.
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,
,
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,
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,
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.
.
.
—
A Hypothesis of Radiation of H eat and L ight ,
APP END I C ES
.
p
.
2 52
.
B Mallet s Theory p 2 56
’
.
r a n eou s
.
,
.
.
C
.
C o n tempo
S tratification of Rocks of the prevailing Chemical
E lements , p 2 5 8
.
.
N O T E S O N T HE N E B U LAR T H E O R Y
2
.
calculations These historical outlines will save space being
taken by constant de fi nitions of the earlier theories by making
u s e of references to the paragraph numbers to be found in
this chapter
1 The ancient ideas of the Kosmos in no way approach
the possible conditions of a N ebular theory—the extent of
the universe in early times was conceived to be only th at which
appeared evident to the senses , the earth being taken as the
centre of the universe surrounded and enclosed by fi rma
ments that were ass u med to be r evolving solid constructions ,
which were variously defined
To this , ho w ever , w e have
some exceptions An aximi ne s believed stars to be of fiery
substance and to carry invisible earthly bodies with them
A S a preliminary idea of early nebular conditions he held
that air was the original material of the universe from which
all things were engendered and into which they resolve
P yth agoras taught his disciples that the s u n was the centre
about which the planets revolved T by which he accounted
for eclipses and the motions of the planets , and thereby
clearly an ticipated what we term the S olar S yste m of Coper
This was a great advance upon the prevailing theory
n i cu s
which was limited to a fi rmam e n t or a number of crystal
Spheres surro u nding the earth The theory of P y thagoras
probably derived from the Chaldeans was , ho w ever far too
much in advance of the age to be accepted by the following
generations of popular scholars and theorists , who were , in
m a ny instances strongly prejudiced against it owing to the
infl u ence of the prevailing superstitions of the time in
accordance with which alone p opularity could be attained
2 The earliest suggestion of a nebular hypothesis that
occ u rs within the Renaissance period is probably that of
Tycho B rahe , who , to account for the new star which appeared
in 1 5 7 2 suggested that stars were formed by condensation of
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H i st ory of Ph il osop hy T S tanl ey 4th e d 1 7 43 p 54
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HI S T O RI CAL N O T ES
3
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the ethereal substance of which he im a gined the Milky W ay
was composed
Kepler accepted Tycho B rah e s idea which
b e somewh a t extended in his account of the n e w star which
appeared in 1 6 0 4 b y su ggesting that the nebular substan c e
m ight not be confined to the Milky Way alone b u t m ay have
pervaded a ll spa c e T In an account of the eclipse of the s u n
at Naples in 1 6 05 he suggests that neb u lar matter is of the
sa m e kind as that which appears a ro u nd the dark body of the
moon in a total eclipse
3 D escart es a ppears to have been the fi rst to attempt to
constru ct a co mplete theory of the origin of the known
u niverse or to sy s tematize the matter of space In this he
a ssu m es
that universal matter originally existed in three
—
sta tes coarse , fine and very atten u ated that it drifted
originally in a complex system of whirls and that each of
these whirls formed a solar or planeta ry system I This
theory , bro u ght forward again recently by M Faye will be
presently disc ussed we may term it the Vor tex T heory
4 Th os W right was the first to s u ggest a co mplete gra v i
tation theor y of the universe fo u nded upon astronomi ca l
observations taken accu rately enough to be of any scientific
val u e
H e s u ggests that the u niverse represented by the
M ilky Way is a u n it gravitation system in genera l re v olu
tion in the form of a bifu rcating stratu m co m posed of all the
This is n ow co mm only
v isible stars which resemble o u r s u n
ter m ed the G r z nd s tone T lz eory H e estim ated the direction
in which o u r s u n is travelling among the sta rs by discussion
of the p arallax H e s u gges t s that the Stars by u niformity
of creation have revolutionary subsidiary systems of planets
similar to o u r own sol a r system In the plate which forms
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p 79 5
T Ste ll a nov in p e d e S e p enta ii 1 6 0 6 p 1 1 5
cim inae P h ilos o hi cae
i
P
h
il
oso
p
h
i
1
6
3
7
E
ss
a
e
S
4
s
1
64
1
q
p
p
A n O igi nal T h e o y o f th e U n iv e s e Th omas Wri ght 17 5 0
S ee
al so D e M org an P h il M ag 3 s e r xx x ii p 2 4 1
P rogymn as mata , 1 5 7 2 ,
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N O T E S O N T HE NEB U LAR TH E O RY
4
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our frontispiece he shows by shadi ng the theoretical gravita
tion influences over matter of our S u n S iri u s , and R igel in
whi ch each of these star systems is shown extending its
infl u ence over an approximately equal area of space and
nearly meeting the system of each of the others
He
suggests that with more perfect telesc opes the rings of
S aturn will be discovered to be formed of small s a tellites
H e considers the meas u ra ble visi ble sun to consist of a
vaporo u s and a nebulous atmosphere the dense solid or
liquid body of the sun being much smaller than it appears ,
possibly only of about tw o third s its apparent dimensions
H e con tends that the Milky Way forms one vast system
composed of solar systems like o u r o w n H e does not appear
to know of m ore than the six neb u l ae mentioned by H alley as
light coming from an extraordinary large space in the ether
through which a lucid medium is diffused which shines with
”
its o w n proper lustre
Wright refers to these clou dy
s ots as
condensations of vapo ur among the mass of stars
p
”
to which our sun belongs
Comets are suggested to have
elliptica l closed orbits as represented in the frontispiece and
therefore to be periodi c al
5 Wright s original bold but ( as regards particulars left
u nnoticed ) somewhat inde fi nite outline was filled u p more in
detail by Kant who fully recognizes the spec ulations of
W right of D urham and accepts his general principles
concerni n g t h e structure of the u niverse
Kant s original
spec u la tions given in the second part of his work are princi
pally directed to account for the formation of the solar
s yste m the mass and motion of which are ass u med to have
been prod u ced by the aggregation of free particles tha t
were for merly u ni for mly distrib u ted in Space in an atten u ated
form The parti cles falling together at an early period by
initial gravitation formed masses by local condensations
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HI S T O RI C AL N O T ES
5
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These masses under universal gra vit ation are ass um ed to
have en c o u ntered the resi stan c es of other masses and p articles
generally distributed S O tha t those parts of th e s y stem o n ly
co u ld c ontin u e to move freely and form concentric syste m s
w hich a c q u ired a linear velocity s u fli cie ntl in equation with
y
the ne arest centralizing attraction to prod u ce orbital motion
The m atter defle c ted from th e direct line of attraction towards
th e s u n p a ssed into revol u tion a bout it
The revol u tion pro
du ce d a denser extended e q u atori a l pl ane into which exterior
m atter was drawn whilst approa ching t h e sun
The velo city
of the p a rticle falling towa rds the s u n d epended u pon the
distance fallen the direction it fin a lly took upon the su m of
l ateral devi ations it experienced in consequence of enco u nter s
with other p a rti cles which directed it under the infl uence of
gravitation into the path of least resistance The p articles
which did not meet the conditions of circu lar or orbit a l
motion fell i nto the sun where his attraction predominate d
The particles deflected or held in eq u ilibri u m in n early the
same orbit for m ed the planet by gravitati n g towards denser
condensations of s u rrounding matter whi ch acting u nder
si milar con di t ions took the same direc tion of revol ution a s
the sun The s a m e motive principles in m atter which pro
d u ce d t he revol u tion of the planet a ro u nd the s u n al s o
produced its o w n rotation a n d the revolution of its s atellites
in the same direction The pl anet in regard to rotation I s
considered as an ind ependent body The rotat i ve movement
might therefore according to the momentu m of the mean
drift of its matter t ake one direction or the o ther the
direction of rotation being d u e to the u nequal velocity of the
particles in circulation around the sun at th e ti me they were
fa llin g u pon the new forming planet through its prevailing
loca l attraction S aturn is taken as a partic ular case for
consideration in which vaporo u s conditions of condensation
a r e suggested
the rin g being in revolution and thrown 0 6
the planet where the centrifugal force of its matter become s
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N O T E S O N T HE NEB U LAR TH E O RY
6
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It will be convenient to
in equilibrium with gravitation
denominate the neb ular theory of Kant th e D is cr ete S y s te m
in contradistinction to the Concr ete or gaseo u s system of S ir
William H erschel and L aplace , notices of which fo llo w
It is readily seen that matter equ ally distrib u ted in space
could not possibly drift in the manner proposed by Kant but
that it must at an early period fall into the whirl system of
motion proposed by D escartes M Faye altho u gh generally
supporting the discrete theory of Kant , has demonstrated
th at if matter drifted under the influence of gravitation only
a s proposed by this philosopher it wo u ld possess no rota tion
upon condensation in for ming the sun or a separate planetary
system T
L ambert followed closely in the theory of Kant his gre amst
divergence being in the division of the universe into many
galactic systems of which our Milky W ay represents one
only i This is n ow denominated the I s la n d T heory
6 N o further advance was made in the neb u lar theory
until over 2 00 0 nebul ae had been discovered and examined
by S ir Willia m H erschel , an acco u nt of which was placed
before the R oya l S ociety in several papers from 1 7 8 4 o n
wards The neb u l ae were recogniz ed individ u ally as immense
gravitation systems in 1 7 8 9
The planetary nebul ae were
add u ced as giving evidences of atmospheres of shining fl u id
abo u t stellar foci , which were suggested to be in a state of
condensation in 1 7 9 1 The entire subject is brought together
embracing ideas of the origin of our o w n solar system being
derived from nebular matter in P hil Trans 1 8 1 1 , p 2 6 9 e t
m
The
concl
u
sions
arrived
at
are
so
ewhat
less
original
se
q
than H erschel s upposed They possibly mark in one respect
the influence of chemical di scovery in which t h e s mallest
parts of bodies were beginning to be recognized as distinctly
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All ge me i ne N at urge s ch i ch te u nd T h e o ri e de s Hi mmel s, 17 55
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B
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H IST O R I CAL N O T E S
7
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structural units all of which might be bro u ght to a gaseo u s
state by heat therefore the possibility of the existence of all
—
known matter in three forms gaseous liqu id and solid
dependent upon the special temperature to which any element
is exposed The recognition of a possible gaseous state for
all matter appears to have suppressed for the time the former
prevailing idea as regards the n ebular hypothesis that
materi al particles separately distri b uted in space represented
the most atten u ated form of matter
The gaseo u s element
o ffered also at the same time a n e w foundation for the con
struc tion of a nebular hypothesis
7 The subj ect is taken up by the powerful analytical
mind of L aplace in 1 7 9 6 1 and in 1 7 9 9 and adva nced in
following years I It is treated entirely de n ovo this a uthor
evidently not knowing h o w much had been tho u ght out in
the same direction by others H e follo w s without knowing
it closely upon the general argu ments of Kant partic u larly
those of his theory of the form ation of the rings of S atu rn
w ith the important addition of the introduction of the gaseous
nebular element as a u ni vers a l mediu m H e formulates that
whatever could have directed the movements of the planets
it must have been originally a concrete system embracing
the whole o f these bodies , which co u ld not possibly seeing
its immense exten t have been othe r than an aerial fluid
surrounding the sun and possessing the same direction of
revol ution To ensure this possible extension of matter he
supposes that the nebulo u s gaseous matter was of s ufficiently
high temperat u re for all solids to exist in a purely gaseous
state H e suggests that this atten u ated matter of the solar
system probably resembled some o f the neb u lae visible in the
telescope or more particularly the nebulous stars which were
fo rmed from the general more attenuated and highly heated
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Trai té é lé me ntaire de C he mi e 1 7 8 9
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E x p osi ti on d a S ys té me d u M onde vol ii p 2 9 5
1 I d 3 rd edit 18 13
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N O T ES O N T HE N E B U L A R THE O R Y
8
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nebulous matter
The original momentum of the solar
nebula in revolution was conserved , so that as it contracted
it attained higher velocity The planets were formed at the
limits of the solar atmosphere when it was a planetary nebula
by successive zones of vapour being abandoned in the plane
of the sun s neb u lar equator at a radius where the centri
fugal force of the zone , due to its contraction and accelerated
rotation , w as in equation with gravity for the orbit of the
planet A fter separation the parts of the z one rm g would
mainta in the same angul ar velocity as they had while in
contact with the sun for a time b u t in falling towards the
new planet forming by local condensation , the exterior
matter besides its excess of linear velocity over interior
parts due to its exterior position , would attain further excess
of velocity thro u gh gravity
The downward impulse of
gravitation into tangential velocity w ould impress an excess
of velocity over the original ang u lar velocity in condensation
upon the plane t and thereby cause its rotation to be in the
same direction as the revolu tion of the planet around the s u n
This e ffect will be disc u ssed wi t h a diagram , in the b ody of
the work The satellites were formed at the limits of the
atmosphere of the neb u lous planets at an early period in the
same m anner as the planets themselves were formed about
the sun H e s u ggests that comets are of another sv ste m
w ith linked orbits
and that they move under the m u tu al
attractions of our s u n and other separate stars The theory
of L aplace has many able supporters among the most able of
w h o has
whom is the celebrated astronomer M C Wolf
made important additions to it
8 The discovery of certain factors of the mechanical
theory of heat by Mayer in 1 8 42 led this philosopher in
1 8 4 8 to propo u nd a theory of the possibility of the sun s heat
being maintained by the percussion of the fall of meteoric
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N O T E S O N T HE N E B U LAR T H E O RY
10
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heat engendered by their united collisions wo u ld only cover
t he emission of heat from the sun at its present rate for
years The meteoric theory is supported by P rof
"
L o ckyer and P rof A W inchell T , and enlarged to the
extent of solar heat being produced by the collision of
our s u n with another star by the late D r C roll I, an idea
originally suggested by S ir William H erschel before his
speculations u pon the nebular theory
1 0 The late illustrious H elmholtz in a lect u re at Konigs
berg Fe b 7 , 1 8 54, accepted the theory of L aplace , stipulating
a special form of gaseous matter represented by a state of
infinite di ffusion in whi ch the gas w a s affected by forces of
mutual and central gravitation only , but was not necessarily
in a heated state H elmholtz determined the amount of
heat that wo uld be generated by this form of gaseo u s con
densation in the sun and planets of o u r system up to the
present time upon his theory H e States that if w e ass u me
about the 4 54th part of the mechanical force remains as s uch,
the remainder converted into heat would be su fficient to raise
a mass of water eq u al to the mass of sun and planets 2 8
million degrees Centigrade
H e ass u mes that the greater
part of the heat was dissipated in Space ages ago H e states
that the cooling of the ear t h alone from a temperature of
20 0 0 to 2 0 0 degrees C entigrade w ould , according to the
experiments of B ischo f upon basal t require 3 50 million
years To convert the same matter from a neb u lar state
would take a period beyond his conjectu re
H e supposes
the condensation of the sun to continue by his attraction
causing the falling of the s u rface towards the centre and
thereby producing a contin u al development of heat through
pressure which , assuming the sun to be reduced by this
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p h es i s
T h e M et eor t c Hy ot
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t
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188
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P h il T rans 1 7 8 5, p 2 13
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HI S T O RI CAL N O T ES
11
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constant contraction to the density of the earth would at the
present rate of e mission take a period of about 1 7 million
years so that the s u n in relation to the period o f Stellar life
is near its point of extinction
1 1 A s an impor tant fa ctor of the e ffects of conservation
of energy in the condensation of a neb u la a la w of cooling of
masses of gas was discovered by Mr J H omer L ane of
Washington which is given in a paper O n the Theore tical
”
Temperat u re of the S u n T
T his law is shown in the
following manner — If a globular gaseous mass is condensed
to one half its primitive diameter th e central attraction upon
any part of its mass wi ll be increased four fold while the
s u rface will be reduced one fo u rth H ence the pressure per
unit of s u rface will be increased sixteen times Therefore if
the el a stic gravita ting forces were in equ ilibrium in the
primitive condition of the gaseo u s mass the temperat u re
must be do u bled in order that they may still be in equilibrium
when the diam eter is reduced one half Under these condi
tions the intensity of the heat of the s u n mus t have increased
with its contraction from the nebular condition This is a
most important consideration in showing the possibility of
the conservation of the energy of the solar system in past
time d u ring the continuous emission of heat from i ts former
more extensive s u rface
1 2 R ecently the celebrated French astronomer M Faye
has written a learned work bringing for w a rd much antique
lore upon the s u bject T H e ad e pts the theory of discrete
mat ter being originally dispersed in space following the
theory of Kant and of its condensation u pon the thermo
dynamic principles proposed by Mayer by which the collisions
of gravitating matter abo u t the sun prod u c e its heat and mass
under certain conditions H e s u pposes that matter drifted
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P hil M ag ser 4, vol xi p 505 e t seq
I A mer i can Journ al of S ci ence, J uly 1 8 70
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d
d
18
80
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR TH E O RY
12
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originally in cyclones according to the whirlpool theory of
H e objects to the p u rely mechanical demonstra
D escartes
tions of L aplace who m science generally regards as one of
the great est celestial mechanics since N ewton in his theory
showing the direction of rotation the planets and satellites
m ust necessarily take u pon exterior condensation through
contraction of a rotating gaseo u s system It m u st however,
be noticed in this argument that M Faye chan ges the
theoreti cal premises from a concrete or fl u id system to a
discrete or chaotic system wherein the particles of matter a re
ass um ed to be originally moving i n free orbits
in which it
is certain that the application of the arg u ments of L apl a ce
can not hold It d oes not appear to me that there is really
very much difference between certain of the conceptions of
D escartes which are applicable to the s u bject if these are
stripped of their complications and those of L aplace B oth
these philosophers negative a chaotic state T and recognize
the necessity for ass u ming an original fluid state to acco u nt
for the direction of the rotation of the planets being the same
as that of the revolution in their orbits This gaseous state
surrounding the solar system in which grosser particles are
assumed to float is defined by D escartes as ciel liqu ide dont
les parties sont ex tré m e me nt agit é s T also as corps s u btile
”
conceptions of a gas which do not v ary
e t tr é s liq u id
greatly from those of Clausi u s and C lerk Max w ell W ith
L aplace the original solar n eb ula moved in all parts with
eq u al angu lar velocity ; with D escartes its motion was
which is the only possible form of motion for a
cy c lonic
fl uid system moving with u niform angular rotation , while
to enable it to
c ondensing or contracting under gravitation
fi nd accommodation for the momentum of its separate parts ,
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T L e s Princip es d e la P h iIO S O phie p 147
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p
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9
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1
I d p 18 4
S ur l O ri gine du M on
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HI S T O R I CAL N O T ES
13
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as I have Sho w n in principle in my work on the Motion of
”
Fluids
1 3 O ne most important work that M Faye has done in
this theory is to Show that a discrete system of m a tter dis
tribut ed in space in orbital motion in each of its separate
parts will upon condensation under the a ction of gravitation
to form an exterio r body or planet ca u se this body to rotate
i n t he reverse direction to that of its solar orbital motion T
This de m onstration removes a di ffic u lty formerly experienced
in the acceptan c e of the theory of L aplace since the discovery
of the reverse direction of revolu tion of the satellites of
Uranus and Nept u ne It further shows t h e probability that
the widely atten u ated neb u lo u s matter which may have been
present in space as a part of our solar nebula exterior to the
orbit of S aturn may have condensed at an early stage into
free particles before the concre te formation of the planets
Uranus and N ept u ne and their satellit es
This may be
taken as a very probable hy pothesis the possibility of which
appe a rs to have escaped the po w erfully analytical mind of
L aplace
1 4 In the hypothetical element of our knowledge of the
extent of time which may have been taken in solar planetary
formation M Faye leaves the astronomical to consider the
geologica l conditions b v taking the earth s superficial strati
fi ca tion as an index of the entire past of the solar system
Thi s is unfortunate for one who has evidently not made
geology a serious st u dy In this disc u ssion past t ime is
divided into E ocene Miocene and P liocene periods all of
which the geological Stu dent regards as recent T
This
error in a geological sense is discovered and corrected in a
second edition of his important work but in this case it still
5
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p eri mental R es ea ch es i nt o t he Prop e rti es and th e M ot ions o f
Fl uids
p 224 t s q
T S r l O igine d u M on de 2 nd e d 188 5 p 11 7
‘
I S ur l O igin e d u M on d e 1st e d p 2 54
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N O T E S O N T HE N EB U LA R T H E O RY
14
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compresses solar planetary time into 2 0 million years This
period has been proposed by e m inent physicists upon arbitrary
data but is accepted by very fe w practical geologists as
su fficient P rof John P erry has quite recently suggested
for consideration much more probable data for the time
of cooling of the earth to its present state by takin g i t from
a uniform temperat u re of 7 000 Fahr by which upon his
calculation the time would be extended to 1 00 million
ye ars
G eological time , if the e vidences taken from fossil remains
the stratification of miles in thickness by slow deposition of
rocks the removal of these rocks by erosion many times with
erasure of faulting due to plutonic action , are fairly con
si de re d from observation and taken altogether
appe
to
a rs
,
carry the limit of time beyond pos sIb le conception NO short
period of a fe w million years will satisfy the evidences of the
changes occ u rring in the evolution of animal life alone— the
changes from one stratum to another presenting gaps evi
de n tly of much longer period than the period of deposition
If w e take the earliest life w e know of, the animal is still a
perfect highly organized structure , which for possible ev olu
tion indicates a long period lost to obse rvation in fossil
re m ains N o one can estimate the evidences of geological
time unless he works in the fi eld of geology L et him follo w
in the excursion of such excellent societies as that of the
G eological A ssociation of L ondon S ta nd in front of a mo u n
tain of an early S ilurian period , formed in part entirely
of com minuted shells of moll u sks with here and there a
perfect weathered specimen H e begins to feel the immensity
of time the generation of this life refuse must have taken
alth ough he knows his observation extends over but a small
fraction of a long series of periods The limit of infinite time
is taken by some modern philosophers I n the same spirit of
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L IMIT S O F TH E O RY T o BE D I S C U S S ED
15
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do ubt as the limit of Space w as formerly taken by the
ancients
1 5 N o atte mpt will be made in these pages to disc u ss the
hypothesis of the d iffu si on of matter into space by violent
explosions from the sun and the earth and fro m other cosm ic
bodies as probably this hypothesis will have but a limited
time popularity The di ffi culty to the serio u s physicist , as
shown by L ord Kelvin is to c om prehend the wonderful con
servation of energy we find in the s u n and stars for the dis
cally beyond
It
is
therefore
physi
e n sa ti o n of heat and light
p
co mprehension that t here co uld re main in cos m ic bodies the
large amount of energy s u fficient for the dispensa tion of heat
and light and at the same tim e an equ al or greater amo u nt O f
energy beyond that which is in any way evident for the
di ffusion of matter s u ch as satellites comets and meteorites
into space by projection from their orbit foci even if this
would really acco u nt for their present motion and c onditi on
O therwise the projectile hypothesis is in every way in di rect
opposition to the nebular hypothesis which it will be my
obj ect to consider We cannot possibly form a theory in
whi c h we derive energy from condensation dispense i t equ al ly
by diffu sion and still have it largely conserved , as w e know
it to be actually in solar and Stellar systems
1 6 The theory herein treated will be direc ted to Sho w the
possibilities of the concentration of s u ffi cient solar energy
and of sufficient geological time in the p ast t o satisfy the
direct inferences of observation This may be possibly best
secured by assuming o u r ori ginal solar neb ula to be repre
sented by such actu a l neb ul ae a s we may observe with the
telescope The neb u lae selec ted will be assu m ed to go thro u gh
certain changes u pon condens ation the sta te of which may
also be represented by other visible neb ul ae In this st u dy
we may follow closely in the theory of L aplace with deve
lopm e nt as far as possible by calc u lation of the actual motions
of some part of the solar planetary system
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N O TES O N T HE NEB ULAR TH E O RY
16
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The proposed data founded by inferences drawn from
astronomical observation will entirely fall in with the possi
b ility of heat and motive energy being due to concentration
of gaseous matter in a state of infinite di ffu sion in revolution
in the solar system as proposed in the contraction theory of
H elmholtz
At the same time we are bound to consider
the e ffects of gravity acting upon dis crete matter in cosmic
formations , found in the theories of Kant and Faye although
su ch matter may have been originally formed by condensa
tion of gaseo u s m atter
The evidence of discrete cosmic
matter rests upon the observation of the fall of meteorites
possessed of planetary velocities to the earth , which is still
taking place Therefore , upon these premises there is the
probability that thro u ghout the formation of our solar plane
tary system there were both gaseous and discrete condensa
tions upon o u r sun and planets This may be particularly
evident in periods in an early discrete system of condensation
of the very atten u ated external neb u la before its planetary
condensation and in the possibility also of di screte condensa
tions occurring at a period w hen the solar nebula by radiation
of its initial heat fell below a temperature su fficient to support
the gaseous state outside the present sun These principles
will be developed in the following pages and the mode of
special conditions of early condensation be disc u ssed for con
temporary astronomical and for geological conditions in the
past S ome suggestions will be carried forward , so far a s the
h
h
c onditions remain ac t ive
to
the
present
and
very
o
t
e
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yp
tic ally only for future periods in relation to the sun and the
earth
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N O TES O N T HE N E B U LA R TH E O RY
18
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incandescent ga seo u s m atter isolated in space in our ob serv
able neb u l ae whereas we can have no evidence of a discrete
state of matter widely distributed in scat tered small u nits of
a fe w grains in weight a mile or m ore apart , as so me
philosophers have suggested as such a discrete system would
be q uite impossible of vis u al recognition At the same time i t
is the probable condition that any isolated system of attenuated
gaseous matter free to radiate heat into space will condense
at a certain stage of temperat u re and form solid matter par
ti cu larly if the gas is a heated form of ordinary solid matter
Therefore taking an original nebula to have been in a gaseo u s
state would not in some cases materially change the fi nal
res u lts from that of a discre te system as rega rds the probable
c ondition of condensation which may be instituted to for m
the present stars , sun , or planets , if o ther conditions support
this theory
1 9 A S regards the original state of matter from which w e
m ay conceive cosmic bodies were formed it appears to be
most rational for the mind to ass u me that m atter existed
originally in a p u re or elementary state and that it after
wards becam e mixed or combi n ed by the action o f interior
and exterior forces acti n g u pon it under principles which
generally term the laws of Nature This purity of state for
the units of attenuated m a tter may possibly be best conceived
by taking it to be originally gaseo u s as all mat ter can be
shown experiment ally to exist for indefinite time permanent
in this very atten u ated condition where its heat is conserved
fro m radiation W hereas any system of discrete par ticles
or dust in the presence of gravitat ion acting u pon it ca nnot
be kept in an atten u ated or separate state witho u t impression
of an exterio r force rotative or other, to act constantly u pon
every p article as a m eans of separation It becomes there
fore convenient in this discussion w itho u t regard to theory
to pres um e so m e form of a gaseous state to be the original
condition as experiment shows that all material bodies with
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O R I G INAL COND E N S ATI O N O F CO S MI C N E B U L E
19
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which we are acquainted may reasonably have been derived
therefrom by red u ction of temperatu re alone whatever state
or mass the final condensation may assum e
—
~
i
n
a
l
M
a
t
ter
To support
2 0 S ep a r a tion of S y s te ms of O r ig
the nebu lar theory of S ir Willia m H erschel and L aplace
which assumes that stars and solar planetary systems were
form ed fro m an extensive ga seo u s neb u la widely distributed ,
s u ch as we have evidence of ac tu ally in local systems of
matter dispersed in the universe available to visio n in the
teles c ope and to a naly sis by m eans of the spectroscope it is
necessary as stated above that w e sho ul d ass u me a distant
period of time when a certain vol u me or separate volumes of
highly attenuated neb ulous matter existed detached from
s u rro u nding space yet moving within it The vol u me of
s u ch matter may be as extensive as w e may please to im agine
it witho u t changing the general conditions It may embrac e
the whole of tha t part of the u niverse w e de fi ne as th e Milky
W ay or for partic ular evidences in detail be restricted to
our o w n solar system
To s u pport this theory it is only
necess a ry that the nebula in the system that we separately
define sho u ld have a surface bo u ndary from which it can
radiate the heat into space whi c h maintained it originally in
the nebulous or gaseous state We have by the effect of the
radiation of heat from s u ch a syste m of m a tter t he ass u rance of
its constant contraction in volu me tending by the approaching
to the closer
n e arn e s s o r contig u ous cohesion of its parts
a ccumulation of matter in a local foc u s or in local foci , so that
matter is ther e by bro u ght more forcibly u nder the centralizing
a ct ion of gr avitation Th e e ffects of the c ondensations u pon
s u ch foci from a gaseous syste m render available u pon che
mical change of s t ate or u pon therm od y namic action , a store
of energy which is s u fficient in the extent of neb u l ae here
considered for the for mation of incandes c ent stars , and if any
li mited volu m e of neb u la be ta ken to be locally in rotation
for the production of a planetary system that may be fi n ally
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N O T E S O N T HE N E B U LAR T H E O R Y
20
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formed therefrom , after a certain amount of radi ation of its
initial heat into sp a ce
2 1 When we conceive that our solar nebula may have
formed a part of a general system of neb ul ae as defi ned above
and therefore that i t may have resembled other astronomical
neb ul ae we may conclude that it w a s of that form , among the
many known forms best adapted to produce our present
solar planetary sys tem upon condensation F urther , it is not
certain that the nebula of our system , taken as a motive
system ma y not have gone through certain changes by which
it might at various periods be represented by various forms
of visible nebul ae Thus an originally diffused system could
not have a nucleus or central condensation until this was
formed and when formed the nebula would possess a ne w
external appearance There are known nebul ae w hich present
irre gularities of form inconsistent with condensed gravity
systems appearing as irregular streaks and masses of incan
descent hydrogen and helium
S uch systems we cannot
assume to have arrived at their final concentrated forms
although it is at the same ti me probable that they are more
complete as gravitative systems than they appear P robably
the marked irregulari ty to t ele SC O pic vision in some of these
masses particularly of the spiral n ebul a depends upon the
incandescent hydrogen and heli u m being the visible part of
the nebulo u s mass whereas other gaseous matter , invisible
in an incandes cent gaseous state makes up the entire mass
S uch m a t ter for instance as hydrogen united wit h oxygen
in the proportion to form water would be invi sible under the
condition s which wo u ld render the hydrogen visible This
resid ual matter , which the spectroscope does not grasp may
possibly be detected at a future time by some n e w method
of analysis P ossibly it may be in ferred in some cases by
re fraction and by clouding e ffects upon more distant objects
In neb ul a that are so extensive as to suggest nearness to
u s refraction may be s u ggested as evidence of trans parent
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O R I G INAL CO NDEN SATI O N O F CO SMI C NE B U LAL
21
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In part of the nebula n ear 5 2 Cygni tt 1 5, the
visible nebula appears as a c u rved stre ak of inca ndescent
hydrogen shown in one of D r Isaa c R ob e rts s bea u tifu l
photographs wherein upon the hollow side of the curve stars
appear to be larger and m u ch more n u m ero u s than on the
convex side as tho u gh the co m plete neb u la were of spheroid a l
or lentic u lar form upon the conc ave side invisible itself
throu gh its transparen cy yet possessing su ffi cient refractive
power to act as the object glass of a telescope to m agnify
a n d bring o u t stars in the backgro u nd which wo u ld otherwise
“
be invi sible in o u r telescopes D r R oberts st ates th a t this
gigantic neb u la is of an irregu lar oval ch a racter
and that
the bright side of this neb u la seems to form a sharply
de fi n e d bound a ry between the stream of the Milky Way stars
”
and those on its pre c eding side
The photograph for
P late II e e w a s taken by permission from a print, a nd does
not do justice to D r Rob erts s original negative The hollow
side where magnification occ u rs is shown towards e The
dimness surroun ding neb u lar fields being evidence of the
presence of nearly invisible matt er was pointed out by S ir
Wm H erschel P ossibly also such matter may surround
and float up the hydrogen chromosphere of the sun
—
i
l
i
n
a
M
a tter
This is necessarily i n
2 2 T enu z ty of O r g
sisted u pon in any system of c os m ology
If we take a
glob ul ar volume of ga s extending to the orbit of Nept u ne
o nl y as the limit of our solar system and extend the m a ss of
o u r sun and plane ts to this vol ume we find by calc u lation
that the mean density of such matter would be equ al to
abo u t
that of air at the earth s surfac e
If
w e extend this to the mean distance between our s un and a
near star we sho u ld have to add many decimal pla ces to o u r
denominator Further it is di fficult t o conceive that an
isolated system of matter as here proposed could remain of
matter
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S el ecti on of P h otograp hs of Stars , S tar cl u sters, and N ebul a , p 1 1 5
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N O T E S O N T HE NEB U LAR TH E O RY
22
.
eq u al density throughout u nless the central heat was enor
m e a sly greater than that of the outer parts Therefore the
gaseous matter m u st decrease in density in some form of
geometrical ratio from the centre to the exterior surface and
this must prod u ce a ten u ity abo u t the limits much greater
than that sho w n even by the mean density of the system
suggested above
The spe c u lations of S ir Wm H erschel , as well as those of
W right infer that the entire system of the Milky W ay
formed at one period a unit system of matter This appears
to be probable to modern science from evidences of the unity
of chemical constit u tion of the stars shown by the spectre
scope To account for su fficie n t tenuity in original cosmic
matter it was suggested by D escartes that a small m a ss
divided into detached particles as nearly in contact as matter
can approach may fill a volume ho w ever large
In fi nite
divisibility of matter is however inconsistent with chemical
phenomena which are better explained by the atomic theory
2 3 In regard to the atomic theory if we may take j ointly
the calc u lations of Cauchy from the motion of light in solids
and liquids of L ord Kelvin from certain electrical pheno
mena and of Clausius and Clerk Maxwell from gaseo u s
—
phenomena the mean siz e of the ultimate atom is abo u t
one 50 0 millionth of an inch
In the amount of diffusion
discussed in the previous paragraphs for space this would
leave less than a Single atom to the cubic metre
There fore , if the above stated gaseous theory is approxi
m ately correct it is di fficult to suggest that such an atomic
system formed our original neb u la even if the nebula were
s uffi ciently heated to produce a system of general gaseous
di ffu sion for such atomic separation
The principles of
diffu sion may be materially strengthened if w e can fi nd
i t accordant with the inferences of science tha t matter
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d "el vi n Proc R oy Ins t vol x pt 2 p 2 13
Lor
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N O TE S O N T HE N E B U LA R T H E O RY
24
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not only hydrogen helium , or other g ases that become visible
in an incandescent state u nder electrical excitation I pro
pose the word p neuma to specially define this most attenuated
for m of gaseous m atter which may have pervaded sp ace ,
composed of any or all the chemical elements , and which
represented the state of infini te diffu sion proposed by H e lm
holtz This matter would be transparent and not be Visible
in any form except when undergoing chemical combinatio n
or in condensation to form the visible nebula The pneuma ,
in condensing to form the nebula may be assumed to
develop heat and electrical excitation , which renders the
neb ula condensed therefrom incandescent at the time
2 5 In the condensation o f a pne u ma system to a nebular
one , thro u gh radiation of heat it must be the ex terior s urfa ce
alone of the nebula where chemical action can take place
and where heat and electricity are developed thro u gh the
conden sation which makes the neb u la become in any degree
visible A further condensation of the interior of the nebula
to form a central gravitation system or su n renders also
this centre V isible by the heat due to the pressure of the
nebula u pon condensation The light from the centre passes
through the transparent part of the nebula or pneuma, which
may or may not, at the time be undergoing chemical action
2 6 T aking the subj ect more in detail to meet possible
conditions the constit u tion of the pneuma which appears to
me the most consistent with the undulatory theory of light,
and at the same time to present evidence of su fli cie nt tenuity
to unite the material constitution of star systems , is that of
perfect atomic dissociation of elementary matter to the extent
that every line of light or shadow, as the case may be made
visible in the spectroscope proceeding from electrically ex
cited highly incandescent matter represents an active factor o r,
if we please so to term it a distinct kind of dissociated atom
in comparison with which the chemical atom may be con
This appears to be a most Simple
s i de re d to represent a mass
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O R I G I NAL CO NDEN S ATI O N O F CO SMI C N EED LE
25
.
hypothesis of the original atten u ated form of matter which
defines the factors a x E V of S ir B enj am in B rodie In this
constru ction w e may ascribe to each kind of pneuma atom
in a free state or when excited by heat or electri city one
vibr a tion a l p er iod on l
It
also
accounts
from
the
certainty
y
of the great expansion in outward volu me of any known
matter to produce this disso ciated state for the possibility of
the m atter of any single star system extending originally
to the m atter or pneuma of other stars
2 7 The dissociation of atomic matter to th e extent re pre
se nted by spectral lines given above was ori ginally pre posed
by P rof L o ckyer as a possible state of highly he ated matter
made visible by special lines in the spectra of the sun and st ars
not as representing the early condition of the neb u lar system
here proposed , for which this scientist holds quite an O ppo
site theory
In his theory of the dissociation of matter in
the sun and stars , P rof L ockyer endeavours to Show that the
dissociated ato m s m ay possibly enter into several chemical
elements represented by many lin es in their spe c tra so that
any element may lack the matter that produces cer tain
spectral lines This is proposed to be partic u larly shown
in one case by the omission of certain Spectral lines in the
iron group of the sun and of stellar spectra T That the
same principles may be inferred of an original form of disso
c ia tio n is possi b ly evident in a case where there is a tendency
to a comm u nity of a certain system of materi al asso ciates
as in the yttrium group of metals which have been found to
be possible of separation by the refined experiments on
Fractionation
by Crookes , in which he has been able to
separate yttrium in its co mmercial state into five or perhap
eight distinct elements giving special spectral lines T
2 8 In suggesting a new word for the pre n ebular State of
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p oth e si s 18 9 0
‘
T S t di es i n S p e ctr m A naly si s p 16 6
1 B riti sh A s soci ati on Rep orts 18 8 6 p 5 83
Th e M e t eor t c Hy
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N O T ES O N T H E N E B U LA R T H E O R Y
26
.
matter it may be thought that this might be expressed b y
some term already in use as for instance the p r imitive fl ui d
of L ord Kelvin or by one of the numerous conceptions of
the ether as that o f P rof O L odge , wherei n ether is con
c e iv e d to be the only matter and force forming substance
or by p r oty le the pre nebular m atter of Crookes 11 S uch
conceptions may possib ly embrace the qu alities of the original
materi als of the universe but they are so entirely hypo
thetical that they bear no relation to experience which takes
its fi rst conception from str u cture The indefinitely complex
and variable motivity of a fluid assumed to produce the
various kinds of known matter is more di ffi cult of conception
than that of separate struct u ral u nits F urther, if such units
can be correlated with natu ral phenomena as in chemistry or
s pectroscopy , they become the le gitimate groundwork for
the elements of a theory With this conception the idea
herein intended to be expressed by pneuma is that it is an
active substance composed of units which represent , sepa
ri ous properties of matter
r a te l
or
in
combination
all
the
va
y
These separate distinct elements of which there are assumed
to be a much greater number than that of o u r acknowledged
chemical elements may amount possibly to
or more
factors or varieties Upon this pre position it is more pro
bable that che mical elements may be split up into many more
elements than that they may hereafter be red u ced in number
by fin ding any more generally specialized constit uent material
or atom
F or conciseness in the following discussion the pneuma
atom , or what we may call the L ockyer dissociation unit , wil l
be termed a p neu mite T he state and a ssociations of such
n e u m ite s will be n o w considered as the groundwork of the
p
neb u lar theory to be proposed
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iii p 45
T Le ct ure L ondon Inst i t uti on D e c 1 88 2
1 A ddress Bri t A ss oc C h emi cal S e cti on 188 6
E nc B r t 9 th e d
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O R I GI NAL CO NDEN S A TI O N O F CO S MI C N E B U LZE
.
27
at the same temperatu re m ay be all of
equ al size they m u st be very mu ch smaller than the atom
prob ably not over
of its diameter
They may
—
follo w the conditions of P ro u t s or of the Newlands Mende
lej e ff periodic la w and combine consistently with prod u cing
equ ivalents to di hydrogen atoms in giving u nits of a tomi c
weight They have precisely the same capacity for heat
They probably possess many uniform properties which are
common to all m atter besides the spe cial individu al properties
of each special pneu mite the active conditions of which will
now be s u ggested i n relation to our subj ect
3 0 The action of electrical excitation or of intense or pos
sib ly original heat is ass u med , as s u ggested by P rof L ockyer
to have po w er to se t any pne u mite free fro m cohesio n
to other matter where this is not subject to severe press u re
causing repulsion between pne u mite and pne u mite In this
case a pne u mite may under excitation e xist as a separate
free u nit if there is no surro u nding pressure o r local
attraction acting too forcibly u pon the system of which
it forms a part to cause its combination Upon its com
bination w ith other pne u mite s to enter the atomic S tate it
will de velop heat or electric al excitation comparable to that
which wo uld cause its separation
In the free s tate of the pne u mite it is assumed to possess
or attain only a single rate of vibration period for each
Special pne u m ite The vibration period may depend partly
u pon the initial elasticity of the surfa ce of the pne u m ite
whic h may be partly develo ped u pon its surface as an ex
a n si on by heat as we know no li mit to the action of this
p
force or as a repulsion under like Sign of electricity, causing
by thi s expansion or repulsion from contact the separation
fro m other near pn e u mite s to render it motive Thi s may
also produce vibrational e ffects from projection thro u gh
expansion causing the colli sion of one pne u mite with o thers
the elastic motivity of which may contin u e in i ts vi b rational
29
T he p ne u mites
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N O TE S O N T HE NE BU LA R TH E ORY
28
.
e ffects by reflection in collisions thro u gh the reaction o f its
weight or energy in attraction of gravitation or affinity
t o w ards its ow n and other matter as qualities o f the special
n
m
eu
i
t
e
A ny of these conditions may distinguish a
p
n e u mite as a separate special factor of matter
p
3 1 A physical constitution of the n e u m ite may be sug
p
gested similar to that I originally proposed for the atom
that of a perfectly hard centre and a perfectly tough and
in fi nitely elastic impressible and compressible coating —an
outward condition of m atter t hat may possibly b e inferred
.
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,
Fi g 2
.
.
from the force required to bring two convex surfaces of glass
nearly together The pn e u mites of equ al size and at the
same temperature may possess relatively di fferent di ameters
of centres and of elastic coatings or they may possess
diminishing density from the centre or polarity
Thus
fig 2 a may represent diagrammatically a very light elastic
n e u m it e of wide or slow vibrational period 0 one of rapid
p
period I) one of interm ediate period
3 2 A s regards the elastic sensitiveness of any pn e u mite
d m ay represent a very sensitive for m in which the coating
di minishes in density from the centre outwards ; e a pne u
mite with a polar axis y z possessing vibrational influences
u nequal in di ffere n t directions f may Show di a grammatically
the expansion of the pne u mite by heat , p being the li m it o f
expansion by increment of temperature up to the critical
point p a sudden expansion at the critical point to form a gas
A special pn eu mite m ay be adapted to take one form of
electricity
or
so that it can only combine with another
.
,
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.
,
,
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.
,
,
,
.
'
.
,
Fl id p 10
u
s,
’
.
.
O RI G INAL CO NDENSA TI O N O F CO S MI C N EB U LzE
29
.
li ke pn eu mite un der decrease of temperature through the
intervention or inclusion of a pne u mite of a different Sign
3 3 The centre of the pn e u m it e may be in one sense a
universal form of gra vitative matter (gra vite) or this may be
an element of it u pon whi ch alone the amount of gravi
tati on and cohesion depends while still possessing other
a ffinities The resistance to combination may depend upon
the rigidity or depth of elastic coating of the pne u mite the
limiting extreme surfa ce being however a constant of
perfect elasticity
In the combin a tion of tw o or more
n
eu
i
m
s
t
e
at equ al temperature g fig 3 may represent the
p
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
gaseous state at the nearest approach of tw o pne umite s h
thi s state in combination i tw o inseparable pn e u mite s at the
same gaseous temperature With the like factors to those
described above as the special characters of separate pneu
mites the final co m po und atom may possess any observable
quali fi cation due to its composition In the same manner as
the apparently similar cell in organic life possesses the
elements of the functions of the organ to wh ic h it belongs
Taken in this manner, a free atom may be considered to
resemble in a certain degree the physical state of an organic
being possessing potentialities which are active only when
it is endowed with the vital force of heat or electricity su ffi
c ient to produce the fluid state
but which cease when this
S o that the ato m
influen c e is withdra w n or dissipated
remains encysted as it were in a dorm an t state when it
forms part of a solid mass o u twardly sensitive only to the
properties of cohesion and static equ ilibrium , so as to be
,
,
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,
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.
,
,
.
[
,
,
,
,
T HE N E B U LA R T H E O R Y
N O TES O
30
N
’
.
affected by temperature and electrical excitation only t o a
lim ited degree
If there is a distinct pn e u mite of en tirely discordant vib ra
tio n al period with other pn e u mite s it will form a permanently
—
—
issoci
ted
system
give
a
single
line
in
the
spectrum
have
d
a
no power of association or absorption with other m atter, an d
be i m possible of condens ation from the pneu ma state The
ne u m ite is ass u m ed to be the prime mover of light vibra
p
tion which may be communicated thro u gh ether or otherwise
to a distance
The mode of construction proposed above for t h e initial
units of matter appears to me to be simpler than that
of assuming any single factor to possess at the same time
many distinct properties vibrational chemical and other
Indeed it is easier to conceive
varieties of s u ch
str u cturally si m ple distinct u nits than one endowed indi
vid u ally with the many properties of the chemical atom
needing Clerk Maxwell s little demon to direct it
3 4 In the general pne u ma system here proposed as being
formed of specialized pne u m ite s although the pne u ma may
be invisible itself w h en widely dispersed in space , it may
form in great bulk a density system by m u tu al att raction
and even possess a certain degree of absorbent or refractive
power upon light passing through it a s before suggested for
attenuated nebula It would evi dently in all cases be placed
exterior to the denser neb u l a before its condensation thereto ;
which m ay m eet S ir W m H erschel s suggestion that a
nebulo u s appearance of stars may someti m es be caused b y
their shining thro u gh an a tten u ated medium
.
,
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'
35
.
Chemica l A ction i n
l
r e a tion
U pon the
to
P n eu ma S y s tem
a ss u m e that our sola r
a
.
data j u st proposed if w e
pneuma sys t em originally extended to the primitive radius o f
other star systems then in condensation , we may imagine
,
9"
P h il T rans 18 11 , p 3 59
.
.
.
.
N O T E S O N T H E NEB U LA R T H E O R Y
32
.
produce ano ther less divided molecular system leaving only
a single group of molecules suffi ciently active synchronously
for spectroscopic observation the vibrations Sinking by loss
of temperature or electrical excitation to a perfect molec u lar
concentrated condition of restricted vibration , moving belo w
a light gl vm g period of energy
3 7 It will be seen also from this proposition that by
vibrational unity an element may possibly be formed minus
certain pne u mites or with a greater or less number ; as fo r
instance the spectrum of another star syste m as suggested by
P rof L ockyer may resemble our own in cer tain spectral lines ,
thro u gh being formed of pne u mite groups or chemical atoms
from the prevailing pneuma slightly different from the solar
constituents The sun or a star may possess a metal that
may resemble iron in many particulars and yet not be in all
chemical properties exactly like o u r iron from the difference
of pn e u mite composition sho w n in the quantity of Special
n e u mite s which constituted the pneuma from which it was
p
formed ; but once formed it would be universal to the special
system An v line in a star may be omitted or other lines
added in an approximately like chemical element Certain
n e u mite s of accordant period may combine in several groups
p
as for instance certain hydrogen pn e u m i te s of the C F G
gro u ps may be present also in nitrogen only slightly dis
placed from a n ormal position , or even in a kind of duplicate
motive action giving two lines instead of one , through
collateral or rotative vibrational infl u ences of other combined
n e u mi te s special to the nitrogen or the hydrogen atom
p
T h e sensitiveness of any special group by its collateral in
ternal vibrational freedom would prod u ce s u fficient vibrational
amplit u de for s pe ctroscO pic observation , whereas another
more restricted motive gro u p as before stated , would fail
in this and therefore be invisible
—
Fu rther upon the above pre
3 8 Cohesion of M a tter
mises there must be a unity of vibration period for the
,
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-
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O RI G I NAL CO ND E N S A T I O N O F CO SMI C NE B U LZE
33
.
co ncre te chemical atom derived from the mean moment u m of
the associated periods of the pn e u mites of which it was forme d
and the possibility of a like unity of atom and atom to form
the molecu le Therefore the possi b ility of a u nity of sp a ce
motion between li ke che mical atom and atom and molecu le
and molecule and thereby a possibility of near appro ach
when in like ph a se causi n g s u ch atoms or molec u les to inter
lock as it were an d form denser m atter, or to form a local
cohesive system to which surrounding free a toms or m ole
c u les would be drawn and adhere by c entral affinity or
gravitational infl u ences to form m a ss or visible material In
this manner in the neb u lar system as the denser masses of
a ssociated mat ter atoms or molecules appro a ch thro u gh the
infl u ence of wh a t we may term internal cohesion to gravi ta
tion centres of attraction the sum of these motive systems of
discordant vi b rational period or those constit u ted of lighte r
Vibrational momen tum or of higher elasticity through sim
i
l
i
t
c
of
n
u m ite composition forming altogether what we
e
p
,
p
y
recognize as lighter or more rep u lsive matter would be
displaced to the exterior parts from gravita tion centres , as
hydrogen and heli u m are about the stars and visible nebular
systems The motive energy lost by the concrete associatio n
of pne u mite s to atoms and atoms to m asses may be trans
ferred to s u rro u nding space
This energy, being dissipated
thro u gh the o u ter attenuated pne u ma or the ether w ill
appear as tangible heat or visible light , in its encounter with
any exterior material body
3 9 It is possi b le that an atomic system may be formed of
separate pne u mite s not of a bs olu te ly concord a nt vibrational
perio d In this case the atoms formed of pn e u mite s of
perfectly concordant period will be Stable , and in cohesion
also stable as gold A toms formed of pne u mite s partly of
slightly discordant period would be u nstable and the same in
c ohesion Atoms formed within the greatest possible limits
A pp endi x A
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-
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.
N O T ES O N T HE N E BU LA R T H E O RY
34
.
of discordant period would be explosive A toms in ch emical
combination with oth er atoms of slightly discordant period
would be also explosive although they might be p er s e a s
regards pne u mi te composition of concordant period O n the
other hand atoms may have concordant period althou gh
their pne u mite composition may b e partially discordant with
other atoms Matter formed of such concordant atoms with
other atoms would have a tendency to associ a te in chemical
composition or alloy as nickel and cobalt the two groups of
platinum metals yttri u m and didymium & c
4 0 In a vast pneuma system supposed to be in a state of
elastic agitation through he at infl u ences and possibly elec
trical excitation , which may afterwards form a solar system ,
we may assume th at the primitive pne umites move in mul
tiple vibrational periods a 3 d 2 5m
r, or
5
9
y
y
y
r
S ince a or y may represent any number of vibra
tions in unit of time these pn e u mite s would be ready to
unite into atomic systems Therefore we may assume t h ese
concordant atoms w ould form the bul k of cosmic materials
F or instance iron with its great number of spectral lines
may be the predominant material T his is consistent wi th
its predominance in the meteoric matter which falls to th e
earth condensed fro m the universal pneuma
The last
n
i
t
m
es
to
unite
would
be
t
hose
at
the
limits
of
the
possible
e
u
p
approximately vibrational period that would be capable of
forming atomic s y stems These would bear some rela tion to
the tempered notes c it d b in pianoforte t uning in relation to
7
r
a
where
a
2
m
w
a
3
m
O
r
as
a
B y
B 7
f, g
7
represent the b ea t periods only of the vibrational time of a
Matter formed of such atoms would be possibly rare in a
cosmic system as the greater number of pneu mites would be
s elected to unite in the permanent atom groups of Simple
multiple period S uch complex atoms in B 7 pe riods would
be possibly open t o dissociation or to form separately material
r
bodies a , 3 1 1a
r
Under such
or B 53 ,
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,
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,
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,
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"
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,
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,
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a
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,
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f
'
,
a
,
,
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,
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,
-
a
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,
04
,
,
,
,
.
O RI G INAL C O ND E N S A T I O N O F CO SM I C N E B U LzE
35
.
re fi ned systems of analysis as that of fractionation by C rookes
therefore s u ch factors of matter would represent the meta
elements of that philosopher
—
The theory of
4 1 O b serva tion of A s tr on omica l N ebu la
the nebular condition derived from observation of the bluish
or greenish unresolvable n ebul a having regard to the facts
revealed by experimental science appears to be best explained
by assuming these nebul a to be purely gaseo u s The m ode
of condensation w hich I would suggest which renders these
mas ses visible to their extreme outline , is purely chemical in
the form herein pre posed and takes place within the exterior
surface of the n ebula only The n ebu la may or may not
cleus
ossess
a
central
incandescent
nu
The
chemical
action
p
r esul ts in the degradation of the pneuma t o a gas or a nebula
u nde r which action free electricity is developed
4 2 In the early purely pneuma state all the elements
may co mbine by mixture but still remain separa te distinct
The
condens
a tion of pneuma to the nebular state
e u mite s
n
p
causes matter to fall towards the centre through cohesion ,
w here a secondary central system of illumination through
h eat may be formed by gravity leaving an attenuated atmo
Sphere of the lighte r, more permanent gases in exterio r
position , as before sta ted
The effect of the superfi cial
con densation is to develop electrici t y , just as the condensa
tion of water vapour in clouds develops it in our atmosphere
Th erefore , if we cou ld see a nebula quite near it would
within its surface be continually Sparkling or possibly be
These sparkles
suffused with dispersed flashes of lightning
or flashes would not occur in the extreme limiting surface
w hich would possibly be of hydrogen and he lium in a hi g h
state of diffu sion but in a somewha t lower stratum where
possibly air or nitrogen would form a denser layer probably
united with aqueous vapour as in our atmosphere These
flashes are assumed to produce the bright lines of nitrogen
a S e e W m C ro oke s s imp ort ant A dd re ss t o t h e C h em cal S oc i et
y 188 8
D2
,
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,
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-
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'
,
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,
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,
.
s
’
.
i
,
.
N O TES O N T HE N E B U LA R T H E O RY
36
;
or helium occasionally seen in the spectroscope The ex
t e rior hydrogen and helium in greater tension than that of a
G e is sle r s t u be becomes electrically excite d and forms also
an insulator to the internal matter which is under intense
chemical action or under vivid electrization thro u gh the
chemical action ; so that we may consider an apparent neb u la
as the seat of an auroral display This superficial action of
forces producing light vibrations , wo u ld detract little energy
from a large volume of matter in a n ebular system whereas
the radiation of intense heat from the entire system su ffi cient
to produce the light we observe would detract much and
s ti ll not account for the spe ctrO S CO pi c phenomena
—
A s the s u n is evidently at a
4 3 Condition of the S u n
temperat u re above that of dissociation of the chemical
elements , it must be represented by a permanen t gas the
gravita tion of the mass causing great press u re in its central
parts
Under such conditions there would still be t h e
tendency for the exterior disso c iated pneu mi te s to u nite into
equal or m u ltiple vibrational systems , although the elasticity
or rep u lsive action of the surface of the pne umite co u ld never
at its tempera ture be overcome by pressure so as to allow of
a very dense system being formed P robably the constan t
tendency of the pneuma to unite into a density system in
vibrational u nity is the cause of intense chemical action ,
development of heat , an d electricity Through the in ternal
friction of the heat vibrations of the syste m a liquid density
system may never be approached under present conditions
The temperature of the sun a t present no doubt dissociates
all elements and projects the dissociates (p neu mites ) from its
s u rface as gas where the press u re is reduced but such pneu
mites cannot maintain a permanent state under the open
radiation of the sun s surface They therefore condense to
nebul a and obst ruct his direct rays still moving at their
o w n vibrational period , and become light absorbing elements ;
It is probable that very re fractory matte r projected locally
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’
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’
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)
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-
O R I G INA L CO NDEN S A TI O N O F CO S MI C N E B U LzE
37
.
out w ards fro m the sun s s u rface may not reach the surface
of the photosphere b ut that it c ondenses to neb u la through
radiation at a lower depth producing the deeper s u rface
of the s u n spots These spots may in this case be possibly
found to be formed of a close series of absorption lines d u e
to very refra c tory matter which may be ob s erv ab le if the
central light is sufficient to pass through them to Show
the inter Vibrational intervals Therefore it is possible that
the more refra ctory matters invisible in the s olar spectrum
of the photosphere may hereafter with refi ned analysis be
found in the spots
44 In ass u ming the s u n to have been condensed from an
e xtensive nebula whi c h extended originally mu c h beyond the
orbi t of Neptune it wo u ld appear at fi rst though t that the
lighter, less refractory matter in the gaseous s tate wo u ld
remain at an ex terior position This has reasonably been
proposed to account for the smaller densities of the s u perior
planets Upon this argument the presence of hydrogen near
the s u rface O f the present sun appears to be anomalous
There are however t w o re a sons why it should appear abo u t
the s u n
The sun derived its matter from all directions
Tangential motion assisted in prevention of approach of
lighter m atter in the planetary plane where matter was
pl a ced most perfectly in motive equ ili b rium with gravitation
Where a s above the sola r poles where all matter must
a pproach witho u t tangential resistance hy drogen wo uld also
ultimately approach when all the more refractory matter had
2
m
condensed
ithin
the
pne
u
ma
syste
proposed the
W
( )
n e u m ites of hydrogen possibly possess perfect vi brational
p
concord with those of a dense metal say palladi u m , and
therefore condense to vapour with it but at the intense heat
upon the present sun surface the hydrogen is constantly
excl u ded although it remains permanently about the s u n s
s urface by its gravitation
’
,
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-
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’
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-
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[
38
]
C HAPTE R II I
F O R MA TI O N
45
.
For ma tion
.
O F S T ELLA R AND S O LA R S Y ST E MS
N ebu la
f
o
a nd
.
S te llar Sy s tems fr om the
—
i
n a l P neu ma S y s te m in the M lhy Wa
Under
the
con
g
y
ditions s ug gested in the last Chapter we may ass u me that
or i
the whole system of the Milky Way formed an immense
pneuma moving in s low rotation the volume of which
included the original places of the matter which sur rounded
and formed all the stars of the system S uch a system , of
the vol u me the premises infer , could not be maintained static
against gravity unless its pne u ma was in a highly heated or
motive state In the interior of the s y stem heat would be
best conserved from radiation , therefore the exterior parts of
the system alone could radiate heat freely into Space to con
dense this pneuma into the nebul ar state T aken in this
way, the parts of the entire pneuma upon which separate
nebular systems could condense by radiation into nebular
star systems wo u ld be at first only relatively near the exterior
limits of the system
The outer condensing parts of the
system would , on account of distance , be held only lightly to
the gravitation centre of inertia O f the entire mass and there
wo u ld b e present certain elements of tangentia l action from
the rotation The neb u la would therefore experience e ffec
tive resistance in falling towards the centre from this cause
and from the motive elasticity of the interior highly heated
parts , which would become by condensation denser than the
exterior parts
Under these conditions the ea r ly formed
,
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,
.
.
N O T E S O N T HE NE B U LAR T H E O RY
40
.
until the whole system of pne u ma here considered was con
de n sin g thro u gh radiation of heat to nebul a and finally into
stellar systems under initial gravitation with intense che
mical action
Upon this principle the pneu ma would be
separated into unit neb u lar star systems , and finally into
individ ual stars each radiating heat proportional to its con
densation into universal space , as it does at the present time
in our Milky Way
C ertain local systems as here de fi ned possessed of great
central density , if seen from remote distance wo u ld resemble
in the whole or i n partly advanced st a ges of condensation
some of the glob u lar or lenticular clusters such as Messier 3
1 3 1 5 53 9 2 and others
4 7 S u gges ted M otive con dition s of the O r igin a l P n eu ma of
—
If this pneuma was originally motive by
the M lhy W ay
rotation about a c entre of inertia or otherwise as just pro
posed its separate units detached by local condensation ,
wo u ld be also motive by continuity of the original momentum
which in a perfectly fluid system would be diverted in any
direction that at the time presented the least resistance to its
m otivity
There is not ho w ever, in the Milky Way the
perfect symmetry necessary to infer an original uniform
rotative pne u m a formed u nder simple condensation
O ur
Milky W ay is app arently an immense fl attish bifurcating
plane of great depth formed of sta rs u nequ ally distrib u ted
A nother m ode of formation may be suggested which although
entirely hypothetical or may be fa n ciful is not altogether
inconsistent with the wonderful vari a tio n s in th e for m s which
exist at the present ti m e in visi b le neb ul a These proposed
conditions may also have partly indu c ed the separation of
the pneuma system into unit star systems and are quite
consistent with the motion o f matter upon the neb u lar hypo
thesis o f D es c artes which is so ably supported by M Faye
4 8 A ssuming that there were vast pneu m a systems moving
originally freely in Space , t he tendency of such separate
1
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e
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,
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.
F O RM ATI O N O F ST ELLAR AND S O L AR S YS T EM S
.
41
systems in isolation under the influence of gravitation would
be to fo rm Spheroidal systems
The flatti sh form of o u r
Milky Way may possi bly indicate that tw o such spheroidal
s y stems of immense volume at an early period may have
drifted together S uch a collision as wo u ld be prod uced a t
the meeting surface would form at once a relatively superi or
density plane where the matter of the t w o systems would be
united , and henceforth the centre of gravity of the tw o
s ystems wo u ld be changed to the centre of meeting plane of
the tw o systems The pneuma s vste ms being in the highes t
degree elastic , wou ld contin u e the momentum of their original
projection of mass in direction nor mal to the plane of contact
for many millions of years after impact contin uing also
to compress and flatten out the m atter of the original
meeting plane The pressure in this pl a ne wo uld be increased
independently of original momentum b y the a ction of the
m u tual gravita t ion of the two systems in approaching to unity
throughout the meeting surface O ne e ffe ct of the compres
sion at the meeting s u rface described above would be the
d evelopment of intense heat and electri fi cation
The elec
t rical excitation wo u ld di ffuse itself thro u gh the entire mass
possibly rendering it lu minous to its extreme limits
4 9 The res u lt of such a collision after n millions of years
would be the formation of a va st lentic u lar pneuma more
intensely heated in its central plane which would be more
dense fro m compression and gravitation than the su rrounding
parts If the two parts did not entirely combine a bifu r cating
syste m might be formed The whole system wo u ld under
any condition possess a momentum c o m pounded of the original
momen ta of the two pneuma Systems from which it was
for m ed but in its separate parts it wo u ld possess motivities
consistent with the con di tions brought about by the collision
and reflective re actions of parts of the perfectly fluid matter
of the pne u ma systems Without such a collision as herein
depic ted it is possible that the condensation of the stellar
.
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N O T ES O N T HE N E BU LA R TH E O RY
42
.
pneuma systems of the parts of t he Milky Way would have
been much slower than they were , so as possibly not to have
advanced at the present time beyond the condition of what
may be the present state of outer matte r about th e galactic
poles
50 Cy clone in d ucing co nd ition s — A ssu ming the pne u ma to
be a most perfect fl uid and elastic sy ste m of matter upon
the meeting of two volu mes of such matter , inde pe n
d e ntly of any initia l rotation it might possess m u st have
moved under press u re at t he meeting plane in every or any
direction which at the time o ffered the least resistance to the
continuity O f its initial m oment u m Therefore , in the meet
ing of two fluid systems as proposed above , the di r ection for
continuity of m otion o f the o u tflow of these systems from the
contact plane where the pressure would be greatest being
suppor ted by the moment u m O f the following parts , would
drive the co mpressed motive pneuma into directions normal
to the pressure
Under the conditions given the outflo w
w ould be along the plane of contact and outwards in every
direction from the centre of greatest co m pression , thus pro
j ecting the fluid into a c u rrent p lane S u ch a motive plane
or current as I have shown by many experiments in my work
on The Motion of Fl u ids
engenders m otive whirls in the
con tig u o u s parts of the s u rrounding fluid , this form o ffering
the least frictional resistance to contin u ity of motion of a
fl uid movi n g within a like fluid These whirls , if formed on
the principles suggested , wo u ld in their turn engender other
friction whirls exterior to themselves , until the entire system
became one of complete eddying motion , as it I s termed
5 1 A s this form of fluid motion originally investigated b y
myself is not v ery generally known , it may be as well to
demonstrate this hypothesis by givi n g an illustration which I
take from an experiment in my work on the Motion of F luids ,
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Fl id pp 2 2 7
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F O RM A TI O N O F S T ELLA R AN D S O LA R S YS T E M S
.
43
in which the resistance to a flowing fl uid in a plane of pres
sure is applicable to the conditions s u ggested above Al tho u gh
the experiment referred to is on a very small scale I have
shown that motive systems of fluid are proportional and
irrespective of scale , so that the same principles extend to
the surface motions o f the N orth Atlantic O cean as b old good
in the small experiment I describe
Take tw o plates of
perfectly clean glass say about S ix inches sq u are and fi rmly
cement a border of card abo u t i ’s of an inch in thickness
ro u nd three sides of one of the plates with marine glue
Then cement the second plate to the fi rst B y this mean s
a very thin waterproof tro u gh will be formed open at the
te p
If we now fi ll this with clean wate r and place it
upright in a groove in a piece of stout wood , the experimental
app aratus will be complete
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To observe the desired e ffects the tro u gh should be placed
before a windo w to transmit light through it , when the
following phenomena of original fluid projection may be
observed by the proj ected slightly heavier liquid diffusin g
,
Fl id p 3 6 6 i
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N O T E S O N T HE N E B U LA R T H E O R Y
44
.
itself in a current through the constant force of press u re of
its small excess of gravity
“
Take a pen full of ink and place this gently upon the
s u rfa ce of the water in the tro u gh The ink as it descends
slowly by excess of gravity over the water , will be fo u nd to
d ivide constantly upon the resistance which opposes its direct
projection the divide d parts having insu fficient moment u m
of projection to move the latera l fl u id tangentially to pro
duce extensive lateral whi rls A fter the fi rst division of the
d escending fluid the divided parts again divide and these
again so that by this constant division and after subdivision
the projected fluid takes a tree like form , the terminals
being in spiral rotation The ill u stration (fi g 4) was take n
by transmitted light exactly following the outlines of the
projection of ink in the thin troug h described it is therefore
represented of the observed si z e
In this experiment the
sides of the trough are assumed to r ep r esent the p r essure
planes
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principle of lateral diffu sion of whirls is seen
contiguo u s to any flowing stream in lateral water the sketch
(fig 5) was tak en from the fl ow of water thro u gh an arch
of L ondon B ridge
52
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T he
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Fl id p 3 14 ; id p 3 10
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F O R MATI O N O F S TE LLA R AND S O LA R S Y STE M S
45
.
In this matte r we m
ight consider the separate motive
cyclonic volumes of nebul a in a ve r y atte n u ated system to be
an early form of projected matter ind u cing rotation in stellar
formations as in the theory propounded by D escartes and so
ably supported by M Faye These motions must however
be considered to take place strictly within the pne u ma , and
would not be the ca u se of its condensation or separation into
Stellar systems the conditions of whi ch as effects of radiation
have been alrea dy discu sse d 45
5 3 F or ma tio n of Sp ir a l N eb u lae a nd S tella r S y s tems
Taking any separate unit system of pneuma as a part of the
system just proposed or any other w e will ass u me this to be
in uniform angular re vol u tion , its exterior parts moving with
a velocity below that whic h wo u ld project them in an orbit
The outer matter of the syst em being ass u med to condense
thro u gh radiation then particle would approach particle as
the n ear parts of vapour in the atmosphere do to form rain
drops S uch particles o r drops would follo w in the general
drift of the resid u al vapour of other matter that co uld con
dense only at a lower te mperature as rain drops fall thro u gh
air Under these conditions the earliest condensed o u te r
matter would drift as a discrete system in showers or con
r e a tio n s or con c atenations unde rthe s u rrounding resistance
g g
in spiral lines towards the centre of the system with in cre as
ing velocity owing to acceleration by gravity
S u ch con
re atio n s of material discrete particles under the influence
g g
of mu tu al lo cal attractions would p resent a feathery or fl oc
c u lent appearance on the breaking up of the outer pneuma of
the syst e m They wo u ld possibly be ill u minated by friction
on electrical excitation
A s soon as the isolated fl occuli
drifted in spiral paths sunward or to the star centre other
surrounding condensing matter would follow in the same
direction by initial gravitative influences , and form currents
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N ew ton s Principi a
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prop xv
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N O T ES O N T H E N E B U LA R T H EO R Y
46
.
in ce rtain positions piercing through th e mino r r esis tances of
th e lighter interior gaseous matter which condenses only at a
lower temperat u re In this manner a condensing neb ul ar
system moving in spiral lines sunward would appea r , if seen
from a distance to be a pe rfectly s tationary system , although
its condensation might be prog r essing at a rapid rate as the
same position of spiral stream lines of drifting fl occu li wo u ld
be constantly conserved locally
Thi s may be the most
general form of neb ul ar condensation
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54
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S o la r P la neta ry indu cing cond ition s in Sp ir a l N ebu lae
-
— If the original tangential motion of a pneuma system
.
,
condensing with acceleration of i ts fl o cculi throu gh gravita
tion into a Spiral nebular system , atta ined su fficie nt velocity
through gravity t o maintain the fl occuli, drifting as above
proposed at a certain position I n an orbi t exterior t o the
central sys te m of the pneuma this matter although in re v olu
tion would remain in equilibrium at a cer tain di stance from
th e central sun or s tar , just as though it floated on frictionless
It would thus draw its separate parts togeth er withi n
w ater
certain limits by its own inte rnal initial gravi tation and the
drift of following parts so as to form a separate nebula r
condensation or zone exterior to the centre which thereby
ultimately would become in a condition to form a planet
The direction of rota tio n of such an orbit zone or planet
wil l be discussed hereafter
In the above w e may see
clearly the possibility of a pa rtially discrete system o f
condensation of exterior mat te r becoming a fac to r of solar
nebular planetary formati on
Upon the conditions proposed in th e above and th e pre
ceding paragraphs , we may suggest that , in the condensation
of the volume of pneuma n ecessary to form a sola r plan eta ry
system , a nebular syste m may be formed at a certain pe riod
by central condensation which will maintain th e nebula r
condition abo u t the centre , but that this may be surrounded
at an early sta g e by discrete condensations falling thereto ,
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N O TES O N T HE N E B U LAR T H E O R Y
48
.
necessarily su ggest a unit centre of revolution fo r all s tars o r
even for those which compose the Milky Way The cyclonic
sys t ems just proposed wo u ld at least be inconsistent with this
There is space eno u gh for many centralized gravitation
systems within the more universal system of the Milky Way
in which the stars are pla c ed at distances from one another
far too great to render gravita tion active upon the members
of any separate system beyond prod u cing slight variations in
the forms of the stellar orbits s u rro u nding the n earest o r
strongest central attrac tion although there may be even
over and beyond this a general drift or circulation of the
entire system or any part of it in which the separate systems
h ere considered are embraced
5 7 The influence of the knowledge of our solar planeta ry
system acts so powerfully upon the mind that it is di ffi cult to
conceive t he action of gravitation upon cosmic bodies o t her
wise than with certain elements o f tangential motion by
which they move symmetrically in a plane about a centre of
inertia In the wide distrib ution of Stars in all directions
this may not be u niversal It is quite possible and consistent
with an original fl u id State , that stars may not always forni
part of a closed system drifting in a circ u lar or elliptic orbit
S u ch orbits may be contorted in any way by s u rro u nding
infl u ences and still retain the elemen ts of original sidereal
moment u m The evidence of the variety o f form taken by
g ravitative m atter in the distribution of stars in star cl u sters
and in some neb u l a appears to Show that stars and matter
m ove sometimes in a system o f stream lines follo w ing on e
another in a form w e may term p ea r ling (as pearls of de w )
This applies to the a ctual appearance only not to the mode of
formation S o meti m es these pearls or stars drift in spirals o r
cyclones in like manne r to the matter that forms the system
of b iv olu tes in M 5 1 Canum V e naticoru m M 7 4 P i s ciu m
1331 I 1 6 8 Urs a Majoris , as shown in D r R o b e rts s beautifu l
photographs We can b u t conceive that there m u st never
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F
O R M A TI O N O F S T ELLA R AND S O LAR SYS T E M S
49
.
beyond this througho u t all matter if gravita tion
be u niversal , a tendency to approach of m ass to mass which
can only be resisted by a motion in discrete bodies in which
there are certain elements of tangential direction and this
m u st ultimately tend to cause the whole of any system of
m atter to approa ch a sy m metrical form of orbital motion
about its c entre of inertia which may incl u de the orbital or
other motions of its separa te p arts a s in the case o f the sun
and planets ; b u t the ti m e ne c ess a ry for s u ch a complete
formation in the u niverse would appear to be so far infinite
that it may never nearly have approached completion in any
large division of the stellar system
5 8 D is ta n ces u n d er w hich G r a vita tion m ay be a cti ve —It
may be di ffi cult in some cases to imagine the distu rbing
infl u ence of gravitation at so gre a t a distance as we know
matter to exist in s tellar space as inferred above B u t , as it
is proposed that the action of gravitation is u nlimited in
space , acting upon free bodies according to its law of accele
ration then a small a ttrac tion u pon a very dist a nt free body ,
where the general composition of motions permits approach ,
will prod u c e a great velocity in a period which may be
relatively short for past time A ssu m e a ny free body , at a
very distant period to be moving to w ards our sun with a
velocity of one centim etre a year which we may take as a
quite impalpable motion in space still in one million years
if the body re m ain in re lative position towards the sun as
reg ards exterior influences it will h a ve attained a velocity of
approach of ten kilometres a year and this velocity wo u ld
increase with ti m e in like ratio until in n millions of years
some small fra c tion of the past it would fall towards the
sun with velocity equal to or greater than the highest ever
observed within our system
5 9 S ugges ted a ction of Gr a vity in time in the for ma tio n of
If gravity is instantaneous for all distances
Cir cu la r O r b its
an orbit once formed must remain constant in relation to its
E
thele ss be
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N O T E S O N T HE N E B U LAR TH E O RY
50
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focus for all ti m e if it moves in a perfectly frictionless
medium B ut as the orbits of certain planets and satellites
are so nearly circ u l a r it would appear that there m u st be
some re a son for this in a circle ind u cing qu ality as a property
O f the forces by which th e se bodies are directed
There is
n o do u bt th a t in the c ondensation of a spheroidal gaseous
system O f ne arly the diameter O f a pl a netary orbit as in the
theory O f L aplace that circular or elliptical revol u tion might
be bro u ght about by the resistan c e of the gaseous central
matter to change o wing to u niform angular velocity in all
its parts
This will be again considered
B ut a second
fa ctor of resistance might reasonably be derived from a time
ele m ent in the action O f gravity in a manner also originally
proposed by L aplace In this proposition as time is in fi nite
s m all constant forces active in the past may have produced
great effects by the present time
6 0 It becomes there fore m ore rational whatever we take
Space to be vacuum or ether , to assume gravity acting
through this Space in time say with the velocity O f light or
with m u ch greater velocity It is not in thi s case probable
that any time element of attraction co u ld be detected if the
distance remained approximately constant as w e m ay ea sily
imagine the action of gravity to be ind u ced and that after
ind uction it re m ain s a constant for constant distance The
c hange of position in approach or recession may produce a
change in the gravitation force of i n d u ction a n d this may
take time Thus as an instan c e in the approach of a comet
to perihelion under deferred increasing fa ctors O f gravity it
wo uld arrive som ewhat behind its time b u t as the attraction
wo u ld still act in like inverse ratio after i t had passed peri
helion it would retard and deflect the body i f ori ginally
projected in a parabolic orbit into an elliptic orbit a fter this
passage If the body moved in an elliptic orbit, the action
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at
App endi x A
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F O R MATI O N O F S T ELLAR AND S O LAR SY STEM S
.
51
due to a time factor in gravitation would decrease the
eccentricity at every perihelion passage and increase the
time O f revol ution in approaching cons tantly to a more nearly
circu lar orbit The circle being the greatest inscribed area
d u e to a given mean rate O f tangential motion therefore w e
m ay i m agine it the state of least internal resistance and of the
u ltimate motive equ i libriu m for the orbit O f a celestial body
centre
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[
52
]
C H A P TE R I V
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S T ELLAR AND S O LAR C O NDEN S A TI O N —F O R M A T I O N O F
O RB IT S
61
.
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S ep a ra te S te lla r a nd P la neta ry indu cing Con d ition s in
R
ota tion — Under the
f
the JVebu lce , a cco r ding to the a mou nt o
.
onditions already discussed assuming that any isolated
vol u me O f pneuma may form a part O f the universe , w e may
take it as probable that it w ill form a system O f m atter which
will contract in v ol u me by radiation directly u nder the infl u
ence of gravity until it forms a central gaseous sph ere or
spheroid This if of su fficient size , would form a neb u lo u s
star in an early incandescent state of condensation We may
assume th a t such a system if it has no rotation , or if its
rotation is slow , resulting either from the original motion
impressed upon the nebula or from matter gravitating towards
it from all directions with nearly eq u al momentum so that
from this reason the combined or b it an d mass of the motive
parts by the simple action O f gravitation produce a globular
—
system in the nebulous state , such a system would form a
ingle isolated sta r moving or station ary in space
6 2 O n the other hand if the special neb u lar system con
s ide r e d is in rotation or in cyclonic m otion derived from this
,
matter wo u ld approach the centre with much greater facility
in every direction other than in a plane extended from its
eq uator, where the tangential i m pulse of surrounding matter
would produce the greatest resistance to the centra lizing
action of gravitation S O that in this case a star might be
c
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S T ELLAR AND S O LAR CO ND EN S ATI O N
53
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formed O f all surrounding matter except that abo u t the plane
O f its equator
This system at a c ertain stage of condensa
tion wo u ld therefore appe a r if vie w ed from a distance in a
dire ction nearly nor m al to its poles as a planeta ry neb u la
surro u nded equatori a lly by more a tten u ated matter S uch a
neb ul a wo u ld be in o utline O f oblate Spheroidal form if the
equ atorial neb ular matter were evenly distributed abo u t the
equ atorial plane (P late II a G reat N ebul a in A ndromeda
b Messier 3 2 ; c Itl I 2 0 0 ; d M
6 3 The spheroid a l form O f s u ch a nebulous condensation
might be m odified to any extent by unequal distrib u tion of
the neb u la abo u t i ts focus i nto a spira l lentic ular or
disc oidal shape its parts being still held with equal perman
ence by their tangential impulses E ith e r of the above
des cribed systems if in equilibri um abo u t its centre with i ts
peripheral parts movi n g with su fficient tangential velocity to
maintain an orbital position would be ready to separate its
peripheral m atter into ring zones or other separate motive
systems upon fu rther central c ondensation , and become
finally in a state to form a solar system s u ch as our o w n with
plane t s of greater or smaller mass in ter a lia moving in orbits
about its c entre the con ditions for the formation O f which
will be considered presently
—
l
6 4 L imits of a S o a r p la n eta ry cometa ry S y s te m
We
ass u me that after separation O f any complete pneuma or
neb u lar system from the universal pneu m
a th e initial action
O f gravity within this sep arate system would i m mediately
commence to form a central condensation of greater density
as befor e proposed which wo u ld react upon s urrou n ding
matter in proportion to its mass and inversely to the sq u are
O f its distance from any part O f the s u rro u ndi ng widely
distributed matter
S u ppose an ori ginal system of pneuma in the remote past
’
taking one direction only e xtendi ng from S to S fig 6 , and
that tw o equal centres O f condensation S and S , were after
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N O T E S O N T HE NEB U LA R THE O R Y
54
.
long periods slowly formed as star syste ms upon principles
just discussed The neutral position at whi ch a particle or
mass would be originally equally solicited by the gravitati on
O f both systems would be at X
This would be a point o f
early condensation from open ra diation and at the same time
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©
a
a
’
a
“
c
c
"
c
one O f perfect equilibrium in space F rom the equal attra e
’
tion O f S and S u pon the condensed particle , a particle o r
mass at 0 would be very Slightly influenced to move towards
S a part icle at c more influenced and at 0 still more so
Thus, assuming gravity u niversal , this would give attractions
to matter to fall towards the centre S from points of rest
i ntermediate between S and S with velocities inversely
proportional to the squares of the distances O f S and S
respectively active U pon it
6 5 L ike attractions would also hold with respect to the
’
star system S as reg ards particles at th e relative distances
Therefore all matter from S to X, whi ch we may
b b,
take as the original radius O f o u r o w n solar pneuma syste m,
would u ltimately form a part of the gravitation system O f S
with predominant influence over S and all matter from S
to X would ultimately form a part O f the gravitation syste m
Therefore it would
O f S w ith predominant influence over S
be impossible that any body placed between X and S sho u ld
be attracted towards S , or in fact that S Should form the
foc u s O f any orbit of greater aphelion distance than X in this
direction
It is further seen upon this hypothesis that
cometary or other matter co uld only move within its orbit at
the fu rthest fro m the position X in relation to another star S
If matter does not fall from the positions 0 , c 6 directly
upon or towards S , there must be a tangential imp u lse upon
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LA R TH E O RY
56
.
With respect to our
sol r pla netary sy s temflre
garded as a ro t ating condensation under the conditions stated
above , w e may consider the central nebul a formed by pne u ma
condensation at a point when its extent
’
N N fi g 7 which m ay be a space in
Neptune shown centrally transverse to its plane Then , if
we n ow limit the extent O f directly condensing gaseous s un
’
forming matter to N N , the exterior matter represented by
"
’
C C 0 being s u bj ect to gre ate r r adiation O f ini tial h eat and
67
ow n
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receiving less heat from the conden s ing sun these bodies or
parts 0 C , 0 might condense upon them selves and draw
matter together as before s u ggested and form separate masse s
m
eteorites
or
if
moving
in
nearly
contiguo
u
s
parts
in
(
)
revol u tion upon a centre O f inertia form more extensive
m aterial systems , fl occu li or comets , t h e probability O f which
will be discussed hereafter
If the central neb u lous system O f N N were conservative
O f initial he a t in a certain degree as here proposed for a
time the free separate particle or mass 0 attracted to the
’
central nebula might in ti m e enter the n eb u la N N a n d b e
absorbed therein If it did so , it w o u ld b e co me heated by
the friction caused by the resistance it wo u ld encounter s u ffi
a s and afterwards
for
it
to
become
again
expanded
to
cie n tl
y
g
form a part of the central n ebulous system increasing its
density thereby T his wo u ld not occur ho w ever , without
producing a further condensation about the position of entry
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S T ELLAR AND S O LAR CO NDENSATI O N
57
.
of the mass and O f motion within it , le ading to irregularity
If the included m a ss
O f constit u tion of the nebular syste m
projected into the nebu la were sufficiently gre at it might
beco m e an ind u cing fa ctor O f centralizing pl aneta ry or
satellite a ggregation or bring about a disturbance of motive
directions O f the m a tter within th e system
6 8 If w e ta ke the condition O f matter falling from a
’
position 0 further from the centre than th a t considered
above the gravita tion u pon this point being less active a n d
’
the infl u ence O f the gravi ta tion towards S more active this
m ight not attain a movement in space s u ffi c ie nt to rea ch the
centra l system until the latter had contr a cte d in vol u me to a
radi u s represented by m m which we may take for demon
s trati on as the cross section of the s u n s nebula when this
extended to the orbit O f Merc u ry
In this case if the
eccentricity of the orbit O f the matter 0 ca u sed its perihelion
’
distance to come withi n m m , the mass 0 wo u ld by friction
arising from resistance be retai ned in the neb ula and in c rease
its density or it would move in spiral lines towards the s u n
centre with velocity in proportion to its momentum and
gravity to this foc u s into the resistance of the surrounding
matter If its perihelion distance were greater than the
radius m S O as not to come u nder the s u n s attraction su fii
cie ntly to be defle cted from an elliptical orbit the body would
then move in this orbit constantly for all time and become a
permanent planet or comet or meteorite of the system
It is seen in t his that it is only matter endowed with a
considerable tangent ial moment u m from any ca u se that can
form a permanent planet , co met or meteorite of our sys tem
and that the greater mass of con densing matter around the
s u n at an early period partic u larly that which w a s formed
outsi de the mean planetary orbit pl a ne would in all proba
b ility fall directly or indirectly into the sun s neb u la a nd
become a factor of s u n formation
6 9 If we consider as an extre me case the condition O f
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58
NOTES ON
T HE N E B U LA R TH E O R Y
.
”
another mass 0 still more distant from the sun , we may
conclude that the small movement ind u ced by gravitation ,
depending upon the differe n ce O f the separate attractions O f
’
S and S (fig
at this distance wo u ld not permit it to
reach perihelion u ntil the time when the s u n had attai ne d its
present relatively small volume In this case , supposi n g it
possessed any tangential m omentum the probability of its
falling into the immediate solar nebula would be relatively
very small
S uch a body wo u ld therefore move in an
elliptical orbit and bec ome a permanent comet or meteoroid
O f o u r system
A condensed mass at a still greater dista nce
’
from the s u n and nearer S would n ot in the past time have
reached o u r sun S O that it may o n ly at a very remote period
become wh at we S hould recogniz e as a comet if of s u fficient
outward vol ume
7 0 In the above constructi on , in considering exterior
matter to be separately condensed and to re a ch the solar
focus in time proportional to its distance , this distant exterior
matter wo u ld be little a ffected by the gravitation figu r e of
the central spheroidal nebulo u s system ass u med to ca u se its
orbit to be drawn toward the neb u lar plane u nder conditions
origin ally s u ggested by Kant Therefore the exterior con
d e n sati on s O f a pne u ma system would be projected at an
angle to this plane with the reservation that the tangential
momentum wo u ld be less proportionally to the increase of
angle to this plane , if the original pne u ma were ever in
u niform rotation , S O that the orbits of comets approaching the
sun at angles considerably inclined to the mean solar
planetary plane sho uld be more eccentric than those at
smaller inclination to this plane , S O far as the above stated
conditions hold
7 1 D ir ection of app r oa ch to the S u n of m a tter fr om the
—
l
N
e b u la
F
a n e ta r
or ma tion o
ex ter ior o the or i in a l S o la r
y
]
f
g
p
—
L et A and B , fi g 8 be two stars , or suns , O at the
O r bits
intersection O f the lines A B d d be the point O f equ ilibrium
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F O R M ATI O N O F O RB IT S
59
.
between these suns where 0 wo u ld rest in static equ ilibri u m ,
the gravitation O f A and B being equ al u pon it P lace any
number of particles in line at right angles to A B from d
’
to d
Then gravitation acting upon any O f these points
,
.
.
considered as free bodies would ca u se them
to fall to O and beyond it if the impulse w as suffi cient S O
that they wo u ld oscilla te abo u t 0 constantly in the mean
gravitative tangential plane of A and B
7 2 If we make A a s u perior attraction over B either from
nearness or excess O f m ass , t hen matter attracted from 0
would fall in direc t lin e towards A A ny other matter in
’
one of the positions a b c a b c , although it wo u ld
receive less attraction to B than to A wo u ld move in angu lar
direction towards A in composition wit h the pull of B upon
it Therefore the composition O f forces A and B would
induce a de fi nite amount of tangenti a l motion upon all the
’
poin ts a , l) , c a b 0 moving towards A A s the O bjects
represente d by points appro a ched A in moving in their
orbits , the influence of B would diminish in gravita tion
proporti on A becoming entirely do m inant when the m a tter
of any of the points approached the perihelion of the orbit
whose eccentricity was induced by the tangential element B
acting upon it
a
b
a
b
c
c
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N OT ES O N T H E NEB U LAR T HE O RY
73
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It is also seen by the above diagram that if the masses
are distrib u ted at equ al dista nces u pon the tangent d d
’
there will be many s u ch masses a b , c, a b , c infl u enced by
the attractions O f B in falling towards A whereas I n the
direct line O there will be no tangenti a l influence from B
Therefore the general paths O f bodies falling from space
from surro u nding attraction under a s u perior attraction will
possess ele ments O f tangential motion in reference to their
predominant attra ctions which will induce them to follow
elli p t ical orbits and the case O f a body falling directly from
distant sp a ce u pon th e sun or a star will be exceptional The
principle here Shown by diagra m applied to tw o stars or s u ns
will apply equ ally to any number taken in separate pairs
distrib u ted as they may be in space
7 4 A s regar ds t h e d irection of the orbit of any free body
p a ssing under the infl u ence O f the sun s attraction , it will be
s een that the amount O f t angential motion induced by B upon
d acting in the direction S hown by the arrow e will a ppr o x i
m a tely direct the p ath O f the body in the line p p in its
orbit in a left to right direction at perihelion ro u nd the sun
a n d b a ck to its first position
In the same manner a body
proje cted to A from d with the tangential comp onent induced
by B in the di rection O f the arrow e will follo w the path p p
in a left to right direction in the plane O f its orbit
7 5 If w e regard any initial motion O f the circ u mscribed
”
syste m abo u t o u r sun in t he direction O f the arrow e as an
original neb u lar condition then we may assume that th e
influence of B u pon matter projected towards A is neutrali zed
at some point say 6 so that I) will fall more directly towards
the s u n A than O , and the scale O f distance for projection
from this point 6 for the other points d c a a will be equal
to that previously defined for the point O as regards tangential
action in inducing direction O f revol u tion In this cas e the
whole syste m O f separate attra ctions as motive forces may be
assumed to be displaced by this initial direction of motion
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F O R M ATI O N O F O RRIT S
61
.
be that O f the initial
ta ngential motion O f the Whole system but not of every
element of it
7 6 The above sche m e fig 8 whi ch is assumed to be that
of the form O f gravitation ac tio n between o u r sun and every
near star , may be plac ed at any a ngle or direction to the
polar axi s O f the s u n where the Star appears If m atter in
the positions a , b c d a b , c , d shown by the dia gram ,
were proj ected at an early period ne a r the m e a n pl a netary
plane , the exterior body wo u ld fall into the planetary neb u l a
combine with it and enter into c om position w ith its m otion
This m u s t have been the condition of so m e O f the e a rly
comets assumed to be fl o cc uli con densed within the s u perior
in flii e n ce of the sun s neb u la ; and as t hese c ondensations
m u st have formed in all directions with regard to the s u n
the comets left at the present ti m e in our sys tem m u st be
m u ch fe w er or more particularly of much less m a ss in the
mean direction O f the sun s equ ator and the pl anetary p lane
than in the direction O f the sol a r poles Thi s condition is
not however absol ute for all points as a ne ar sta r in the
direction O f the solar pole or any other direction would as a
gravitation centre cause much less m atter to fa ll directly
towards o u r sun than th a t which would fall in the direc tion
This
O f a more distant star or from an intermedi a te space
s ubject will be t aken into c onsideration fu rther on
7 7 In the construction shown in the d iagra m fig 8 it
must be clearly observed tha t u nless the entire syste m is in
motion in relation to a gravita tion centre , a s Shown by the
"
arrow e the s u m of the deflections of the points a b , c
’
b c towards the pl a ne AB would be eq u al ; so th a t no
a
rotation wo u ld be imp a rted to the s u n A or a planeta ry
system conne cted therewith by the m o m entu m of the u nited
masses O f this matter if it w a s impressed upon t he sun s
neb u la at any period This does not appear to be cle a r to
some a u thors w h o have considered the subject without
an
d the preponderance O f direction will
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR TH E O RY
62
.
proposing clear definitions which it is hoped the diagra m
may supply
Kant s u ggested that the s u m of collisions from
exterior matter attracted from all directions towards the sun
from space wo u ld direct his revolution and that O f the planets
in one direction as a res u ltant H erbert S pencer adopts this
view
M Faye shows that the mean m omentum of all
78
surrounding bodies drawn in direct lin e by gravitation would
not i m part an y revolution whatever to a central system
This
is herein demonstrated so that although all comets may
be chns ide re d as extre m e condensations that take one or the
other direction O f revol u tion in long elliptical orbits upon the
principles discu ssed above , y et if they were retained within
a nebula s u rrounding the s u n at perihelion unless the neb ula
possessed original rotation the mean motion produ ced upon
the rotation O f this central nebula would be approximately
Taken in another form exclu di ng original rotation we
n il
might conclude that the probability is that the mean moment u m
O f all th e comets of our system is approximately n i l there
being possibly as many or more exactly as much exterior
m atter moving from space in one direction as in the other
Under the
7 9 T he For ma tion of a P la neta ry P la ne
above stated condition during the time that the sun remained
an extensive neb ula any exterior body entering this nebula
at high velocity must have become dissociated and incor
o rate d therewith by th e heat engendered in the nebulous
p
m atter through friction its initi a l momentum being com
pounded with that O f the n eb u la into which it w a s proj ected
as before stated Therefore all exterior proj ections into the
s u n s neb ula will be dra w n towards a line passing directly
from one sun to a nother predominant sun as the linear
direction of greatest attraction and upon this principle the
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N e bu l ar Hyp ot h e si s
1
‘
g
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i
S ur 1 O ri i ne du M ond e , 1 8 8 5 , p 1 3 4
’
r R evi ew 18 58
T h e W e stm nste
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N O TE S O N T HE NEB U LAR TH E O RY
64
.
before stated drift in Spiral lines towards the centre or this
resistance might be partial , S O that it might rest in orbital
equ ilibrium in a certa in internal position and beco m e a part
O f the permanent neb u la or planet movi n g henceforth in a
nearly circ ular orbit If its perihelion of proj ection glanced
upon the o u ter surface of the solar nebula , entering it only
s u fficiently to be deflected from the resistance the proj ected
body m ight remain nearly in contact This must however
be a s pecial case The near comets may have been the res u lt
of such glancing conditions The planet P alla s may have
been formed under simila r conditions from a co m et that
glanced u pon the limit of the solar neb u la su fficiently deep to
be resisted at its head until its tail co ming for w ard in the
same dire c tion condensed abo u t the head a n d formed a
neb u lo u s planet to be henceforth proj ected in an elliptic
orbit O f sm all e cc en tricitv
The neb u lo u s planet would
condense to its present state by radiation and
a fterwards
initial gravity
8 1 In the formation of our solar planetary system the
fact Should never be lost sight of that the entire planetary
system is of relatively small mass in comparison with the
part ,
c entral solar system , being probably not over
incl u ding all planetary, cometary and meteoric matter
Therefore the p a rts of the solar p lanetary system which
attained orbital velocity during the neb u lar condensation at a
distance from central solar neb u la as a res u ltant of origin a l
rotation acceleration thro u gh centralization by gravity and
by the perihelion retention O f exterior matter here proposed ,
m u st altogether be taken to form but a small p art of the mass
of the e n tire system In the further discussion O f the forma
tion of the planets this conception O f the subject w ill alway s
be inferred
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[
]
65
C HA P TE R V
.
DI S C U SS I O N O F T HE M E C HANI C AL P R IN C IPLES U P O N WHI C H
OU R
S O LAR P LANE TARY S YS T E M M AY H A V E B EE N
F O R M ED — S U GGES T ED D E M O NS T RA TI O NS O F T HE T H E O RY
O F L APLA C E
WITH S O M E M O D I FI C ATI O N S — L IMIT S O F
A C O M E TARY S YS T E M
-
.
,
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m — It
at
may
be
held
th
f
L ord Kelvin has Shown de m onstratively that the energy of
the solar system co u ld not, even if it were prod u c ed by a
discrete condensation O f cosmi c matter have been maintaine d
by this form O f condens ation t hrougho u t the narrowest
possible limit of past geological time 9 )
Therefore we
have no theory he r etofore o ffered of a condensation system
b y gra vity to represent the forma t i on O f our solar pl a netary
system with a n y reasonable prob ability other than that of
L aplace and H elmholtz Nevertheless it is not proba ble that
our syste m w a s formed b y any simple single me chanical
effect O f the action of forces upon surro unding u niversal
m atter as generally assumed in special theories b u t rather
that all possible conditions were active that may have con
Spired to produce the final res u lts S ome of these conditions
ll be n ow s u ggested and discu ssed
—
mm
l
l
n
r
t
m
f
S
s e
I
w
sup
e tr y o ou r S o a r P a eta
e
8 3 A sy
y y
f
pose O u r original neb u la thro u gho u t its entire vol u m e to have
been in a u niformly p u rely gaseo u s State and of symmetrical
82
.
E ne rgy
o
S
the
ola r
Sy
s te
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T rans R S E di nb urgh , v ol xxi p 6 6
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N O T ES O N T HE N E B U LA R TH E O RY
66
.
for inst ance that O f a Spheroid in revolution — w e
should then no do ubt if the entire s v ste m remained gaseous
until all the planets were consecutively con densed at the
exterior limit O f its n eb u lar equator according to the theory
of L aplace expect to find the pl anets in symmetrical order of
dis tance and O f mass In this case with proportional time
condensation under the increasing amount O f tangentia l
impulse due to centralized condensation into gravitation
which prod u ces the law O f orbit the distances O f the planets
from the sun and thei r separate masses would be sy mme
t ri cally proportional , in accordance with the p u ll of gra vitation
and the tangential moment um of the amo u nt O f the con
d e n se d matter
8 4 That our solar system does not possess the above
described symmetry is evident from its formation We have
between Jupiter and the earth particularly planets in mass
no way proportional or symmetrical with
a n d density in
The planets exterior and interior to the asteroids
o thers
taken by themselves alone have so m e points O f resemblance
in density and in ma gnitude
The exterior planets fairly
resemble one another i n n u mber O f satellites assuming that
N eptune m ay have several m ore than the one visible through
our telescopes so that so far as these conditions go we might
roughly divide the system of planets into tw o classes W e
might also possibly make a much more important division in
a formative sense by separating them according to the
direction O f rotation by which the o u ter planets Uranus and
N eptune would form a c lass by themselves
N otwithstanding
all these minor classi fi ed rese m blances there evidently
remai ns beyond this a general want O f sym m etry in the entire
solar planetary system Therefore if w e concei v e an original
uniform gaseous or a generally symmetrical system for our
primitive ne b u la placed under the condition of uniform
condensation according t o the theory O f L aplace we must
concl u de that this system has experienced material modi
—
form , as
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D I S C U SS I O N O F M E C H ANI CAL P R IN C IP LES
.
67
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during the period O f condensation to form our
This
will
be
n ow considered by taking at
l
a n e tar v system
p
first a s groundwork the e ffe cts of the condensation O f a purely
sy m metri ca l nebula and afterwards suggesting what m odifi
cations there m ay have been in some p arts of the system
—
We
8 5 A S y mmetr ica l G a s eou s S ola r P la n eta ry S y s tem
may ta ke o u r solar sys t em in its nebular state at a certain
period to be of the si m plest construction sho w n diagramm ati
cally by fig 9 which is intended to represent a very obl ate
We
S pheroid in revolution upon its symmetrical a xis a a
fi catiOn s
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may assume that the whole Spheroidal sur face of the nebula
wo u ld be radiating hea t equally per unit of area into S pace
The volume of nebula in a gaseous state would therefore be
limited at any ti m e by the quantity of matter that could be
maintained in this s tate by the initial heat O f the primitive
gaseous system together with the a mount of heat given out
from the centre W here there wo u ld be a sun forming con
densation
8 6 In the above stated case the i mportant heat m aintaining
centre or incipient sun would react through its condensation
as a hea t r adiator to the s u rrounding nebula and disperse its
heat d u e to condensation in proportion inversely to the square
of the distance from the incipient sun surfa ce The h eat
radiants bein g t herefore equ al at equ al distances fro m this
sun , would tend to maintain a circumscribed glob e O f neb u l a
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N O T E S O N T HE N EB U LAR T H E O R Y
68
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in a gaseous state if its exterior temperature w a s falling
We may assume that this inscribed imaginary hotter globe ,
fu l filling the condition of equ al ra diants would be S O large
that its surface could just be inscribed in the oblate neb u lous
spheroid which w e n o w take for our complete nebula , as
Sho w n by the inner circle of the figure
It is readily seen that matter placed outside the theoretical
globe suggested above wo u ld be more rapidly lowering its
temperatu re by radiation from its greater extent O f s u rface
in proportion to its depth of vo lume than the matter of the
inscribed globe At the sa m e time this external matter would
be receiving less heat from the sun forming centre
The
peripheral matter in the general revolution of the system
would also possess its highest tangentia l velocity in the
e q uatori al plane
The whole O f these conditions upo n loss o f heat of the
system by contraction through ra diation , would cause a stress
at a certain nearly cylindrical plane parallel to the axis of
rotation wherein internal or s u n forming matter wo uld , by
contin u ous cohesion or gravitation in the gaseous state , be
drawing away from the peripheral z o ne , which w a s moving
at higher tangenti a l v elocity This zone by conti nuity o f
r adiation O f its own heat a fter its detachment, wo uld be
indu ced to contract by condensation u pon itself
8 7 In this manner if we assume periphe ral matter to be
proportio n ally distributed about the axis O f revol u tion of a
spheroi dal neb u la the stress p lane would be that O f the
separation of the peripheral matter , which might then form a
deta ched zone or ring upon the theoretical conditions given
by L apl a ce The extent or distance of the ring from the sun
wo uld d epend upon the extent O f the globe O f centre tending
condens ation maintained by the central heat at the time
That is, really upon the co ntraction at the sur face O f such a
globe as herein imagine d, by loss of its heat through
radiation
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D I S C U SS I O N O F M E C HAN I CAL P R IN C IP LES
69
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In the separated ring or planet zone as here s u ggested
w e pres u me a perfectly equal distri b ution O f matter about the
equatorial regions of the oblate spheroidal neb u la b u t as we
take the conditions O f radiants from the sun centre th e same
prin c iples would a pproxi mately hold if the ring were more or
le s s in c omplete or denser in any part The accident of a per
feet ring or system O f rings which o ccurs around S at u rn may
be conceived possibly to be a u nique pheno m enon of the n early
equa l distri b ution of cosmi c m atter ab O iIt a gravitation centre
8 8 The principles here dis c ussed are a possible explanation
of those given by L a pl a ce under which the neb u la for ming
the exterior planets wo u ld be consecutively abandoned
Whether there may h ave been so m e modific ations O f this
during the condensation of our own planeta ry system will be
discussed hereafter , but to follo w our theme , we will take a
uniformly distributed nebular system in revolu tion as being
of Spheroidal form in which case the nebula might con
tin u ou sly go through the same set of ch a nge s as consecutive
z ones or planeta ry systems W e r e d etached fro m the c entral
sun syste m
Thu s ass u me (fig 9 ) a b a b to rep resent
diagra mm atically the nebulous spheroid in se ction with axis
T he s u n forming c entral
and equ atorial pl a ne 6 b
a a
matter under condensation at a certa in period mainta ining
equal heat radiants wo ul d circumscribe S
The zone of
plane t forming matter supposed to be m
oving at orbital
velocity upon condensation O f the sun to a certain extent
would have its ann u lar centre O f gra vitation circ u mscribed
abo u t p p
The lateral exterior matter a , a , a , x upon
condensation wo u ld fall upon the sun or the planetary zone
in gravitation equation
8 9 It will be seen that the zo ne ring p p , altho u gh de
tach e d , would still for a long time maintain its condensing
c ondition so that the central axis of the sec tion O f t he r i ng
might by condensation of surrounding matter become in time
incandescent , o r hot ter than the neb ulous S un Therefore ,
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N O T ES O N TH E NEB U LAR TH E O R Y
70
.
the sun in the interior of the equatorial orbit plane O f this
’
zone I) 6 w o u ld through heat exchanges , not s uffer mu ch
loss o f heat , whereas at the same time it wo u ld be radiating
heat freely abo u t its polar sur face a a constantly in t o S p a ce to
cause the sun s contraction in this polar direction Further
afte r separation of a ring during general contraction O f the
n ow separated central neb u la its equatorial parts wo u ld keep
up its extension in this direction by ta n gential momentu m
and form a closed system by the attra c tion O f matter towards
the axis O f the ring wh ich as before stated would become
heated in proportion to the activity of its condensation
9 0 Under the conditions proposed above heat could be
freely r adiated from the polar regions into Space to cause the
con t raction O f the nebular sun in this dire ction ; b u t this
could not occur about the eq u atorial regions where heat
exchanges with the condensing zone wo uld prevent free
radiation into space
The di fference O f local contra c tion
areas upon the surface O f the solar nebula , in conjunction
with the tangential momentum of its peripheral parts would
cause it to retur n to its oblate spheroidal form but O f smaller
volu me The spheroidal form would also infl u ence gravi
tating matter t o fall tow ards the plane of the s olar equator,
as suggested originally by Kant and shown more definitely
by N ewcomb for attraction toward an oblate spheroid
A ll these conditions Show that after separ ation O f a zone ring
th e system would again become oblate and in a condition
to separate another planet zone t herefrom about its equator
upon the same principles
9 1 It will be seen that the surfaces of the sun and the
planet zone that would conserve their heat therefore thei r
nebular condition would be those parts directly opposite
to each other Whereas the outer periphery o f the d eta ched
z one ring would be freely radiating i t s heat into open space
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P op ul ar A s tronomy, p 5 13
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N O T E S O N T H E NEB U LAR TH E O RY
72
.
as to produce exterior local condensation wi thin the boun
Under these conditions the contin u ity
d a rie s of the neb u la
O f the former neb u l a r state would be wholly or partially
changed S O th at the planetary zone system O f J u piter and
its superior planets m ight somewh at resemble the condensation
O f o u r s u n but the inner planet a ry system might be wholly
or partia lly formed from a condensation which took the
pri mitive for m O f discrete or meteori c matter This would
partially a cco u nt for differences O f density of rotation and
so m e other conditions w hi ch will be more fu lly considered
hereafter u pon discussion O f certain exterior conditions
9 3 M od e of Con den s a tion of the E x tr eme O u ter S ola r
N ebu la —In this w e m ay possib ly again fi nd a modifica tion
or want O f c ontinuity of nebular conditions in relation to the
pl a nets Uranus and Nept u ne which may be inferred from
the direction of revol ution of their satellites , under con di tions
already stated In the case of these planets from the want of
concentrative force in the original nebula through weakness
of effective gravitation due to dista nce there wo u ld be a
There
w eaker centering tendency of the peripheral matter
wo u ld also be less heat radiated inversely proportional to the
distance of the central heat focus of the condensing s u n The
tangential i mpulse being ass u m ed su fficient to maintain the
orbit O f a zone ring local condensations might in this case
occur at fi rst to discrete matter , and the nebular system
wo u ld thereby largely disappear We may assume a gaseous
system so extensive that the radiation capable O f producing
condensation would act s u per fi cially upon matter within a
limi ted depth only O f the neb u la ; S O that gravitation would
possess ins u ffi c ient energy to draw this matter , i f possessed
O f less than orbital tangential momentu m in a gaseous state
than that which would maintain it at its radial orbit , through
the resista nce O f the interior neb u la from the boundaries of a
system S O vast as that of Uran u s or Neptune under certain
conditions suggested
1 3 ) and ot h ers to be discussed
Thi s
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,
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,
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D I S CU SS IO N O F M E C H AN I C AL P R I N CIP LES
73
.
would produce a reverse direction of rotation as will be shown
hereafter
—
m
s
s
t
e
The
9 4 T he B r ea king up of G a seou s Z o ne S y
perfect state O f equilibri u m O f neb u lar matter necessary for
the complete formation o f a planet ring or zone ( fig 9
if su ch ever existed except among satellites could scarcely
re ma in for a long time as a slight dist u rbing c ause at any
position throughout the extensi ve orbit would destroy this
e q uilibri u m in s u c h a manner as to permit the gravitation O f
its o w n mass to draw its parts together into the only for m O f
static equilibrium that could be established , that is a globe
Fu rther as before stated in early planeta ry Stages the intru
sion into the solar nebula O f exterior matter possessed of
s u fficient ecc entricity to bring it at perihelion within the
planet ring orbit, would cause its in cl u sion within thi s ring
owing to the resistance O f the neb u la r m atter O f the ring
itself to the continuity O f its proj ection In thi s manner all
comets exterior to the system , or meteorites of great e ccen
t ricity wo u ld be abso r bed if brought in orbit contact with
the planet ring
A nd although w e may assume that the
mass O f a comet or O f a shower of meteorites proj ected in a
cometary orbit might not materially disturb the mean orbit
of the ring system it might u pon its intr u sion possess qu ite
s u fficient momentum to destroy the equilibri u m O f a perfect
ring , if su ch existed This would not only be caused by
its mass but also by the local heat eng e nde r ed , and the
elastic expansion it wo uld cause near the pla c e O f intru
sion , together with the local drifting force d u e to differ
ence O f velocity and inclination O f orbit between the orbits
of the planet ring and the intr uded cometic o r meteoric
matter
There is no d oubt that if a planet ring were perfectly
symmetrical the inner a t traction O f its parts in a ga seous
state might , under contractio n t h rough radiation from its
o w n c ondensing mat t er, r educe its section until it might
,
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N O TE S O N T H E NEB U LA R TH E O RY
74
.
form even a liquid ring or rings ; and this or these might
again be detached into beaded strings O f satellites a condition
w hich possibly hol ds in th e case O f S aturn s rings
A r ing
of perfect sym m etrical condensation might finally part in one
place only and form a Single satellite by its matter being
drawn together by gravitation This w a s possibly the case
with our own moon , as will be discussed later on ; but s u ch
perfect equilibri u m O f distribution of matter surrounding a
gravitation centre could scarcely hold to the extent O f a
planetary orbit about the s u n, and the zonal abandonment
principle of L aplace is maintained if the zone is even impe r
feet in its circu m ference
9 5 I nfl u en cing Con d ition i n P er iod s of P la net fo r ma tion
—
r
i
t
i
l
m
C
N
oting
the
irregularity
of
the
masses
ca T e
er a tu r es
p
O f the planets , which cannot be acco u nted for by proportional
condensations in time t here were no doubt present special
ind u cing causes active for the time only , by which we may
assume a greater or smaller nebulo u s zone system w as
detached at any par ticular period from the central solar
system O ne O f these causes was most probably the e ffect
produced at certain times by the rapid condensation O f
nebulous matter to a liquid state at its critical temperature ,
within parts of the solar neb ul a, the mass of which we assume
to be movi ng at less than orbital velocity at its periphery
S uch condensed matter wo u ld in the outer parts of the
system , be immediately precipitated nearer towards the sun
This might not , as an early condition , be wholly possible
with dissociated matter that would only condense to a gas ,
which m ight s u ffer resistance from the elasticity of the
highly heated interior It might have occurred after the
formation of the larger planets u pon the uniform cooling O f
the entire system If the temperature of the nebula was
parti ally reduced at any period S O as to cause it to pass from
a g a seous to a vapourous state at any radius within the sola r
nebula , it is certain th at the denser or metallic matter so
,
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D I S C U SS IO N O F M E C H AN I CAL P R IN CI PLES
‘
75
.
reduced to vapour would condense s u ddenly at its criti cal
point , by a very slight fu rther depression O f temperat u re to
the liqu id for m The general equable state O f te mperature o f
the nebula might permit for instance certain metals in the
vapouro u s state to occupy large volumes and to condense
afterwards with a very slight depression O f te m perat u re at
the critica l point causing a sud den interior c olla pse a n d
thereby the sepa ration O f a vol u me O f peri phera l matter
which would afterwards m a intain an orbit position consistent
with its initial tangential i mp ulse
These condensations
m ight be at any distance fro m the sun within the nearly
transparent neb u la, according to the density and vapour
temperature of the special element th at was condensed
The amount of neb u lar matter whether very vol u m inous or
not separate d by the tension of a n internal condensation and
moving at abo u t orbital rate at any time wo u ld after detach
ment m aintain its free orbital position
9 6 The interior O f the zone ring O f detached matter wo u ld
be the stress plane of the exte rior part of the critica l c onde n
sation W hether the matter condensed at its critical point
remained as vapouro u s cloud in its precipitation towards or
abo u t the s u n afterwards wo u ld d epend u pon the reaction O f
the heat O f its condensation , radiate d from the central system
or sun at the time
9 7 Upon the above stated conditions , as far as they go , it
is seen that the condensation O f matter at th e criti c al point
woul d prod u ce a permanent strain within the nebul a so that
seeing the natu re O f chemical ele m ents and their very varied
critical te mperatures , the separation O f planet rings from the
central solar system is not necessarily a uniform process
depending u pon a continuo u s condensation as proposed b y
L aplace B y conden s ation O f interior matte r at its critical
point O f te mperature a planet forming zone or system m ay,
u pon this hypothesis , be separated from the sun at a certain
time and for a long period after this s eparation the sun may
,
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,
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,
N O T ES O N TH E NEB U LA R TH E O RY
76
.
slowly condense nebulo u s m atte r u pon itself onl y until
again u nder certa in conditi ons O f critic a l temperatur e O f the
materials O f the neb ula another planet zone or system may
be detached T h erefore owing to the great di fferences in the
critical temper a tures O f kno w n matter , the zone or volu m e O f
detached matter m ay be of relatively large or small mass and
the pl a net form ed therefrom will be consistent with this so
far as the principle in question is active
9 8 It will be O bse r ved that the condensation O f any
refractory met al from its vapouro u s state within the nebul a
would affect this partic ular met al o nly and the vapours O f
other less refractory matter would remai n in a neb u lous State
Therefore in any rotary neb u lar condensation , the denser
more refractory matter, moving at equal angular velocity
with the periphera l m atter moving at nearly orbital velocity
must al w ays drift to an i nner position in spiral lines being
accelerated by gravit a tion als o thereto If the condensation
remaine d it wo u ld come to rest only as regards centralization
when it attained an orbital position Under these conditions
internal planets must be formed of denser , more refractory
matter th a n external ones
A particular case O f critical condensation would be one in
which oxygen a nd hydr ogen in a mixed s tate , below the
temperat u re at which they must remain in c ontact perm anent
gases were u nited i nto vapour This condensation might be
ca u sed by a discharge O f electricity, from an incidental
chemical combination O f prevale nt elements within the
nebular system
9 9 The conde nsatio n to cloud , metallic or oth er at the
critical temperature O f any ann u lus O f n ebula at a distance
from the sun less than the radius of the conde nsing peripheral
zone wo u ld O bsc u re the exterior matter fro m radiation O f the
m ore highly heated central system as the central heat and
light w ould be reflected back fro m the condensed particles
This would cause the more rapid condensation of the detached
,
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D I S CU SS I O N O F M E CH AN I CAL P R IN CIP LE S
77
.
zone whose ta ngential momentu m would prevent its c onde n
sation upon the s u n This clo u ding e ffect wo u ld be repro
d u ce d at a ny following critical condensation of the matter O f
the su n system and wo u ld again tend to c ondense a detached
planet zone or system ; b u t it is not proposed that s u ch a
form of c ondensation is alone active in o u r planetary system
O ther conditions have bee n already s u ggested , and will be
further considered
1 0 0 It m ay be noted under the conditions given above that
a period when an element was under c ondensation at its
criti cal point abo u t the sun wo u ld be a period when his
radiation would be materially O bstru cted Therefore when
an o ute r planet would receive mu ch less o f his heat S u ch a
period which may in some cases have lasted many thous ands
O f years for the complete con densation of a single element
may in recent geological time have produced a glacial period
u pon a wide extent of the earth under c ertain conditions of
distribution O f la nd a reas and direction O f oceanic currents
which I h a ve previo u sly considered for geologically recent
glacial epochs
—
i
n
In the constr u ction given
i
n
n
d
i
t
o
s
o
1 0 1 M od ify g C
7 6 ) we ass u med that an entire neb u lar ring , extending
possibly within 1 0 from the sun on eac h side O f the pl a ne o f
the earth s orbit, was condensed to form the planet This
however , we may presume was not the case Very probably ,
as before suggested the pl anet for ming ring was never
perfect , or if perfect it is improbable that it sho uld have
condensed entirely at once into a single planet P ossibly
condensations to meteorites form a common fa ctor w hen the
neb ular system sinks below a certain critica l temperature
Therefore the earth s neb u lar ring migh t split u p into a
Single planet and s a tellite u pon one side O f its orbit and be
distributed in meteorite s u pon the other Side
If these
,
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,
,
,
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.
°
’
.
,
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-
,
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’
,
.
Bri ti sh A s soci ati on R ep ort s, 18 8 5, p 102 0
.
N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T H E O R Y
78
.
meteorites were O f sli ghtl y d i fferent orbit period fro m the
earth they wo uld finally unite with it at conjunction but if
of the same period they would maintain their vis viva and
not be detected by any calc u lation in the variation of the
earth s mean course or by telescopic O bservation That is
assuming such meteorites to resemble those that fall u pon
the earth which may h ave fallen from outer planet rings
and whi ch are generally O f masses not exceeding a fe w
h u ndred pounds
1 0 2 The greatest Condensation to form a planet w o ul d not
in a uniform density ring be at an intermediate position
between an inner and outer planet as may be inferred from
the diagram fig 9 The gaseo u s state wo u ld be best main
tain e d towards the interior O f the ring by heat exchanged
with the neb u lo us sun The con densation wo u ld therefore
be on the o u ter surfa ce of the ring at the gre atest distance
from the sun where heat could be freely radiated into space ,
as before stated
This exterior con densing matter if
it fell towards the sun would cause the orbit position O f the
n e w forming planet to be towards the interior O f the ring
In this positi on the precipitation O f exterior matter falling in
spiral path wo u ld give excess of velocity from gravitation to
the interior matter beyond its original ang u lar velocity and
m ight set the planet in gravitation equilibri u m for a nearly
circ ular orbit and in rotation at this inner position altho u gh
the origin a l nebula had less angular velocity as wi ll be
shown that it may have had further on It is not necessary
therefore u pon the principle of exterior radia tion to ass u me
that a planet was formed entirely O f m atter of a nebulous
planet zone ; it is much more probable that the inner con
den s ation s were at first upon the neb ulous sun s surface
and did not separate therefrom unti l a dense motive system
had been already form ed in one position
Neither is it
necessary to ass u m e in all cases a single ring or a perfect
—
ring system there may have been many imperfect or partial
-
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’
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,
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-
’
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CHA P T ER VI
.
C O ND ITI O NS I N T HE EAR L Y S O LAR S YS T E M W H IC H
M AY BE INFERRED FR O M T HE D I S TAN C ES AND MASSES O F
T HE P LANE T S U P O N T HE NEB U LA R THE O RY
C ER T A I N
.
1 03
.
T he D is ta n ces of the P la n ets
f om the S n appear to
r
u
be in somewhat symmetrical order in individ u al dis t ribu tion
of position altho u gh their masses do not indi cate any law
for their form ation consistent with the condensation of a
gaseous system or of a u niform ly distrib u ted discrete syste m
by a decrease O f density out w a rd from the gravitation centre
or sun The approximately symmetrical order of dist ance s
without relation to the amo u nt O f distribution of matter was
pointed out by Titi u s in 1 7 7 2
which became known as
B ode s Law owing to the special attention called to it by that
astrono m er T It is illustrated in the following table , the
scale O f measurement being the s u n to earth unit
,
.
,
,
’
.
.
’
T a b le of B od e s L a w
M er
.
V e n u s E a r th
.
.
M ar s
At
s er
.
.
J up
.
.
S at
U
.
ra n
.
p
Ne tune
°
9 6
12
‘
T h e o ry
52
.
i
S e e M s s C l erk e s
t
’
10
38 4
19 6
38 8
19 2
30 1
Hi st ory of A stronomy in th e 19 th C e ntu ry p 8 7
’
,
W T Lynn, O b servatory , v ol xvi (Ap ril , 1 89 3 ) p 1 78
.
4
19 2
’
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
D I S T AN C E S AND MASSES O F T HE PLANE T S
81
.
In the fi rst line 4 is given as an arbitrary plus constant
It may be noticed that it is correct to O bservation , according
to the law for the places of the E arth and Jupiter irregular
with the inferior planets and Mars and Should be omitte d
a ltogether as a p lus cons ta nt for the outer planets
failing
entirely for Neptune
The second line in the table is in
geometrica l series from Ven u s which is quite arbitrarily
taken a s 3 The third line gives the theoretical ded u ction
The fourth line gives approximately the true
O f B ode s Law
distan c e as fo u nd by observation
With Uranus and N eptu ne there appears to be a certain
element O f orbital ti m e relations ; the year O f Neptune being
about double that of Uranus
1 0 4 T he M a sse s of the P la n ets —N O law has been dis
covered for comparison of the masses of the planets , except
tha t the four inner pla nets are smaller and have a m ean
density more than five times greater than that of the four
outer ones which may indicate that their formation has been
upon a di fferent plan In the outer planets there is a kind
o f proport ion O f masses to spaces , which agrees approximately
with an assumed decrement O f density O f n ebulous m atte r
employed in their formation not inconsistent with the manner
in whi ch mixed gaseo u s matter would probably condense
when placed aro u nd a gravitation centre
1 0 5 Following the demonstrations of the theory of L aplace
th e density of matter to form the planet may be estimated by
r eversing the process of its condensation ; that is , by the
dissip ation O f the mass of the planet into the assumed original
A ssuming
n ebular zone ring volume it formerly occupied
that the pla net will be formed u pon the inner s u rface of the
ring as stated above since radiation, and therefore contraction ,
m u st be exterior to thi s w e may for calcu lation take the mean
distances from t h e s u n of any pair of planets and make half
—
their di fference the radius O f the ring assumed for argument
o f circular section
Calling this r , the section of the ring
.
,
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G
N OT ES O N THE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
82
.
will be wr making r l the mean radi u s of the orbit O f the ring
and th erefore its circ u mference 2 7rr 1 we have for the volum e
2 2
of the ring 2 7r r r 1 We may conceive the ring of a certain
oblateness ; say this diminishes the area O f the section by
3 2
tw o thirds our formula then becomes §w r r 1 for the corre cted
ring volume NO W taking the planet as a sphere ga r ",
r 2 being its radi u s and dividing this into the vol u me of the
ring we O btain its assumed original density in the planet s
specific density units For comparison it is convenient to
make the unit O f den sity that O f air at the earth s surface
Then the specific density O f the earth is found by m ultiplying
its volume by 5 6 its specific density co m p ared with water
and 80 0 the ratio of air to water C alling this m, the com
l
e te formula becomes
p
’
,
.
-
,
.
,
’
,
.
’
'
.
.
2
2
2
§
3
3
r2 m
r2 m
2
W
§
O ther planets may be taken I n a similar manner chang ing
m to m according to the data for the density O f the planet
The following table is taken from the above formula , adopting
B ode s law for t he mean place of the A steroids
7r r r 1
7rr r ,
,
’
.
’
T a b le of P r op or tio ns of D en s itie s of the N eb u la r P la net
R ing sp a ces to the D en s ity of A ir
-
Ju
pi ter
.
I/50 5 ,900, 000
S at u rn
U ranu s
N ep t u ne
The irreg u larity of these fig u res appe ars to indicate
the improbability O f the part O f our neb ula which formed the
planets having been condensed from m atter symmetrically
distributed in an oblate Spheroidal for m , altho u gh perhaps
this may not be altogether inconsistent as a form of condensa
t i on O f the four outer planets and their satellites as the table
,
sho ws great in crease of tenuity outwardly
10 6
.
.
k
'
N O T E S O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
84
.
angular velocity of the particles were less than the tangential
velocity O f a p a rticle in gravitation equilibr ium according to
the la w of orbit S O that the p a rticles separately condensed
would fall in the direction O f the neb u lous sun of the period
into ellipti c al O rbits S uch particles would be O f different
orbit periods fro m di fferences of distance at the points of c on
densation so that they might afterwards co m e into colli sion
at the crossing of orbits about the coincident orbit position to
cohere and for m a planet ; or they m ight u nite in th e exterior
O f the central n e b u lou S syste m at the perihelia O f their pro
e cti o n
w
which
ould henceforth become their orbit This
j
,
will be further discussed
,
‘
.
,
.
.
1 09
.
P r oba b le F or m of the O rigin a l P la neta ry N e bu la
.
If we
take the ori ginal neb u la to have been O f ab out the
same density at periods when the sep a rate planets were
aba ndoned we may then plot a section that would represent
the form which the planet forming ne bu la would ass u me after
a certain amount O f condens ation This would Show a con
s i de rab le ro u nded projection over the positions O f the planets
Ju piter and S aturn and as the S u n would also be contracting
this part O f the nebula O f the solar system would for a period
assu me a convol uted discoid for m possibly as represented in
fig 10 ; the positions O f S aturn and Jupiter being shown at
In the present construction w e are considering the
S J
p lanetary forming nebula only which will be a bout the orbit
plane and o m itting all consideration of the circumscribing
s u n—
for ming pneu m a sy stem , which would maintain the
spheroidal form
1 1 0 In accepting this form , it is extremely probable that
there was so m e extern a l cau se for the exceptionally large
P ossibly these
masses O f matter in Jupiter and S atu rn
planets represent fa ctors of an early intrusion of a local con
densation O f the neb ula that formed at a distance from the
solar plane , which w a s afterwards projected into it by attra c
tion to the sun S uch projections might be constrained to
,
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,
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,
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.
.
F O R M O F O R I G INAL NEB ULA
85
.
follow a circular orbit by the resistance they wo u ld encounter
if they ente red the sun s nebula at abo u t the periheli a of their
projections thereto A s before s u gges ted , representation O f a
part O f s u ch a form of neb u la seen in plan u pon a large scale
may possibly b e found in the great neb ula of A ndro m eda,
P late
or in a more p ronounced form in the ring nebula
a
O f L yra P l a te II
In
fig
matter
is
Shown
distributed
1
0
,
, g
’
,
.
-
,
.
.
.
Fi g 1 0
.
.
symmetrically abo u t the orbit pl a ne ; b ut it is more probable
a s will be seen later on , that the pl a net for m ing disc w a s not
of this sy mm etrical for m , but irreg u larly convoluted while
still in a neb u lo u s state
1 1 1 Efi ects of the vo lu min ou s R ing of J upiter her e p rop os ed
—
—
l
u
i
t
t
er S o a r S s em
I
n
ass
u
ming
an
ex
u on the i n tr a J
y
p
p
tensive zone ring O f nebulous matter for the formation O f
Jupiter the conditions that will be presented for interior
pl a netary for mation become m aterially m odified fro m the
unifor mity of direction gravi tation due to the sun only as
before proposed
In the case before us the intervening
interior nebulous matter tow a rds the J u pi ter ring would be
solicited by tw o unequ al gravitation systems tha t of the s u n
a n d that O f Jupiter ; the Jupiter ring being practically active
near its s u rface only A ss u ming the intervening matter
between this ring and the s u n at the time to be wholly
nebu lo u s this neb u lar condition being assumed to be largely
maintained by the heat of the interior of the ring there
w ould then be a strong tendency through cohesion for the
nebul ous matter near this ring to be dra w n either to w ards
the s u n or towards Jupiter in condensation
This wo u ld
-
,
-
.
.
-
,
-
,
.
,
-
,
.
,
,
.
86
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
occ u r particularly from the condensation d u e to radiatio n
being greatest in relation to the depth O f volu m e in the most
attenuated part O f the nebula fig 1 0 A Therefore I n this
case the condensation wo u ld be from the surfa ce in the orbit
plane O f the neb u la and wo u ld tend to break it up into separate
superficial S m all local condensations F u rther from the great
extension ass u m ed for the neb u la r system O f Jupiter exterior
to the plane of orbit and the large vol u m e of the nebulous
s u n at the time , there w ould be little excess O f attraction
towar ds the pl a ne O f orbit for nebulous matter within the
orbit of J u piter Therefore u pon condensation of such a
nebula , owing to the equilibrium of its position between the
attractions O f the S un and of Jupiter there wo u ld be a loca l
tendency to form very small c ondensations or planets par
ticu la rly near the interior of the extensive n ebular rin g of
Jupiter These are probably invisible from our distance
S u ch s m all planets at least the earlier ones formed upo n the
exterior radiating surface , wo uld possess great inclination to
the p lane of the orbit of J u piter in moving as free bodies
u nder the stronger influence of the sun s attraction In the
equili b rium of position of condensation w e have possibly t h e
principal reason that the A steroids are O f s m all mass and
partic u larly th at these s m all bodies Should O ften be found
moving in eccentric and inclined orbits o m itting extreme
cases of inclinations probably due in part to other causes
previo u sly considered
1 1 2 R ela tive R a te of Coo ling of the I n tra J up iter S u n
s s tem — A fter the sun s spheroidal volume had reti red from
y
the inner surface of the ring O f J u piter s nebula , and this
nebula was becoming of ins u ffi cient temperature to maintain
an inn er nebulous system , and many A steroids O f inclined
plane O f orbit had been condensed the rem aining nebula may
have been disposed approximately as represented in fi g 1 0
where the letters S , J , A M E represent diagrammatically
the positions O f S aturn J u piter, the A steroids , Mars , and the
.
,
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CH A P TE R VII
.
S U GGES TI O NS FO R C A U SE S O F D I RE CTI O N O F R O T A TI O N O F T H E
—
P
U
N
AND
LANE
T
TH E D I RE CTI O N O F R E V O L U TI O N
S
S
.
VEL OCIT Y O F RO TATI O N O F T HE P LANE T S AND O F T HE I R
S A T ELL IT ES
.
,
.
T he D ire cti on
S ola r A x is
f
f
”
1
1
represent
the
near
e
st
St
a
rs
to
s s
(fig
)
’
”
line of direction 8 c s therefore the mean
7 9)
o f the planets orbits as before d efined
be other stars more distant from the s un
1 14
.
o
the
o
’
.
’
Fi g 1 1
.
.
the distances between the sun and each of the stars ,
by the arcs shown The dotted
O f eq u al mass with the sun
lines embracing these bisections would represent the extent
O f the sun s original pneu m a system , or that O f the mean
gravitation influences between th e s un and these stars
,
.
’
.
D I RE CTIO N O F R O TATI O N
89
.
A ssume the solar pneuma in revolution
hen free fro m
sur rounding matter through condensation with its axis at
right angles to the plane s s
Then it is clear that a larger
amount O f matter in fu rther condensation wo u ld fall to
the s u n in the directions a a than in the directions b b ;
and as this matter wo uld in c ondensation carry with it the
original tangenti a l momentu m of the uniform angular velocity
of the pneum a system t h e equ atorial plane would thereby be
”
elevated from the original solar plane 3 s towards a a
the direction from whi c h the greatest amo u nt O f grav itatin g
matter wo uld fall so that the orbit plane O f planet forming
"
m atter would he s s but the momentum of the s u n s con
’
densation greate st in the plane a a and its equ ator be subject
’
”
to th e combined directive i nfl u ences of s s and a a The
plane of the sta rs taken above for ill u stration mu st be u nder
stood to be purely diagramm atical ; no s u ch plane exists ,
neither could the axis of original pneuma rotation be defined ,
the plane produ c ed would be und u latory b u t the principle
will hold for stars in any direction fro m the s u n and any
plane O f rotation N ebulae that approach the Spheroidal form
O f which the great neb u la in A ndro m eda may be taken as a
type ( P late II , a ) are generally a sym m etric al being more
dense in certain directions
S uch syste m s in condensation
would not therefore produce axes sym m etrical in the plane of
w
,
,
"
'
.
’
’
,
’
’
,
-
-
'
’
,
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,
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,
’
A x es — If
the
suggest
d
e
f
discoid form of the planet form ing nebula (fig 1 0 ) existed
wi th matter sym metrically distrib u ted abo u t the equ atorial
plane the planetary axis would be vert ical to the plane , but it
is not at all necessary to ass u me the pla net formin g matter
to be placed symmetri c ally If it w ere not so placed the
direction O f rotation of a planet would be in equation with
the mean momentum O f matte r falling to the planetary
1 1 5 D ir ection
.
the
o
P la nets
-
.
,
-
.
H I 200, 111
.
,
n I 53 , M 8 1
.
.
90
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
centre fro m any direction Further the pneuma system is
assumed to extend in all directions and that condensations
occur at its outer surface ; therefore condensations wo u ld fa ll
into the pla neta ry plane in all directions , s u ch m atter being
projected in co m etary orbits Matter th u s projected to w ards
the sun and towards the denser equatorial nebular plane
wo u ld be absorbed in the nebular syste m and give local
directive infl u ences by ca u sing intermotion within the nebula
without necessarily displacing greatly the positions o f the
pl anetary condensations then forming
This assumes the
p lanet to be of m u ch greater mass than the units O f intruded
matter falling constantly from vario u s d irections , and there
fore s u ch intrusions to be of insu fficient momentum indi vidually
to materially disturb its orbital position
The projection
matter would be very much more
O f eccentric c ometary
frequent in early times than at present as all s u ch projections
wo u ld become absorbed in the solar planetary nebular system
.
,
.
,
.
.
o
,
-
Fi g 12
.
.
.
We must assume , fr om the extent O f a pneuma solar
sy stem that cometary matter from exterior condensation
would materially affect the intermotion of the parts of any
system of nebula that was in a state suitable for planetary
condensation , wherein every planet would form a gravitation
S uch intrusions only by
centre with directive influences
directive impression according to the momentum of matter
projected fro m any direction might disturb the mean plane of
orbit O f the planet , or induce obliquity O f axis by diverting
the mean revol ution directio n in the con densing nebul a O f
which the planet was being formed Under these conditions
the theoretical general half sectio n O f the planet forming
-
,
.
,
.
-
92
N O T E S O N T HE NEB U L A R T HE O RY
.
force the te ndency O f all exterior matter would be active to
press forward towards the centre as the virt u al velocity
would be less in any inte rior p a rt tha n that which wo uld
separately maintain its matter at the original distance of
radi u s in a free state O f orbital motion Upon this con
dition the s u rro u nding pressure within a gravitation system
if it exceeded the elastic forc e O f the internal heat O f
the system for m aterials in a highly gaseous state would
form a dense m a ss or sun in the central part In forming
this central dense co ndensation omitting the friction o f the
sy stem which would prod u ce heat, or ass u ming this eq u al
to the acceleration O f its gravity in falling sunward we may
take it that all matter condensed upon the s u n would carry
with it the linear velocity of its former position which wo u ld
be greater in the proportion O f its original lin e ar circu m
ference to the circ u mference O f the sun upon which it w as
afterwards condensed This condensed matter wo uld there
fore rotate the s u n in proportion to the me an excess O f linear
elocity or momentum O f the matter condensed upon it from
w hich it was formed
1 1 8 To demonstrate the above proposition , w e may assume
that all nebulous matter formerly condensed upon the s u n in
consecutive shell layers over its s u rface at first from directive
press u re of the interior parts of the nebula surrounding it
which w e ass u me was moving in mass at equal angu lar
velocity with the centre or sun
Then the condensations
from the interior parts would impress sma ll excess of linea r
velocity upon the sun in the e a rly or central shell s of con
densation and the more exterior parts consec u tively higher
velocity fro m the condens ation O f these more distant parts
of the neb u la in the oute r shells which theoretically wo u ld
be consec u tively b rought do wn to the surface O f the sun
S O that with increasing vol u me the condensed central sun
wo u ld a tta in constantly increasing velocity O f rotation
B y condensation in the above pa r agraph is intended purely
,
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v
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,
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,
R O TA TIO N O F T HE S U N
93
.
—
condensation
the
condensation
being
due
to
loss
of
g
heat by radiation from the system by which the whole mass
maintained the elastic force with which it formerly resisted a
central gravitation tendency
1 1 9 We will ass u m e as an hypothesis th a t our original
sol a r neb u l a possessed the rota tion period O f Nept u ne O f abo u t
1 6 5 years
Then ass u ming this neb ul a O f spheroidal form
every section of which was condensing by gravitation thro u gh
loss of heat towa rds the s u n with dire ctive mom entum in
proportion to the ori ginal virtual tangenti al velo city of its
arts
the
mass
of
the
neb
u
l
a being for the present proble m
p
ta ken to b e in density inversely as the squ ares of the distance
of its p a rt s then if the neb ula co u ld be entirely condensed
u pon the s u n to its present state without loss by friction more
than the ex cess of momentu m due to gravitation in falling
sunwards the s u n should afte r s u ch entire condensation
possess a peripheral velocity equal to the peripheral velocity
That is in the case w e assu m e the
O f the original neb u la
velocity of the planet Neptu ne in its orbit This may be
calculated
1 2 0 The orbit o f N ept u ne has a circumference of abo u t
miles and his revol u tion period is abo u t
days equ al to an absol ute di u rnal velo city O f abo u t
miles in our sidereal day The sun has a periphery
miles Therefore if the whole nebula
O f about
condensed upon the sun witho u t fri ction in sh ell layers within
the orbit O f Neptune the s u n s linear velocity wo u ld be a t
its equator equ al to the velo city of N ept u ne in its orbit
which would make its period of rotation so m ewhat u n der
O bservation Shows the sun to rotate in about 2 5
9 5 days
days so that the present di u rnal velocity O f the eq uatorial
s urface O f the s u n is
miles that is only a little over
2 6 O f th a t whi ch would be due to condensation O f the
e nclosed nebula within the orbit of N ept u ne upon the con
ditio n s proposed above , taken as a trial hypothesis
a se ou s
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94
N O T E S O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
Upon the nebular theory the formation of any plan et
say Neptune co u ld not have occ u rred until a l a rge vol u me of
exterior m atter had condensed to this position Indeed the
whole conde n sation must have taken place at the exterior or
radiation s u rface O f the neb u la at a distance within which
alone the pla net co u ld be formed as exchanges O f heat wo uld
prevent it co nden sm g sunward as before stated Therefore
the rarer port ions O f the neb u la m u st have extende d at an
early period to a great distance beyond the orbit of Neptu ne
and the same extent of neb u la m u st have been instr u mental
in s u n formation although the conde n sation to form the s u n
might oc cur centrally from loss of general elasticity If we
a ss u me the original radi u s O f the nebula to be represented by
12 1
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
-
,
.
Xj%
,
where V is the orbital velocity O f Neptune and v
that of the periphery of the s u n and D the distance O f
N eptune we have for the distance d of an exterior plane t
i n the present case for particles in gravitation equilibrium
—
ac c ording to the law of orbit about
millions O f miles ,
tha t is if the neb u lo u s matter w a s moving with equ al angular
velocity to t hat of the sun s present equatorial surface
1 2 2 This being the radius of eq u ilibri u m O f a particle
moving in a circu lar orbit at the distance given wo u ld
indicate upon the principles O f gaseo u s condensation the
fu llest possible extent O f o u r original neb u la that could have
been active in motive factors u pon the sun if its density
diminished inversely as the sq u are O f its distance and the
condensation was frictionless In this theoretical calculation ,
therefore w e m a y ta ke i t that the angular motion of the
nebula prod u ced the ang u lar motion of the s u n thus leaving
direct gravitation in c ondensation to represen t his heat
1 2 3 In th e above construction altho u gh the motion O f a
planet may be used as the index of the extent of the original
neb u la at an early period yet the planet s own formation may
be excl u ded from the consideration of sun formation , s eeing
,
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’
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'
,
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,
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’
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-
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
96
.
m ay divide
the entire momentum O f a nebular planet zone
m oving under the s u n s attra c tion into t w o factors of motion
angular motion and gravi ty These w e can distribute into
tw o constants as the final condition O f condensation
1 P er manent acceleration of rotation O f a condensation
within the zone th a t is the future planet 2 A cceleration O f
revol ution to give the planet orbital motion We may take it
as an hypothesis t hat the s u nward acceleration by gravity
into the original momentum O f the condensations of matte r
falling from the outer part O f the system gives su fli cie nt
accelera tion O f revol u tion to establish the orbital motion :
and that the difference between the ang u lar velocities O f the
outer and inner parts o f the zone ring gives the rotational
velocity to th e planet as the probable action of the motive
factors e vident in the system proposed
1 2 5 T he O r b ita l Ve locity of a P la n et d er ived fr om the
cen tra liz ing gra vity of the o u ter p a r ts of a n eb u la r z one fa lling
—
r
t
r
a
s
A
ssume
a
planet
newly
forming
by
u on the in ne
p
p
detachment O f a zone at the periphery O f the solar nebula, and
that thi s zone is condensing most rapidly at the greatest
distance from the sun A t this instant the pe riphery of the
solar nebula must be moving at slightly less velocity than
the detached zone as before stated ; so that we make the
velocity of the outer periphery of the nebula O f the next
inner planet zone ring that of the orbital velocity of the next
o u ter pl anet We h a ve n o data fo r this in the c ase O f
N eptune which m u st be referred to the extent O f the sun s
nebula at its peripheral velocity but we may take any other
two nearer planets whose mass is suffi cient to allow o f their
being regarded as nebular formations say S aturn and Ju piter
In these the li near velocity O f the s u n s nebula at its equator
could not have been so high as the velocity of S aturn at the
time the S at u rn zone ring w a s just detached from the s u n s
neb u la
If we consider these orbital velocities we find
miles diurnal velocity that O f the next
S aturn equals
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’
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,
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,
O
RB ITAL V EL O CIT Y AND R O TA TI O N O F PLANE T S
97
.
inner planet Jupiter
miles ; therefore, to define the
velocity O f Jupiter in its orbit u pon the data suggested we
r equire plus
The plus velocity is herein
m iles
assumed to be derived from gravity of the m atter falling
towards the s u n that is entirely condensing towards the
position O f J u piter
1 2 6 The simples t possible constr u ction to Sho w this is to
assu m e that matter condensing from the o u tward p a rt of the
zone was m oving j u st belo w the velocity O f an inner part
Then this m atter wo u ld n ot have s u fficient moment u m to
m aintain its tangential position S O that it must fa ll into
an elliptical orbit of which its origin a l position in the z on e
was its aphelion If we a ss u me that this matter c ould move
without resista nce , its velocity would increase according to
the law O f radii v e ctores until it rea c hed its perihelion And
if w e s u ppose this matter to form a planet at its perihelion
position by enco u ntering j u st su ffi cient resistance in surro u nd
ing matter to retain its perihelion radi u s by defle cting it
fro m an elliptic to a circular orbit this wo u ld represent the
velo city of the inner planet moving according to the law
of orbit
W e cannot O f course presume that this is the real condition
altho u gh it may represent its motive fact ors The nebula
being ga seous would resist the direct contin u ity of the orbit
O f a c ondense d o u ter particle or aggregation of such particles
so that they co u ld only fall s u nward in spiral paths , possibly
as fl occu li ; and the whole system might possibly be more
nearly represented as a press u re system upon the n e w forming
planet a ccelerating its motion than a s a free motive one , but
the dynam ic effects would be the same
1 2 7 T he R ota tion of P la n ets — A ss u me a planet ring to be
detached from the sun s nebula and that henceforth t his is a
free elastic body revolvi ng with tangential velocity in equi
librium with the attraction of gravity upon it to maintain
its orbital posi tion according to Kepler s third law If th e
H
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98
N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O R Y
.
rotatio n of the peripheral band from any cause were Slowe r
than this it could not leave the sun s surface If it were
faster its matter would fly O ff into space ; or putting the
matter practica lly the zone ring w o u ld contract or expand
t oits position accordi n g to the law O f orbit
As regards the
separate p a rts of the planet ring , it is assumed that these
being at fi rst a part of the sun s nebula in a highly gaseous
condition would revolve in all parts in relatively stati c
positions exactly as though the ring were a solid body
attached to the solar neb u la This is in ferred from the fact
that any intermotion of its interior parts in a gaseous body
wo u ld be more frictional than that of equal ang ular velocity
in which there would be no internal displace ments
1 2 8 If therefore w e assume that the planet ring revolved
at first with equal ang u l a r velocity in all parts in mean
gravitation eq u ilibriu m for its distance from the sun centre
and that a condensation occurred in a ny part O f the ring from
pre existence O f a denser part which may have been caused
by the intrusion O f a comet a sho w er O f meteorites or other
wise — then all parts O f the ring system su fficiently near
together to support a system O f cohesion in gravita tion
continuity would be drawn towards the denser part with
velocity of approach inversely proportional to the squ are o f
the distance from the gravitation centr e less the resistance by
friction within the system
In this case the tangential
velocity of the ring being assumed to be at its o u ter sur face
in equation with gravitation for a circ ular orbit there wo u ld
be no tendency for the ring to leave its orbit , but matter
wo u ld be continuo u sly drawn towards the centre of attraction
of the n ew forming planet in which case accommodation
must be found for the volume O f matter set free from its
outer zonal position and attracted towards the ne w forming
planet
1 2 9 Under the conditions proposed w e should have
towards the planet s nucleus currents from differe nt par t s O f
’
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,
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’
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
1 00
.
inertia of the portion O f the planet formed at the time The
”
condensation O f matter from b when the linear velocity was
’ ’
less than the ang u lar velocity of the planet at a b in relation
to the sun , would impress its moment u m at b in direction
opposite to that O f a so that this would proportionally rotate
”
the planet in the same direction as the outer matter from a
.
,
’
’
,
Fi g 13
.
.
to a
N O W if all parts of the ring by accommodation con
served the momentum in condensation d u e to difference O f
length O f arc and that due to attractio n O f the parts of the
system upon themselves by which the axis of the planet
wo u ld be set in rotation by cyclonic acti on the fi nal velocity
O f rotation of the planet wo u ld be approximately such that its
periphery would possess a velocity equ al to the differences of
the velocities O f the inner and o u ter parts of the neb ul ar ring
” a ’” a n d b b ”
between which it wa s formed, upon the
a a
conditions O f this proposition
1 3 2 It is assumed that a planet upon fi nal condensation
fro m a nebular ring wil l be placed very near the interior O f
the ring S ince radiation into Space , as before stated can o nl y
take place from th e o u ter parts , and n o t towards the nebulous
s u n whic h at an early stage of the planet s formation would
be heated su flficie n tly to maintain a nebul o u s state and be
nearly as large in diameter as the inner surface of the ring
The nebular matter being contin u ous in the rIng will
maintain cohesion or separate by flocc u lation in attra ction
to wards the planet, as before stated, during its formation ;
’
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R O TA TIO N O F T HE P LANE T S
10 1
.
so that the exterior conde nsation may be represented as
showers of rain drops falling upon the pla net carrying with
them the tangentia l imp ulse d u e to their original m otion and
former position This wo uld occur S O long as the interior
heat of the system could maintain a p u rely nebular state If
the whole system was falling to the criti cal temperat u re of
liqu efaction of a large part O f the neb u l a
or the for
m ation w a s influenced by a ring of exterior heated m atter, a s
possibly w a s the case with planets interior to Jupiter the
regularity O f condensation proposed above would be materially
modified
1 33 To maintain the condensation continuously in a
n ebulous state from the zone ring to the perfect pl a net w e
must evidently possess a large volume of nebu lous m atter in
this ring as any thinly distributed system wo u ld condense
quickly by radiation of its heat after se pa ration from the sun
into dis crete matter before a nebulo u s planet could be
formed Therefore it becomes probable that only the large
planets of our syste m Jupiter and S aturn co u ld condense
under p u rely neb u lar con ditions wherein the equal angular
velocities of the system might be m a intained
Further
inference that these planets are O f purely nebulous form ation
is found in part from their low specific gravity, d u e probably
to the conservation O f heat in their interiors , rese mbling in
a certain degree the conditions O f condens a tion O f the sun
—
u
t
u
Taking the pl a nets
1 3 4 R ota tion of J p iter a n d S a rn
S at u rn and Jupiter under the p u rely neb u lous conditions
proposed let r and r l be respectively the outer and inner
radii or distances from the sun O f tw o c onsecutive planets
then r —rl will b e the diameter of the nebular ring which we
may a ssu m e as a gravitation system of circ ular cross section
from which the inner planet will
as shown fig 9 , p p (p
be forme d and 2 7r (r —r 1) the difference between the circum
L et P be
fe r en ce s O f the o u ter and inner parts of the ring
th e diameter O f the planet, and vrP therefore its circumference
-
,
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,
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102
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
and H the number O f sidereal h ours in one complete revola
tion ro u nd the sun The peripheral space that the equatorial
surface O f the planet will describe for its orbit in time wil l be
.
‘ '
fl
PH
2 7 (r
r1
)
’
and the theoretical term H1 , according to this
PH
proposition , will be
following table
Th e
2 ( r —r 1 )
constructed upon these data will gi ve the theoretica l rotation
time in hours proposed approximately for a planet O f equ al
density througho ut formed from gaseo u s matter moving with
equal ang u lar velocity u pon this hypothesis The T column
is the O bserved time in hours as far as kno w n
1 3 5 It is seen that the virtual velocities of the parts O f
the condensation would depend upon their final position in
relation to the centre of the planet The nearer the centre
the greater the ang u lar motion impressed u pon the planet
from an equ al linear velocity , S O that a planet dense at its
centre , and the reverse at its periphery, would U pon final
condensation have greater rotation velocity than one due to
the condensation of equally dense consecutive Shell layers
over its s u rface to form its mass In the following table the
planets are taken as being O f uniform density th rougho u t
.
,
.
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.
-
-
.
.
T a ble of T he or etica l R ota tion of P la nets for med u nd er
p
u re
l
P an et
.
i
ly N eb u la r Con d ition s
D iffer en ce of
C rcu mfe ren ce
i g2 (
X h ours s
c rcu m fere n ce O f
r n
7r r
i
l
o f p a ne t
H
i
T h e o re t cal
d u rn a
r otat o n H
1
i
.
.
i
l
O b s erv ed
d u rn a
rota t on T
i
.
i
l
.
2 7 ,6 7
U
ranu s
13 6
.
In th e above table the acceleration O f ro tation or of
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
1 04
.
eparate parts of the ring are now drifting in co ncentric
orbits u pon and around the planet with gre ater velocity t han
that O f its s u rfa c e In this case the he at engendered at the
s u rface O f the pl a net by condensations or collisions O f meteoric
m atter projected thereon would prod u ce a nebulo u s atmo
sphere perm itting only the approach O f the exterior meteoric
ring matter whi c h is probably in the form of d u st to drift
under the resistance it enco u nters in Spiral or cycloni c paths
This may
a bout the planet s equator and o u tward from it
prod u ce the present surfa ce a ppearance which may be si milar
in m ot ion to cyclonic areas in the atmosphere about our
equator T he virtual velocity O f the parts O f the broken ring
being greater than that O f the surface of the planet this
matter in drifting over and covering the s u rface O f the planet
w ould present the only m eas u rable part O pen to o u r O bserva
tion the pla net itself being entirely obscured
1 3 8 In Jupiter we have not the lo w density which w e
h ave in S at u rn to indicate form a tion u nder p u rely nebular
conditions S O that the reasons gIv e n I n the t wo previous
paragraphs are q u ite su fficient to acco u nt for the excess O f
velocity over that requ ired by the theory O f our table If
necess a ry it wo u ld not be di ffi c u lt to find others If the
zone ring was originally elliptical , and the planet co ndensed
at its perihelion position the di fference of line a r ratios of the
outer and inner s u rfa ces (fig 1 3 a a , b b) wo u ld fully a cco u nt
for the ex c ess of rotation A gain it is not im possible that
e xterior m a tter moving at greater velocity drifted into the
planet d u ring form ation
1 3 9 In the planet S aturn we have evidence O f purely
neb u lo u s conditions in formation in which the surrounding
equ ilibri u m of m atter w a s S O perfect that central rings O f
c ondensed free matter were possible O f formation ro u nd its
equ a tor In this case we have a rotation period in nearly
exact equation with the tangential velocities of the part of
the exterior nebula fro m which the planet w as formed upon
S
.
,
,
’
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,
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,
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,
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,
-
,
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,
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,
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R O T A TI O N O F T HE PLANE T S
t h e theory proposed
105
.
N evertheless it must be in some degree
.
accidental th a t this comes S O nearly into agreement with my
It is in all prob ability much m ore
t heory in this planet
dense in its central part s than at its periphery ; it should
possess therefore greater velocity than it does , but this
di fference may well represent the friction O f the sy stem in
formation
1 40 F urther , with rega rd to Jupiter and S aturn it is
rtain whether w e m a ke
s u ffi cient allowa nce for
rin
e
a
s
u
s
u
ch
bright
bodies
as
these
pl
a
nets
ya
g
The mean me a s u rem ents O f Ven u s as a bright body by
H artwig , K a iser, A iry , and Amb r on n give
at a
dista nce equ al to its me a n transit position The me a s u rement
O f Ven u s by A u w ers as a dark body in transit gives 1 6 8 0 1
from which w e may con c l u de the tr u e m eas u rement of Ven u s
is probably 1 7 1 9 7 applying a si milar red u ction to Ju piter
which it is impossible to meas u re in th e same manner we
m iles
have its diameter abo u t
This proporti on is also
confirm ed by so m e meas u rements made by my self O f the
iridescence of bright bodies under the microscope
It is
evident also in the apparent thickness O f the fila m ent of an
incandescent electric light that may be co mp a red with i ts
reflection in a polished s u rface O f black glass which s u ggests
a possible mode O f m eas u rement of J u piter and Ven u s by
r efle ction from a bla c k surfa c e
1 4 1 Uran u s is added to the table which gives u pon the
t heory O f the rotation O f Jupiter a n d S at u rn a period of
ho u rs This planet however if we take the direction
of its satellites as a n index is moving probably, b u t not
necessari ly in the reverse dire ction which might occur from
its formation from discrete particles according to the theory
This theory m ay be Shown by the same diagram
O f Faye
In this case matter is ass u med to be moving in free orbits
.
,
,
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,
.
.
-
.
’
,
°
,
,
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,
,
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,
,
,
,
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,
,
,
,
,
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it
Fy
a
e,
S ur l O rigi ne da M ond e , 2 nd e di t
’
’
.
p 1 17
.
10 6
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
”
ro u nd the sun , and the particles along the arc (fi g 1 3 , a a a )
ass u med to have less virt u al velocity than those along b b b ,
consequ ently the planet would move in the reverse direction
A nother plan O f rotation will however , be suggested furthe r
on
1 4 2 R ota tion s of the A s teroids — The rotations O f planets
inferior to J u piter wo u ld of co u rse , depend u pon the mode
of their formation The atten u ated plane O f the neb u la pro
posed for the formation of the A steroids wo u ld leave these
condensations ab ou t this plane so as to form an early break
in the neb u lar system O f the s u n and the henceforth separate
neb u lar system of J u piter so long as the A s teroids re m ained
in the orbits O f their original formation , they wo u ld take
rotation perio ds consistent with the principles proposed for
the formation O f p u rely neb u lo u s planets considered above ,
little affected by the decentralizing action of J u piter or its
original ring system Any O f these minor planets , if formed
thro u gh separate condensations of concretions O f smaller
planets , or of meteori c matter by after collisions , in the
crossings O f orbits wo u ld have their original rotation d u e to
condensation u nder neb u lar conditions diminished by the loss
directive momentu m O f rot ation whi ch wo uld be
O f the
converted into heat at the time O f collision The absolute
condition O f these bodies m u st rem ain altogether specu lative,
o u r present limited knowledge being ins u fficient to obtain
data for the actu al rotation periods necessary for its con
sideration They most probably move with different rotation
velocities and it is not improbable that some rotate in the
reverse direction
Ma r s
If Mars w a s formed directly under the
1 43
neb u lar con ditions proposed for the s u perior planets from a
neb u lar ring which extended to the near a s te roid l Ethra, it
wo uld possess a rotation only slightly in excess of its re v olu
tion period If w e ass u med a wider area for the ring , possibly
to inclu de the formation O f E thra in a nother or O pposite part
’
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'
"
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,
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’
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-
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,
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-
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,
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-
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,
-
.
1 08
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
the factors O f matter whi ch for m ed the planet and thi s might
be fi xed upon purely neb u lar conditions as with the planets
Ju piter and S at u rn , allowing time for the neb u la to con
tract u pon the sun only witho u t planet formation as before
proposed The general conditions of density of the surface
form ation O f M a rs an d the presence of ne a r A steroids do not
indic ate equ able neb u lar conditions at its formation This
does not however infer that it was not at one period part ly a
neb u lo u s globe , the gravity O f which w a s s u perior to that O f
an
f
near
body
cond
nsed
matter
indeed
this
is
probable
O
e
y
for the for m ation O f satellites upon principles to be discussed
further on
14 6 R ota tion of the E a r th —If we take the same purely
neb u l ar conditions as proposed for the formatio n of the
large planets by the condensation of matter carrying virtual
velocities O f the parts O f the ring system to the planet and
assume under like conditions that the ear th s neb ula ex
tended a t one period to the orbit O f Mars , we shall arrive at
a rotatio nal velocity much greater than that whi ch we O bserve
B u t in the dis c oid al neb u lar system proposed fig 1 0 p 8 5 it
wo u ld be extre m ely improbable that the actual earth for ming
By
n eb u la in contact with it ever possessed this radi u s
the principles of sun condensation without planet formation
already discu ssed and its condensation when matter just
interior to its orbit was at a critical temperature w e may fi x
the earth s neb u lar ring orbit consistent wit h its period of
,
-
,
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'
,
,
,
.
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-
,
’
.
,
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,
.
,
-
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-
-
,
,
’
-
j
—
)
Q
E
considering the
rotation as before by the form u la
,
PH
,
’
density of the earth and a certain extent of space between its
orbit and that of Mars for its vol u me The probability is
that the greater part O f the E arth Mars interspace w as
condensed at an early period into separate smaller neb u lar
planets as j u st proposed for Mars and showers O f meteorites
at its outer p a rts were moving in very elliptic orbits The
condensation which may r epre sent the nucleus nebula o f the
.
-
,
,
.
R O TA TI O N O F T HE P LANE T S
1 09
.
earth moon was possibly at about its present mean radial
distance from the sun Under these conditions the o u ter
condensations , w hether neb u lous liqu id or solid a ss u m ed O f
eccentric orbits wo uld be drawn a t perihelion tow a rds and
into the e a rth s neb u la if these dis c rete condensations at the
period extended a s was probably the case beyond the ra dius
O f the moon s orbit
Fu rther in an atten u ated ring system ,
as the e a rth s system m ay have been at an early period , while
rapidly cooling condensations wo u ld o ccu r at different parts
of the ring and a t slightly varying distances from the s u n
as before s u ggested , so that u ltimate collision m u st occ u r
between them an d the earth Under s u ch conditions w e
sho u ld have thro u gh condensation v a riety of density and
s u rface conformity and rot ation in composition with a ll the
motive factors O f the earth s formation The develop m ent of
heat u nder the process O f formation may have maintained a
considerable nebula ro u nd the earth at an e a rly period b u t
not being an entirely neb u lar formation its m otion of rotation
wo u ld be much slower than that calcul ated for Ju piter an d
This
S aturn if taken u nder purely neb u l a r conditions
ma tter will be reconsidered in deta il fu rther on
1 4 7 The rotations O f Ven u s a n d Merc u ry wo u ld be s u bject
to the same conditions as that of the E arth and Mars
H ow
far these planets may be form ed from neb u lar or from dis crete
If formed from neb u lar
matter it is i mpossible to s ay
matter the motion would be greater than that of the E arth
actually If for med from discrete matter prod uced by the
general lowering O f the tempera t u re of the s u rro u nding
neb u la to its critical temperat u re it wo u ld be less or these
factors might act co nj ointly so that the rotation might
be nil
-
r
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,
,
,
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’
,
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-
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[
1 10
]
C H A P T E R V III
.
—
—
A
T
ELL
IT
E
D
I
RE
CT
M
TI
N
S
S
O
O
ROT A TI O N
—
RET R O GRADE M O TI O N — CO M PAR I S O N O F
O F T HE M O O N
T HE R E V O L UTI O N O F T HE M O O N W IT H T HE RO TATI O N O F
T HE EAR T H FR O M N ER U LAR CO ND ITI O NS
RE V O L UTI O N
OF
.
.
.
1 48
.
R
l
S
f
i
evo u t on o
a te
lli te s w ith D ir ect M otion — In the
.
revol ution of satellites around their primaries under p u rely
neb ular conditions , no other law could hold for the c onde n
sation O f nebular matter than that which must hold for
condensation u pon the primary ; so that if the motion O f the
planet s perimeter were equ al to the difference between the
li n ear velocities O f the inner and outer parts O f the primitive
n eb u lar ring from which it was condensed , the satellite s
revol u tion sho u ld be consistent with this under the same
mo d e of formation Th u s , taking the satellite s distance and
revol u tion period , the virt ual velocity O f the satellite sho u ld
equ al the di fference O f rates of the extreme parts o f the ring ,
—
previo u sly expressed as 2 7r(r r 1 ) A t the same time this
m u st be taken as representing the angu lar motion O f the
entire exterior neb u lar system w ithin which the satellite or
satellites or any ring system as in the case O f S aturn
were formed
A s soon as the satellites were formed
the condition given § 1 2 7 , for planet formation must hold
in the c ondensation O f an attenuated system abo u t th e
pl a net The motion and position of the sate llites if there are
more than one m u st finally rest in relation to the plane t
according to Kepler s third law the squares O f the numbers
,
’
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,
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’
,
N O T ES O N T HE NEB ULAR T HE O RY
1 12
.
any system in the aggregate Should agree with the an gular
rate of motion of the equator of the planet and this wit h the
moment u m of the nebular atmosphere surro u nding the planet
from which the whole system of satellites is ass u med to be
formed A S experiment we may take each of the satellites
of S atu rn and of J u piter to be formed of eq u al quantities of
neb u lar matter at about t heir present positions separately , and
divide by their n u mber so as to find the mean place of the
imaginary satellite we desire to consider as the u nit of the
system The result of this is Shown in the following table
,
"
,
.
,
“
.
T a b le of mea n R ota tion a l Velocities of S a tellite s
2 77 0
M ean p os it ion of
li
’
-
7
1
.
)
i
S aturn s sa tel te s a nd r ng
Ju
pit
’
e r s sa t e
llit
es
We see again in this an excess of velocity in the
satellites of Jupiter which is consistent with the excess of
—
r
motion over that derived from 2 7r(
r1 ) O bserved in the
planet
This may infer an intrusion W ithin the nebula
revio
u
s
to
the
formation
of
the
planet
of
a
large
mass
of
p
matter moving with greater velocity , but so as to produce the
same direction of rotation a s that of the original neb u lar ring
as before proposed which is again consistent with J upite r s
greater motion and abnormal m ass The difference Shown ,
however is made much less by taking the m ean motion of
the satellites in conj u nction with their m asses , the outer
satellites of J upiter being of ggre ate r mass th a n the inner
ones A nd in the sam e manner the mass of S aturn s rings
exceeds that of its satellites S O that this di fference would be
1 50
.
‘
.
,
‘
,
.
,
’
.
,
again diminished , and
W SH
H1
wo u ld come as fairly to my
RE V O L UTI O N O F SAT ELL IT ES
1 13
.
theory as the conditions probably wo u ld admit of calculation
in a system wherein there may have been intrusion of exterior
matter cometary or other, during the formation
—
These small bodies move at a
1 5 1 S a te llites of M a r a
higher velocity than the equatorial surface of the planet It
is therefore clear that they co u ld not have formed a part of
a neb ular system moving at equ al angular velocity with the
planet, assuming the planet was entirely condensed from the
nebula and moved originally only at its present rotational
period B y the condensation of a nebular zone as defined
above for the satellites of J u piter and S at u rn , the r otation
periods of the satelli tes of Mars wo uld be made consistent
by treating them as revolution systems § 1 2 7 It is clear
however as before suggested th at w e have n ot in Mars a
n ebulo u s condensation of the kind that w e have in the outer
planets where the condensation has produced a mass of
smal l speci fi c density The probability is that the nebula of
Mars possessed at a certain peri od a rotation consistent with
the revolution of its satellites but that the planet was of
smaller mass , the whole system appearing as a p lanetary
nebula That about this period the planet entered into col
lisio n with one or more planetoids of smaller mass than itself
w hi ch were previo u sly condensed to soli d form These plane
toid s may have penetrated its neb u lo u s atmosphere without
materiall y changing its rotational velocity , but have reduced
S u ch collisions wo u ld
that of the planet u pon collision
develop gr eat heat partially liqu efying the solid planetoid
and prod u ce by cementation with it a partial protrusion
o f matter beyond the Sphere in which w e have an index of
the surface confi guration In thi s manner , the momentum
of the o u te r parts of the nebula would be maintained although
the penetration by a planetoid to the centre wo u ld possibly
ca u se su ffi cient dist u rbance of equili brium in the neb u la for
the satell ite zone to i mmediately commence the formation of
the satellite
.
,
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,
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,
-
.
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O RY
1 14
.
The orbit position of a satelli te can only follo w
Kepler s third law In a satellite zone O pen to a system of
condensation at the ou t er radiation surface of its nebula
moving at equal angular velocity, in which refracto ry matte r
of the outer neb ul a condenses first the condensed units wi ll
move through the resistance of resid u al gas under the infl u
ence of gravity in spiral lines , until they reach the central
condensation; u nless an orbi ta l velocity position is found
accordin g to N ewton s Law
and in this position the
satellite must be formed; Therefore a satellite may b e formed
at any distance from its planet If matter falling upon a
planet possesses less tangential momentu m than that w hi ch
produces orbital velocity at any position above the planet s
surface satellite formation wo u ld be impossible as s u ch matter
would fall to the body of the planet
1 5 3 T he M oon possesses a higher virtual velocity than the
equatorial surface of the earth in the proport ion of 2 2 8 8 4 3 ,
the moon s mean ho u rly motion , to
the ho u rly motion
of the earth s equat or A ssuming the eart h system to have
been entirely nebulo u s and the nebulous matter to condense
in equal Shell layers over the ea r th , commencing from the
time of the condensation of the moon from gaseo u s matter,
decreasing in density inversely as the Square of the dis tance
from the earth s centre then the earth Should pos sess nearly
the sam e initial velocity a t its equat or as that of the moon i n
its orbit assuming no friction of formation developed into
heat upon the earth S surface at the time In many ways
this is improbable , as the whole system does not confirm the
earth s formation under entirely ne b ular conditions It is
therefore probable that the earth s nucleus was a considera ble
liquid , or partially solid , m ass before the time of the moon s
early condensation Further the config u ration of the earth s
surface indicates that it was probably formed in part by
1 52
-
.
’
-
.
-
,
*
’
“
’
,
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.
’
’
.
,
-
’
,
’
.
’
.
’
’
’
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,
Pri ncipi a, Lib u , p rop xv
’
.
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.
.
N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LAR T HE O RY
116
.
orbi tal velocity the equilibri u m of its matter from tan g ential
momentu m and gravity is such that irrespectively of its
rotation , its matter may be considered to float on a frictionless
plane ; so that the initial gravity of its mass acts directly
upon itsel f
Therefore if the nebular moon z one wer e
unequally distributed , its condensation would be direct to
the densest part
S uppose the co n densed zone represented by fi g 1 4 a then
its point of te nsion would be at an A ss u me this point to
separate by the initial Slo w action of the entire gravity of the
ring Then its matter near the point of separation woul d
gather into tw o semi globular terminals fi g 1 4 b w I nitial
,
,
.
-
,
.
,
.
.
'
-
.
,
Fi g 1 4
.
,
.
.
g ravity wo uld n ow act in opposition t o the direct momentum
of the mass accelerating the velocity of the limb b and re
tarding that of 0 S o that at some point about d th e ring
would condense into a globular mass , by its extreme conde n
s a tion s coming together
—
n
t
l
o
S
a e li tes
Th
e
conditions
1 5 6 R etr ogr a d e M otio
f
proposed for the direct mo t i on of the satellites pre viously
considered as derived from the condensation of the gaseo us
neb ul a , co u ld not possibly hold upon the hy poth esis given for
the satellites of Uran u s and N eptune which move in the
retrograde direction
It may appear so far as the dire c
tion only of this motion is concerned , that this wou ld b e
demonstrated by the theory of M Faye 14 1, as due to thei r
,
.
.
.
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
RE T R O GRADE MO TIO N O F SA T ELLIT ES
1”
.
fo rmation from discrete m atter, the satellites being condensed
from a ring of such m atter every particle of which was
originally moving in a free orbit in gravitation equilibri u m
this theory may possibly be applicable to the satellite s o f
N eptune There are however many pec u liarities about the
satellites of Uranus which do not admit of this hypothesis
They move in orbits inclined nearly 8 0 to the planet s orbit
plane so that the di fferences of velocity of the parts of the
orbit of any assumed neb u lar ring or m atter caused by the
di ffe rences of distance of its parts fro m the sun wo u ld be
very small These conditions wo u ld therefore cause the
satelli tes to revol v e at a very slo w rate that is , at about
of
that
observed
We
must
therefore
certainly
look
,
fig
,
for additional causes for which other suggestions may be
O ffered
1 5 7 If discrete matter was formed at the li mits of the
solar nebula , when this was moving at less than orbital
velocity as before supposed , and the early discrete matter
w as formed of the more refractory matter so as to leave the
more attenuated less refractory nebula to form a resistance
to the centralizing condensation of the discrete matter , then
this matter m ight carry the momentum of its former ang u lar
velocity to the i nner denser nebular matter which formed the
s u n at the time , leaving the resid u al matter slowly condensing
at less angular velocity S uch a system would produce a solar
neb ula moving at higher velocity than its peripheral li ghter
outward parts I have endeavo u red to Show in my work upon
Fluids that e very fl u id system in rotation , cyclonic or other,
en genders in the s u rrou nding fluid or m ed ium which o ffer s
resistance to its direct motion an opposite direction of motion
of rotation around its borders B y this action the central
r otating fluid attains a kind of rollin g contact u pon the
,
.
,
,
.
°
’
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
*
.
.
p
188 1,
p 22 4 et seq
.
F
t l R esearch es into th e Prop erties and M oti ons of luids,
‘E x e rim n
e
a
.
’
N OT ES O N T HE NEB ULAR T HE O RY
1 18
.
surrounding more static fluid , which produces by this mode
of rotation the least frictional resistance to the motion , in
what I term friction whirls to the direct flowing system
Upon this principle if the central system in thi s case were
co ndensing the more refractory pneuma into nebula wi th
increase of angular velocity by the e ffects O f gravity then the
surrounding less r efractory pneuma , less motive in the
direction o fthe central system by the resistance of surrounding
matter not moving at equal velocity or possibly in the same
direction , would o ffer a ce r tain amount of resista nce at the
periphery of the central condensation of nebulous matter
This is shown by the lateral form of motion to a current fi g 5
p 44 ; it may possibly be better explained by a diagram
L et one plane of the interstellar space , subject to the superl or
,
-
.
,
,
,
*
.
,
.
,
.
.
Fi g 1 5
.
.
attraction of our sun be represented by the Ci rcumscribing
o u tline N fi g 1 5 along which line the sun s attraction is
assumed to be in equ ation with that of other near stars
L et S be the centre or sun ; and let the central nebula b e
bounded by the circle 0 the arrow near the line showing the
direction of rotation
Then in the Space bounded by N on
one side an d 0 upon the other th e matte r wo ul d be less
motive than that of the central system ; and this w ould
,
’
,
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,
.
,
.
,
N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O RY
120
.
hypothesis it may be suggested that the contact form of
reverse rotation may have been produced in a nebular con
densation having either no rotation or a reverse
being attracted into the sun s nebula S uch a condensation
may have occ u rred in an interspati al position between the
nearly equ al attractions of several Stars , as , for instance ,
’
’
in the po sition out w ards between I) and a or a and b of
fi g 1 1 , p 8 8 If a nebula S O formed drifted by s mall excess
of gravity towards our sun wh en it was in a nebular state
it would enter the frictional system of the borders of the
attenuated solar nebula The inertia of the newly introduced
planetary nebula would resist the rotation of the solar nebula ,
which wo ul d therefore produce a motion of rolling contact in
the meeting plane between the tw o systems as before sug
gested , as the least frictional form of fl u id motion In this
manner a kind of wheel and pinion motion would be induced ,
in which the smaller planetary neb u la would represent the
pinion moving in a reverse direction to the solar nebula
wheel
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12 1
CH A P T E R IX
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C O NS I DERED A s O RD INARY G RAV ITA TI V E MATT ER I N
R O T A TI O N C O NS T R UCTI V ELY AS A PAR T O F T HE P LANE TARY
S YS T E M
CO M E T S
.
If w e can accept the idea of a universal pne u ma
2 3 , and that this pneuma was motive in rotation separating
and condensing into separate systems , § 4 3 , a condition of
original motion in m atter that may not be u nlike that pro
posed in the theory of D escarte s and Faye
then all separate
parts of the system m u st contin u e motive under condensation
to take up the gene ral moment u m of the sys tem
1 6 2 If w e consider the rel a tively small vol ume that wo u ld
be circumscribed by o u r solar nebular syste m if taken to be
in its original nebular state of spheroidal form at a period
when it was circumscribed wi thin the orbit of Neptune as
compared with the mean distance between our sun and the
n earer surro u nding stars , we find what a relatively small space
the orbits of our planets occ u py S o t hat if the original
pne u ma at its earliest period extended to the mean of inter
stellar space abo u t our s u n as s u ggested w e can only imagine
that many millions of local condensations due to exterior
r adiation were formed in exterior parts of the system These
condensations wo u ld afterwards only Slowly drift sunward ,
b u t they would still carry with them the same fa ctors of
original rotative influences and the influence of the attraction
to near surrounding matter , as before disc u ssed 7 0
1 6 3 Therefore , taking the original pneuma system as Shown
16 1
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S ur l O rigine d u M onde, 2 nd edi t
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p 10 1 et seq
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N O T ES O N T HE N EB U LAR T HE O RY
1 22
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in one imaginary plane , fi g 8 A B (p
extending to the
mean distance of our sun and a near star w e can b u t imagine
that at an early period there may have been many millions of
local rotatory systems of m atter condensed to a neb u lar con
dition in a free state which wo u ld be moving from the outer
pneuma system from the positions a b c d sunward by central
attraction W e may gro u p s u ch systems together as comets
16 4 In the above construction we may suppose that the
cometary syste m was the earliest prevailing system of the
outer condensation of matter ; that the comets which were
formed by local condensation to nebul ae were most generally
absorbed into the solar planetary system when this was of
immense vol u me ; so that at a certain period our sola r system
would have appeared if viewed from a great distance as an
i mmense fl occu lar system wherein the exterior cometary
condensation wo u ld appear incandescent from friction and
electrical excitation within the interior nebular condensation ,
a n d from intense chemical action in the condensation of the
pne u ma to nebula These flocculi would be drifting sunward
by the e ffe c ts of their attrac tion and the small resistance of
the surrounding atten u ated pne uma in spiral paths simila r
to the Spiral nebulae 3 1 M , 8 1 M, 5 6 III, 1 6 8 131 &c , as
before proposed
A nother condition that must m ark the for mation of comets
co n sidered as exterior conde nsations of the pneuma system
is that tne directio n of orbits m u st have been influenced by
the gravitational effects of the larger mass con densation
forming at the time upon th e scheme proposed in 83 and
ill u strated by fig 8 , p 5 9 Therefore , comets must have
been forme d in m an y cases in series , from attractions a , b c d
of this figure taking one orbit plane but with varying
ec cen t ricities of orbit depending u pon the amount of ori ginal
tangential imp u lse each comet possessed u pon starting sun
ward as the conditions entail
1 6 5 Upon these principles the comets and come t a ry matter
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N OT E S O N T HE NE B U LA R T HE O RY
1 24
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grea t P rofessor Tait has endeavour ed to p r ove that such
meteorites would be subj ect to su fli cient collisions amon g
themselves to account for the light
but if the meteorites
follow one another in streams, there must be ve ry small
di fferences of velocity between them and if t hey approach
one ano ther assu ming the m widely distributed miles apa rt,
their collisions must be very gentle and produce very little
light, if any O therwise the observations of Mr D ennin g
upon the B iela meteors Show tha t they possess great diffuse
ness of radiation , so that their paths appear to diverge from
an area rather than from a point of the sky , indicati ng inte r
m otion among their separate units
1 6 8 There is another objection to the meteoric swarm
theory which has not been attempted to b e met , or even
suggested that I am aware of, which is , that the separate
units of the comet must under the conditions of this theory ,
necessarily follo w Kepler s third law of orbital motion , that the
s q uares of the members representing the periodic times of the
separate meteorites must vary as the c u bes of their mean dis
tances from the sun Therefore , assumin g any comet to have
a t ail of one million miles in diameter as commonly observed
for the larger comets the velocity O f the ou ter meteori te s of the
swa rm must be very much less than that of the inner ones
Under this condition if the comet were a
n ear er the sun
swa rm and at a certain period from some u nkno w n cause of
the symmetrical form common to comets , as , fo r instance ,
that of H alley or of the great comet of S ept 1 88 2 , or
oth e r P late III k i , j , as the parts of the swarm wo u ld b e
actuated by various velocities it could re tain this form for a
short time only S O that on its ret u rn to perihelion , fo r
instance , it could only be represented at most by a scattered
band of meteorites Spread over a great distance in space tha t
could n eve r again appear as a comet To take a s elf evident
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C OM E T S O E L O NG P ER I O D
12 5
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case of the conditions in question , assume o u r moon at opposi
t ion to take a solar orbital motion without revol u tion around
the earth then it is clear by Kepler s third law that we should
soon leave it behind us in space so that it would become in
time in conj u nctio n with the opposite part of our orbit
Indeed the only condition possible for a meteoric theory in
which a comet can retain a sy mmetrical form is that the
system of meteori tes that form the comet should be in re v olu
tion about the centre of inertia of the system moving in
ellipti c al orbits in the same manner as the comet moves about
the sun and as satellites are in revolution about their planets
This will be more partic u larly considered presently
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The
gene
al
principles
of
16 9 C
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g p
f
directi on of orbit from local condensations at a great distance
from the s u n have b een discu ssed 7 1 We have n ow , there
fore only to consider the probable in termotion of the parts
of such distant condensations as may possibly produce comets
of the symmetrical form we observe in them u pon planetary
conditions and therefore , such as are outwardly, as it appears
to me evidently moving under the direction of symmetrical
orbital law
In the ex tens ive volume of pneuma considered as the
extreme fi eld of comet formation which would be s u bject to
the infl u ence of the near stars almost as much as tha t of our
sun § 7 6 the centralizing infl u ence O f gravitation would
h ave little effect in chan ging the nat ural formation of in
divid u al systems of matter after they were once constituted
Therefore , assuming original motion in the pneuma such
as we have found necessary for the formation of our solar
planetary system, 6 2 , such motion must, as before stated
have extended to all parts of the solar pneuma If any original
isolated system , of large volume in its original state were in
slo w revolution with its parts moving at equ al angular velocity,
then upon its condensatio n to a smaller volume its rotative
velocity would incre as e , as p r evi ously discussed for solar
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O RY
126
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rotation , 1 1 6 This r otation of any part of the system would
be maintained in proj ection sunward and if in free matter
projected from a great distance it would form a comet o f
long period
—
1 7 0 Come ts of s hort p er iod
These possibly depended in
many ins tances for their orbit upon deflection of the matter
of the comets of long period by the influence of planeta ry
attractions A t any early epoch such long period comets,
m oving at high velocities by accumulated gravitatio n in
falling from a distant p art of space , wo ul d fall into the solar
planetary neb u la or into any deta ched z one ring of nebular
matter which may have been present at the t ime moving a t
orbital velocity ro u nd the sun In such a case the motion
of the comet would be retarded by the nebulous matter and
enter into composition wit h the motion of part of the zone
or if not incorporated with it, it would be deflected by it
from its original orbit into a less eccentric orbit Comets of
short period would also be formed upon local disturbance at
any part of a planet forming zone system by a local condensa
tion forming at a distance W ithin the orbi t zone from the
position o f the planet s condensation , whic h w as at the time
beyond that of its prevailing attraction C ome ts so formed
may be termed p la neta ry comets , and bear relation to certain
planets as S atu rn , Jupiter, Mars S hort period comets were
also probably formed by local condensations o u tside the mean
planetary plane at the sam e period as the planets were formed
when the planet s m ass was not the superior attraction wit h
respect to the position of condensation They may also be
formed by the detachment of parts of the tails of long period
comets dist u rbed at perihelion by disruption of the cometary
m atter by heat w hich retarded the revolution velocity of a
part of the system
1 7 1 S y mmetr ica l elemen ts of Comet for ma tion — I have
offered some general arguments for t h e construction and
m otions of local rotative systems formed in space and pro
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N
OT E S O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
a head and forward proj ection of the coma of sym metrical
outline after the manner o f h i j P late III
1 7 3 It has b een fully demonstrated that th e head of a
comet follows a truly elliptic or parabolic orbit ; so that we
have no do u bt that this part of the comet is subject to purely
gravitation a l influences
The di ffi culty presented by these
bodies I s that the tail has not conformed to the conditions
of orbit for the parts of a free system or as it should do
upon the swarm theory This point will n ow be partic u larly
discussed
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The cer
m
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1 7 4 Co e
tainty that the orbits of comets conform to the laws of gravi
This
tation w as clearly laid down by N e w ton as a principle
would lead us to infer that they are composed of quite ordinary
gravitative matter whi ch is again to a certain extent con
firmed by the spectroscope The reason w hy it is thought that
there must be a deviation from this law (by O lbers B essel
J H erschel and othe r s wh o have followed this idea ) is that
during the perihelion passage of the comet , the tail which
must be considered a very material part of the cometary
mass diverg es g reatly fr om the n ormal elliptic or parabolic
orbit
1 7 5 To meet this case , w e h ave bee n asked to assume that
the tail is unlike a ny form of matter with which we are
acquainted that it must be a n tigr a vita tive, or that it become s
S O from some cause at or n ear the perihelion passage of th e
comet It may be suggested that the law of universal gravi
tation is one of the last we should abandon seeing that it has
done such perfect service wherever our knowledge of the
conditions was exact
Further there are other suffi cient
reasons by which we may conclude that there cannot be
repulsion in any part of the comet, as the centre of gravity
of the cometary mass follows constantly in the true orbit
For if a portion of the cometary mass that is the tail cha nged
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so
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un
like other ,
N O T E S O N THE NE B U LA R T HE O RY
13 0
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from the sun, r ecovers its attraction or cohesio n s o as to
re f orm the actual comet afte r perihelion as w e know fro m
actual observation that it does I f we adopt the theo ry of
electrical r epulsion as proposed ori ginally by O lbers and
supported by B essel N orton , Z iillne r B re dichin, and others,
which is n ow most pop ular , this in no way relieve s the
difli cu lty
If the tail is r epelled on approach of the come t
to perihelion , with an in ternal separative fo r ce due to
electricity of one Sign assumed to exceed gravity, it must
necessarily be le ft behind , and can never r egain the orbit
velocity of the head of the comet N ow this is precisely the
opposite of what is requisi te to represent the motion of an
actual comet ; what is r equired is that the comet Shall b e
elongated at pe r iheli on fo r w hich the action of gravitation
alone is sufficient , and that the matter of the tail shall have
i ts velocity of direct projection in cr eased in suc h a manner
that it sh all describe larger arcs at the radii of its separate
parts from the head o f t he comet , to which the head remain s
constantly as a centre during its perihelion passage It has
been suggested that the tail forms a small pa rt of th e
cometary mass and may be re formed from the matter of the
head this is in the highest deg ree improbable , as it is no t
necessary that a comet should even possess any head— fo r
that which represents the he ad is o ften merely the centre of
inertia of the cometary syste m which follows in its orbit
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Cond ition s u n der
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w hich
Comet may b e
a
con s id ered
—
P
n
B
o
d
Taking
the
evidence
of
apparent
con
as a
la eta ry
y
dition s of comets generally , we fi nd them immense vol u me s
of what appears to be nebulou s matt er of somewhat sym
metrical o u tward form Therefore evidently forming sy s tems
of ma tter held together by internal forces w hi ch must in
some way conform to the laws of gravitation and so far
resemble planets We find comets otherwise of very small
density as is evident from their not dist u rbing the orbit of a
planet whilst passing near it T herefore , to account for such
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C O M E T S CONS I DER E D A s P LANETARY B O D I ES
13 1
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immense vol u me and small density in a solitary or planetary
like system, we have in the first place to cons ider the
possibilities of ordinary gravitative matter, which we now
know it to be , being held together symmetrically by a system
of forces wherein the matter i ts elf although this is in a state
of very grea t tenuity remains practica lly an adhesive system
1 7 8 N ow , following the analogy of things known to
acco u nt for an enormo u s di ffusion of matter from or abo u t a
central attraction of gravitation , being eithe r engendered or
maintained in an extensive nebula or planetary like system
s u ch as a comet may b e considered to be ; we have only
t hree known conditions which may so far react upon a
gravitating or cen tr a liz ing force in matter to ins u re this state
’
of difl usion ten uity , or decentralization
1 H ea t for ces may s ep a r a te the p a r ts of a u nit sy s tem of
mat ter to a ny d egr ee of tenu ity
2 E lectr icity of one s ig n
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se
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a r a te
i iy
r ea ter a ct v t
g
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s i mi la r l
a tte n u a te
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3
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the ou twa r d p a r ts o
f
y
to hea t
b u t w ith
T he ta ngentia l a ctio n of the r evolu tion of
a
i
i
r a v ta t ve s
g
y
m a bou t a cen tr e or focu s
s te
may sep a r a te these p ar ts p r op or tion a lly to their ve locities
d is ta nces
f om the cent e
r
r
a nd
i g to t he la w of or bit to a ny
a ccord n
If we consider the probabili ty of the one or other of these
forces being entirely or principally active in a cometar y
system we find , with regard to the first tha t to maintain a
degree of hea t su ffi cient to diffu se grav ita tive matter in a
nebular form to such extreme tenuity as we witness in comets
we m u st assume great intensity of this heat even if we
assume the central attraction small Fu rther , for this hea t
to act as a sep a ra tive force w e must assume a permanent
a s eou s s ta te
as
heated
solids
co
u
ld
not
repel
one
another
g
,
to prod u ce the observed volume Then again , if w e assume
th e heat present t o be su fficient to acco u nt for the extreme
di ffu sion necessary to produce the known ten uity , still w e
have the diffi culty present that this heat will be subj ect to
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N OT ES O N T HE NE B U LA R T HE O R Y
13 2
.
onstan t r adiation in space from all ex terior parts of the
and t herefore the comet be s u bject to a constant
s ystem
loss of the d ecentr a liz in g force which alone in this case could
support its tenuity A s w e know that the larger comets p a ss
to very distant regions , where little heat can be derived from
the s u n we can scarcely imagine that heat su fficient to
maintain the enormous diffu sion of matter w e observe can be
su ffi ciently conserved in their entire systems under the
excessive amount of radiation they m u st experience in the
clear cold regions of space S o that we must conceive that
if the cometary state depended upon a force s ubject to s u ch
radiation gravitation being constantly active within the
system would within a moderate period reduce the comet to
meteoric matter, which , owing to its reduced dimensions as
solid matter , woul d after a period r emain in this state and
become invisible to u s , unless projected very near the earth
179
F urther , if we assume the comet to be entirely
gaseous matter w e can scarcely imagine a degree of internal
heat in the system su ffi cient to r ender this that is the hydro
carbon portion o f it , Visible , neither can gaseous matter
reflect the solar r ays Therefore , upon the whole w e are led
to consider the gaseous condition as highly improbable to
account for the observed tenuity and at the same time the
illumination of the whole comet as a Visible body O n the
other hand it d oe s not appear improbable , with respect to
certain comets , that s u fli cie nt heat is maintained in the
n u cleus (in some cases , perhaps from passing very near the
s u n ) to render this Visible in itself and s u fli cie ntly so also to
illuminate the surrounding matter o f the comet and tail to
some extent within a certain distance from the sun
It is not necess a ry even to consider the nucleus a solid or
liquid body It may be a rotation system composed of many
parts reflecting light and yet transparent thro u gh the ex tent
of the interspaces
1 8 0 The conditions under w h ich electricity of one Sign
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N OT E S O N THE N E B U LAR T HE O RY
134
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lso may any of the outward parts of a comet , how ever small ,
revolve F urther , if this motive system is assumed for the
comet we have the initial ene rgy in the system conse rved as
there is n o loss as with h eat r adiation unless w e imagine
resistance by a surrounding medium of which w e have no
evidence from other plane tary o r cometary phenomena
1 8 2 If w e admit the conditions first s u gges te d as regards
heat or electricity to be in a certain de gr ee active by this
the nucleus of a comet may probably be heated or electri fi ed
liquid or solid matter in unit mass or compounded of many
meteorites surrounded by a gaseous envelope , although this
heat can scarce ly be imagined to be sufficient to mainta in
the larg e out w ard cometary mass of the tenuity observed
N evertheless the n ucle u s would partly illuminate s u ch
exterior parts a s I have suggested are in revolution abo u t it ,
but in this we have clearly the necessity that such parts to
be visible Should be s o lid or liq u id matter and not gaseous
Under this condition also the sun wo u ld illuminate the entire
system
In comets that pass very nea r to the sun it is presumable
that thro u g h the great he at they receive near perihelion , any
ordinary matter with which we are acquainted , and which
might form part of the complete co met would be reduced at
the time to vapour or gas in some cases possibly by explosion
This being the case , about perihelion by radiation of heat
received into space from the gaseous outward parts con
d e n satio ns may occ u r in these parts abo u t separate centres
again developing heat and electricity The units of conde n
sation may for m sph e ricle s under the same conditions as
clouds are formed in the earth system These would appear
in mass as cloud and in this state wo u ld traverse the orbit
of the cometa ry system forming parts of the coma and tail
If the head of the comet was in rotation the condensed units
w ould be in revolution at any extended position therefrom
N ow , as r egards th e m ag nitude of each solid separa te part
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C O M E T S C O NS I DE RED AS P LANE TA R Y B O D I ES
13 5
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or particle n ow suggested as an out w ard revolving part of
the cometary sys tem this may be as small as we like to
conceive it assuming its mass s u ffi cient to reflect a ray of
Fo r the existence o f s u ch minute cometary
white light
matter we may possibly find some analogy in the system of
small m eteors w hich revolve in elliptic orbits about the sola r
focu s and which are sometimes brought within the attractive
distance of the earth evidence of which is fu rther given by the
cos mic dust dis covered in snow by P rof N ordenski b ld
18 3 A for m of particle which may be probable as a result
of uniform condensations is that of a smooth b right metallic
or Vitreous sphere , which is covered with a permanent gaseous
condensation , O f hydrogen or a light hydrocarbon which
under the sun s influence may produce a gaseous envelope in
the same manner as the earth is surrounded by its atmosphere
The refraction of the gas intensifi es the s u n s heat and light
upon it R efraction and reflection will carry over pa rt of the
light to other s u ch globes at greater distance from the sun
F u rther , when the comet is su ffi ciently near the sun for its
h e at to render the gas , if hydrocarbon incandescent in th e
pu r ely isolated state , the comet may possibly be come self
lumino u s
The change of state from the solid or liquid to th e gaseous
will also develop electrical conditions which may render its
matter temporarily luminous w h en approaching the sun or
receding fro m it by the e ffect o f after cond e nsation
1 8 4 If the exterior cometary matter in separate particles ,
as proposed is in rapid revol u tion in v ery elongated e llipti cal
orbit round the nucle u s of the comet which I assume is
necessary to maintain the extent o f what we may t erm the
cometary vol u me o f th e ten u i ty O bserved , then this revolving
matter may be projected in elliptic or bits ei ther as separate
particles (sa tellites ) or more probably in accu mulatio ns o r
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‘V o a e of h e
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V ega
N OT ES O N T HE NE BU LAR T HE O RY
13 6
.
series in one or more connected gravitative systems in the
fo r m of more or less perfect rings or bands , the orbits of
which , about the head of the comet may c u t the solar
cometary plane at all angles I will n ow endeavour to trace
diagramm atically what would be the action of s u ch a syste m
w hilst moving in an elliptic orbit round the sun
1 8 5 Comet ta i ls — T r a ins — Under the gravitative con
dition s proposed , the word ta il will be entirely a misnomer ,
as the matter which forms the tail of the exterior parts in
revoluti on about the n u cleus is assu med to change positio n
and become at another time part of the head I will call the
revolving parts of the head the p er icoma , and the extreme
of the tail the ap ocoma F or the entire comet except the
nucle u s , I will use the wo rd tr ain, which has been someti mes
employed before
1 8 6 F ollowing the conditions proposed , that the comet is
made up of separate parts moving closely together in rapid
revolution around the n u cle u s , we must then assume by the
la w s of gravitation , that the centre of gravity of the mass
held by m u tual attractions will be constrained to follow an
elliptic path for its orbit B ut the separate parts of the
system which together form the tr a in may describe elliptic
curves about their common ce ntre of gra vity tha t is the n u cleu s ,
modified by their mu tu a l a ttr a ction s to ea ch o ther , in com bina tion
This may be taken in detail
with the a ttr a ction of the s u n
1 8 7 E longa ti on of the en tir e Come ta ry M a s s n ea r P er i
—
N o w , as regards th e proper motion of the syste m of
he lion
the co m et constituted as suggested , w e may consider that the
velocities of its separate o u tward parts , as of all planeta ry
systems including satellites , are such that the areas described
by the radii vectores are proportional to the times— that is ,
in relation to their own focus and so far as this system is
undisturbed by other attractions F u rther we kno w nothing
in astronomy of resistance by a surro u nding mediu m there
fore , however small we assume the exterior s eparate parts
,
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N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LAR T H E O RY
138
.
particle b a central particle and c a following particle
Then will the velocity of a b e greater than that of b at the
period of approach towards the nucleus , and b greater than c
proportionally to th e lengths of curve describe d by their radii
,
,
.
Fi g 16
.
.
vectores in unit of time ; so that as th e come t approaches
the sun its mass system o r volume will be elongated in
space in proportion to the excess of attraction to its forward
parts by acceleration of gravity over its foll ow ing parts A nd
under these conditions the greater the ecc entricity of the
orbit , that is the greater the accelerat ion at perihelion , the
greater the length of the trai n of the comet S o that the
out w ard form of the comet w ould in degree , so far as prese nt
conditions are considered resemble i t s own orbit i n form
1 8 9 Under the above conditions we may observe that
in considering the cometary mass as n ot
u pon the whole
being in revolution , all the parts in any plane would follow
each other in elliptic orbits about the sun and although the
tail or following part would constantly increase in length in
approaching th e sun , it wo ul d not d iverge from the s u n in
passing near it , or the separate parts move out of thei r s eparate
solar orbits as gravitation units Therefore there must be
present as generally admitted othe r conditions t o account
for the divergence whi c h is universally observed In this
proposition it is ass u med that it is possi b le for the outer parts
of the comet at greate r dis tance from the sun t o possess
the same orbital velocity as the in ne r part s movi ng nea rer
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,
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,
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,
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O RB IT S or OUT WARD PAR T S O F A C O M ET
13 9
.
to it, so that the fi gu re of the comet may be conse rved as
erroneo u sly assumed by othe rs in the discussi on of the S warm
theory, in opposi t ion to Kepler s third law
1 9 0 O r b its of the ou tw a r d p a r ts of a Come t
F o ca l
P oin t — W e may n o w follow the c onditions just propose d
and assu me that the comet resem b les a planet s u rrounded by
a co n nected revolving system of m a tter equ ivalent to a system
of satellites or to S at u rn s rings this revolving matter being
meteorites d u st or neb ulo u s matter and that the revolving
mass ( which I have denominated the train ) will not only be
sensitive to the attractions of its own parts and its nucleus or
the centre of inertia of the system b u t also to the attraction of
the sun at the same time Then , as the sun s attraction will
not be linea r w ith the m aj or a xis of the come t s ma s s in its
assumed elongated form , the outward p a rts of the train
which are projected forward of the nucleus d u ring their
r otation will be accelerated and be drawn towards the sun
and if the motive direction of these is inwards towards the
s u n as it will be in the exterior part in revolution in the
solar cometary plane about the nucle u s these will be d r a wn
to w a r ds the n u cleu s a ls o ; and in the smaller arc thereby
induced by increased attraction will have their velocity
accelerated (Kepler s second law ) In this manner although
the matter of the train will be elongated in space by the
di fferences of velocity of its parts in passing over separate
portions of the curve described by its radii vectores still the
nucle u s of the system will maintai n a positio n at the for w ard
focus of the o rbit of the train , and parts of the train will be
induced to move in an orbit round its nucleus or the centre
O f gravity of the system
which will closely resemble that
of the su perior orbit of the entire come t in moving round
t he sun
This matte r may be better conceived by reference to the
diagram fi g 17 L et S be the sun , C the n u cleus of the
c omet , a a pa rticle movi ng in its orbit in the s olar cometary
,
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-
N OT ES O N T HE NE B U LA R T HE O RY
1 40
.
plane , sh own by an elliptical outline D raw a line th rough
the centre of the s u n and through the nucleus of the comet
to represent the linear direction of
on
.
,
Fi g 1 7
.
.
shown b v the outline Then will the combined
of the sun and the nucleus exert greater attraction upon a
particle in this position a a s the comet approaches ne arer
the s u n than was exerted upon it at the same position of
the orbit by the n u cleus only , and s u ch attraction will cause
the particle to move faster and nearer to the nucleus , o r
inwards in a direction from a towards the point a
In such
a position its forward radii vectores in relation to the comet s
centre of inertia will be closed and its v elocity increased
proportionately to the lengths of curve now described by its
smaller radii vectores It will th us also m a in ta in the n u cleu s
a t i ts fo ca l
altho
u
gh
the
cometary
oin t within the comet
p
mass be elongated by th e increased velocity of its forward
parts at pe ric oma as Shown above
1 9 1 D ir ection of the Com eta ry T r a in in R e la tion to the
S u n — B y the above conditions it w ill be seen that the
separate particles of the train of the comet will be actuated
by forces which wil l be the resultants of the combined
attractions of the sun and those of their own proper nucleus ,
the pericoma of the train , if this p rinciple is admitted , moving
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N O T E S O N T H E NE B U LA R TH E O R Y
14 2
.
be mutually attrac ted in s eries in the same directi o n There
fore the particle d , fi g 1 8 , will be both accelerated and be
drawn at the same time towar ds its nucleus C, an d by the
c u rve of its smaller radius vecto r it will pass neare r the nucleus
with greatly accelerated speed
1 93 N ow , as regar ds the attraction of its nucleus an d the
velocity engendered in particles moving about it by the
attraction the velocity would be m aintained , varyi ng only
in inverse proportion to the squares of lengt h O f its radii
vectores onwards to e bu t from d to e the sun s attraction
wo u ld s till dra w the p a r ticles towa r d s the come tary n u cleu s ,
so that throughout perihelion passage the curvature would
be in a certain degree mainta ined as at perihelion , directin g
the particles of the train thereby towards the point a The
apparent e ffects of this will be that the whole mass of the
train considered as an elliptic mass in revoluti on will be as
it were pulled forward in the direction of its rotation , and
whirled round in space s o tha t the p os ition of the s u n s centr e
.
.
,
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.
,
-
’
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,
,
’
con s ta n tly
m ay be m a in ta in ed
line a r
w ith the
the tr a in tha t p a s s
lea s t
diu s
ra
and
f
f
the whole train of the comet although describing an e llips o
epicycloidal curve , w ill be as far a s possible constantly
symmetrical about the nucleus the orbit of the train thereby
ch anging to make this possible fro m the positions Z Y to
”
”
’
’
Z Y Y Z when the nucleus of the comet arrives at positi ons
’
"
C C and C
Under the above stated conditions the r evolving matter
of a comet passing its perihelion will possess much greater
absolute velocity than the centre of gravity of the comet
Therefore a comet may pass very near the s u n s s u rface with
momentum too great from this self rotatory velocity for its
matter to be materially disturbed by slight resistance of
attenuated matter, if s u ch exists about the s u n
1 9 4 Wide n ing a nd Cu r va tu r e of the T r a in by cros s ing
0 r b its —O ne other point to be considered un der the co nditions
vector
o
the p a r ts
o
n ea r e s t
to
it,
,
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-
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’
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.
W I DEN IN G or T HE T R AIN B Y CR O SS IN G O R B IT S
‘
14 3
.
given above is that the newly placed pe ricoma at every
change of position in relati on to the cometary nucleus as it
becomes directed towards the s u n will infl u ence the parts of
the t rain only in proportion as they are accelerated There
fore , the parts of the nucleus which have just passed the
r ic o ma will have the a ccelerative force due to the sun fully
e
p
impressed upon them whereas the parts arriving there will
not be S o fully impressed but will retain a part of the force
due to their initial velocity in relation to the previous position
to the n u cl e us at the la st time they passed between it and
the s u n Therefore the following parts will not maintain
q uite a symmetrical position with respect to their future
ri co m a but wi ll la
e
i
behind
this
posit
on
so
that
the
general
,
p
g
path of proj ection of the train will be constantly of greater
curvature upon the exterior of the orbit than in the par ts
nearer to the sun
1 9 5 If the matter in r evolution about the cometary n u cleus
revolve in different periods according to Kepler s third law ,
as the planetar y matter about the sun does , then the orbits
,
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,
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,
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’
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Fig 19
.
.
of the parts of lea st period of revolution , which will be nearer
to the nucle u s will appear to lag less than the outward
parts of longer revol u tion perio d about the nucleus so that
,
,
OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O R Y
1 44
N
.
by this means a crossing of orbit will occur producing eith e r
a w idening or Op ening of the ta il Under these conditions
also possible collisions may occur , producing complic ated
e ffects impossible to follow here
F ig 1 9 represents the
normal conditions in the solar cometary plane whe r e the
crossing orbits are assumed to be conserved
1 9 6 L et S be the sun C the cometary nucleus , d r ep r esent
the orbit of a particle of early revolution , e th e orbit of a
particle of later period A fter perihelion of the entire comet
in rel ation to the s u n this system of forces, by the changed
dispositions of attractions , will act inversely
1 9 7 F or ma tion of a n ew H ea d or P er i cep ha liq n a bou t
—
s
o
P
a
t
o
m
e
t
Unde
r
the
above
con
itions
l
i
o
n
a
s
e
h
e
C
P er ihe
d
g f
,
independently of the complication of motion o f cometary
matter moving in orbits not in the sola r cometary plane the
conditions of which have not been separately considered ,
i ncidental phenomena must occur which will more or less
—
A s the sun causes
d isturb the general conditions thus
acceleration to the parts of the train in approximating thei r
and
retardation
to
these
e ri co ma in relation to the head
p
parts in leaving it the m atter of the train will be more con
de n s e d round the head in the point of pe ricoma of the system
and thus form incipiently a n e w hea d, which will react by its
gravity as a secondary o r false focus , an d in its turn , by
maintaining the centre of gravity in the come tary orbit will
tend to dist u rb the position of original matter that formed
the original focus A t the same time , if the comet passes
very near th e s u n , the head by th e great heat it receives ,
will be expanded or even exploded so that it may become a
less dense mass ; or even n e w heads may be again formed
forward of this with a general relative disturbance of the
internal gravitation in the parts of the cometary system, the
conditions of which are too di fficult to follow
1 9 8 It is a t this point where , a s pericomi c matter increases
in density a t the head of th e comet, and heat force s , and
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1 46
NO
T E S O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O RY
.
illuminat ed by the heat o r electrical excitation engendered
through constant collisions , also by the heat of the n u cleus ,
and by that of the sun on the side turned towards it There
fore the light we receive by reflection will be proportional to
the amount of ill u minated surface of the revolvi ng particle s
visible to u s, and the direct light that of incandescence In
this manner the nucleus itself may become invisible or dimmed
by eclipse of revolving incandescent matter about it O n
the other hand the light received directly from the nucleus
will be proportional to the O pen Spaces only between the
outer revolving parts crossing the fi eld of light F rom these
causes it is possible that some of the most remarkable appear
a n ce s of projection of cometary matter suddenly from the
nucleus through immense distances may be m erely the
lighting of the distant parts of the train of cometa ry matter
thro u gh interspaces of the central system upon dispersed
matter which , although present , w as previously invisible
t o us
2 0 1 The matter of some comets , of which E ncke s is
perhaps one m ay be a carbon hydrogen compound , which in
the distance of space , as at aphelion , may be condensed to
particles of solid matter , but in n earing perihelion may be
a gain converted into gas by the heat of the s u n with develop
ment of incandescence through electric excitation Sufficient
to render it visible This m atter may again con dense i n
passing towards aphelion the orbit position of the separate
units of the system remaining the same with the electrical
—
e ffects of change of State the apparent o u tward v isible
v olume of the comet varying according to the conditions
observed
.
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[
]
14 7
C HA P TE R X
.
—
TH E EAR T H
CO NS I DERED IN E VI DEN C E O F F O R M ER NE B U LA R
—
IT S I N T ERNAL FL UI D IT Y — T I DAL FR IC
C O ND ITI O NS
—
TI O N CHANGE O F FI G U RE D U E T o RO TA TI O N
.
.
.
.
may be c onsidered as a model planet
whereon we are able to observe the evidences of exterior
conditions which are d ue to phenomena that have acted u pon
it to prod u ce its present form a nd constitution In this study
we may possi b ly approach the conditions which also ruled
i n the formation O f all the dense planets interior to Jupiter ,
of which we can possibly obtain no further evidence of stru c
ture than that apparent upon the s u r face of Mars and the
m oon
2 03 To assure o u r premisses for earth struct u re it will be
convenient briefly to recapitul ate some general propositions
that have been a lready discu ssed which we may possibly
accept as data for certain factors of early formation The
most important of these are — 1 That the sol a r planetary
syste m during condensation possessed more or less nebular
matter projected abou t its equatorial zone as represented
diagrammatically by the discoid for m in fig 9 p 6 7 2 Tha t
the ten u ity O f the planet form ing syste m interior to Mars
upon the condensation of the sun s vol u me , w as too great to
support the nebulous concrete state at a period when the
exterior solar neb u la was falling below its critical te mperat u re
S o that within the orbit of Mars local separate con
d e nsations we r e formed a t first of the more refractory matters
L2
202
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T he E a r th
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N O T ES O N THE NEB U LAR T HE O R Y
1 48
.
widely exterior to the earth s orbit 3 Tha t at the early
period when the intra Mars local condensations were fo rming
th e earth s nebula w a s still attached to the sun 14 6 ) 4 That
the exterior local condensations of matter at an early period
were drifting s u n w ard into the earth s nebula and towards its
orbit position in moving u nder the resistance of the s u rround
ing less refractory nebulo u s m atter S o that the earth during
its form ation at no time extended in an entirely u ncondensed
n ebular form so far as the orbit of Mars
5 That the
earth s formation being partly but not entirely d u e to the
condensation of gaseous matter as assumed herein o f the
planets J u piter and S at u rn a denser system w as prod u ced
2 04
Under the above stated conditions we have the
suggestion of tw o large factors of earth form a tion — An
interior nebular system about the earth s orbit of p u rely
gaseo u s elements , which were sinking a t the period of forma
tion to a critical point of temperatu re and impressing their
virtual momentu m upon the e a rth in the direction of its
r otation u pon principles already disc u ssed 1 2 8 , and an
exterior condensation system of meteorites or planetoids w hich
were projected into the earth s nebula These as bodies
moving in nearly free orbits that is u nder slight resistance
of the resid u al neb u lous matter, dri fted into the earth s nebula
in spiral O rbits that upon contact with the t h en forming earth
may have produced e ffects which continue to be e vi dent
upon its s u rfa ce
It is necess ary in this matter to insist upon the con
tinu an ce of neb u lar conditions d u ring the greater part of the
period o f the form ation of the m a ss of the earth a s s u ch con
dition s alone co u ld have prod u ced its present direction of
rotation as it w a s shown originally by D escartes a n d Laplace
and with equal clearness by M Faye
that if
it were formed from an entirely discrete system of matter
moving in free orbits its direction of rotation would be the
r everse of what it is
’
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N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O RY
1 50
.
upon these conditions , evidences of a highly heated liquid
interior
If the planetoids , large or small produced
2 0 7 S econ dly
by the condensation of matter exterior to the earth s neb u la were
incorporated therewith when the earth became a liqu id planet
t hen s u ch matter within or u pon the earth s surface might pos
P
articularly
such
planetoids
s ib l remain geologically evident
y
as may have drifted to the earth s surface when all the denser
matters of its neb u la were condensed Under the se conditions
it remains probable that some land areas of the earth may
Sho w evidences of this discrete form of condensation These
conditions are so far act u al that we have still planetoids , that
is , meteoric matter falling to the earth
2 0 8 The nebular conditions which upon the theory herei n
proposed would have been constantly active at an early
eriod
of
earth
f
ormation
require
consideration
n detail
i
p
Th ey will therefore be deferred to another chapter wit h the
exception of the arg u ment upon which they must be Supported
o f the entire internal fluidity of the earth This als o is
necessary for the consideration of the effects of later discrete
projections u pon the eart h to be discussed in the following
chapter as I suggest that these discrete proj ections were
coincident with nebular condensation and may remain at
present evident in land formation
—
l
l
t
This could not be
2 0 9 T he I n ter n a F u id i y of the E a r th
questioned for a moment i f the evidences of observation were
alone considered , but in th e contempora ry science of any
period w e have generally in popular learning a tendency to
depart from concrete observations directed to consider some
hypothesis or isolated fact which is elevated to predominance
abov e all the natural conclusions of otherwise uni versal
observations I remember , when a cool sun was the prevail
ing theory , arguing with a professor that the intense heat o f
that body was manifest in many ways H is reply w as that
that was nothin g to the pu rp ose if th e sola r spots we r e found
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T HE I NT ERNAL FL UI D IT Y O F T HE EAR T H
1 51
.
’
to be hollow places or cavities in the s un s surface as they
were dark they must be cool and science m u st take account
of every phenomenon If experience teaches u s anything it
is that theories cha nge with every phase of science so that
our sa fety if w e are seeking truth lies in taki ng the mean
evi dence of all rel ativ e phenomena not of any single pheno
menon which w e may or may not perfectly comprehend
The most i m portant evidence of the former nebular
con dition of the earth besides its direction of rotation is to
be fo u nd in its interior condition ; for it is certain as just
stated that the matter whi ch forms the earth if it pre
v iou s l
existed
in
a
gaseous
or
vapouro
u
s
state
must
have
y
been c ondensed from this state to a liquid with great
development of heat The density of the syste m also cle arly
indicates that the inter na l matter if at a high temperatu re
is most probably meta llic N ow as it is the p r operty of
metals to al loy and also to conduct heat it is in the highest
degree improbable as sometimes s u pposed that any part of a
u niform sy stem of condensation as that of the earth co u ld
b e for ages intensely heated in some interi or parts and cool
or solid in other parts It therefore becomes a rat ional con
dition of the nebular hypothesis that the interior of the earth
was or is in a highly heated uniformly liqu id condition
2 10 If the e a rth at an early period condensed refractory
metallic matter to form an inte n sely he a ted globe while this
w a s surrounded by less refractory matter and partic u larly by
oxy gen , ne a r the surface then the globe would be formed
m ainly of the refractory matter and be covered with the
oxidized matter U pon its fu rther condensation The oxidized
matter m u st necessarily have rested u pon and o u twardly
covered the metallic m atter so that possibly at a very early
stage of condens ation there w as a metallic uniformly heated
globe covered with a coating of non conducting oxidi z ed
matter as we fi nd it at present although t his coating at an
early period wo uld be very much thinner than it is now
.
,
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1 52
N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
AS the
earth cooled the coating must have increased b y
condensation and protected the earth more and more from
radiation of internal heat until it w a s possible for water to
rest u pon the earth ; so that the heat of the interior must have
been protected by non conducting material highly heated
from chemical combination in such a manne r that it could
only very Slowly radiate its heat into space
Is the inte
2 11 We now arrive at an important point
rior of the earth fl u id " F rom mathematical physics alone
in the accepted theory of the tides L ord Kelvin o u r greatest
authority , says that it is solid , or the tides would not present
the great variation of height of sur face which w e witness This
m atter is repeated with a u thority in the recent compilations
of L ord Kelvin s works
There is one point of this theory
at least which astronomers ought to be able to solve L ord
Kelvin shows that the necessary result of tidal friction is
that the earth s rotation must be decreased by a total value
of twenty tw o seconds in a cent u ry ; and the establishment of
this as a fact might tend to prove the certainty of the e ffects
of tidal friction upon the earth , and at the sa me time possibly,
if we had no other direct observations to consider , of the earth s
solidity If we depart from physical theory and follow the
evidences of astronomy by observation , wherein the data are
results of experience not liable to receive m u ch correction
from change of theory we have undo u bted au thority from
observation that the rotation period of the earth considering
the moon and Mercury particularly as time keepers , has no t
decreased b y a Single second in a thousand years
2 1 2 If we follow the evidences of geology founded upon
observation th e solidity of the interior of the earth appears
to be quite impossible u nless w e assume an unknown fo rm of
which
does
not
become
fluid
at
a
high
temperatu
e
r
matter
We need only cite a few instances to Show the improbability
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it
P rof O J L o dge
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R e vi ew in N atu re
’
,
J ul y 2 6 , 1 8 9 4
.
N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
1 54
.
is derived from t he uni formly h eated state o f the central
matter of the globe
2 1 3 The evidence of the thermometer , w hic h shows that
there is a general increase of temperatu re with depth of abo u t
1 Fahr for every 6 0 feet where freedom from the infl u ence
of percolated water permits this measureme nt to be made
°
gives an increase of t emperature o f 8 8 per mile so that at
about 2 00 miles we sho uld have at this rate a te mperature
of
which no known body could bear while reta ining
a rigid state It is not , however, necessary to consider a
constant increase of heat if the central volume is metallic , as
herein proposed for a good heat conductor wo u ld distrib u te
h eat equally in the interior The followin g suggestions may
be o ffered as regards the in t ernal liquidi t y of the earth
.
.
°
.
,
,
,
,
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Fi g 2 1
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F ig 2 0
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Is the assumption of the solidity of the eart h n ece s
sary to account for tidal action " H aving devoted some years
to the consideration of motion in fluids I find that the mobility
of liquids depends greatly upon the freedom of surface, which
adapts it to O ffer certain fo r ms of accommodatio n for motio n
2 14
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T HE INT ERNAL FL UI D IT Y O F T HE EA R T H
1 55
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for which time is required S o that a dense liquid held in
equilibriu m by surro unding pressures s u ch as we may
i magine the interior of the earth to be , o ffers considerable
resistance to deformation through molecular friction in
moving from a state of relat ive rest u ntil certain forms of
accommodation c an b e bro u ght about which are nearly im
possible i n a close sys tem In fi ring an E nfi eld rifle bullet
directly u pon the s u rface of water the point of the bullet does
not pier ce the water, but the water pierces the bullet and
reduces it to a thin conical shell
Fig 2 0 sho w s a full
size section of the bullet Fig 2 1 was taken directly from
this bullet fi red from an E nfield rifle normal to the surface of
water thro u gh a thin piece of bladder in the end of a deep tank
The point of the b u llet w as painted red , and left to dry
The colour upon the point was fo u nd spread out to the ex
treme circumference where it formed a curled u p edge as
shown in the fi gure a a a The centre of the fi gure Shows
the pressed out diaphragm of the b ullet, which was reflected
from the surface of the water so that it forms no part of the
scheme
The velocity of the earth s surface at its equator is much
greater than that of the bullet ; therefore w e have to consider
accommodation in the waters of the ocean and of the liqu id
interior for displacement in relation to time in order that it
may possess a certain form of possible motion of a ccommoda
tion This presents a di ffic u lt problem the factors of which
are for the greater part quite unknown
If, on the other
hand the deformation under the moon s attraction is considered
to depend u pon the elasticity of the system then a solid is quite
as elastic as a dense liquid under great compression , so that
neither solidity nor liquidity could be inferred from this
cause G old or steel in a solid state is much more yielding
unde r pressure in con fi ned space than wa ter, as is proved i n
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N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O RY
15 6
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the coining of metals , in contradistinction to the compression
of water in the hydraulic press
2 1 5 Judging from the constitution of meteoric matter
that has fa llen u pon the earth , assuming cosmic matter in a
certain degree general the centre of the globe wo u ld b e
largely c o m posed of nickelifero u s iron
A s regards this
m atter we have not been able to p roduce any temperature in
our fu rnaces high e n ough to melt it, so that assu ming this
formed the larger part of the interior of the e arth upon which
the surface ro cks rest the white heat of volcanic matter as it
issues from the s u rfa ce of the earth taken as an index of the
interior tempera ture would only be s u fficient to raise p u re
iron or nickelifero u s iron to a stiff plastic State , as iron in
forgi n g offers very great resista n ce to change of form u nder
great s u rrounding pressure
2 1 6 It is certain that the earth s rotation upon its axis is
co mbined w ith that of the rotation about the centre O f inertia
of the earth and m oon therefore there m u st be a swing in
th e free s u rface of the ocean due to its pl u s and min u s daily
a n d mon thly rotation velo city in rela tion to its position with
respect to the m oon , which must prod u ce tidal action in the
free s u rface water B u t h ow far this plus momentum in one
part is c ompe n sated by the min u s momentum in another m ay
be a di fficult problem to solve O n e m u st, however, feel in
this , as in other instances with which history furnishes u s that
in the intent o b servations and calc ulations of certain a ctions
we are liable to lose sight of the reactions that are not super
fi cially evident or may be u nknown
S o th at i t becomes a
q u estion whether the motions within and abo u t the earth
moving in its orbit in frictionless space seriously affect its
general momentum of rotation taken in a wide astronomical
sense so that w e m a y infer its internal condition therefrom
Certainly t aking the matter in its entirety w e cannot suppose
it to deviate greatly from N ewton s Third L aw Cor iv : The
common centre of gravity of tw o or more bodies does not
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N O TES O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O R Y
1 58
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Cha nge of Figur e of the E a r th d ue to R ota tion veloci ty
If there are suffi cient scienti fi c data to assume that our pre
sent day is longer than forme rly , of which there appears to
be a probability only within very narrow limits , then this , so
far as concerns the present investigation , points to the co
e l u sion that the mean symmetrical figure of the early earth
as a Spheroid of revolution must have been changed b y this
condition and have been at the time of g reate r rotation l
velocity more oblate Upo n the nebular condition just dis
c u sse d, the difference could not have been great The effects
of contraction of the equator under decrease of velocity, i f
we may take it at the extreme value accepted by some
scientists , was ably discu ssed in a paper read by Mr Wm
B Taylor before the P hilosophical S ociety of Washington ,
May 3 , 1 8 8 5
2 1 9 Mr Taylor takes the very extreme condition proposed
by P rof G H D ar w in of a rotation period of six hours , which
must have produced an elevat ion of land at the equator one
tenth greater than at present, assu ming the earth to have been
a true spheroid of revol u tion H e fi nds that this would make
the equatorial radius 43 59 miles and the polar radi u s 3 2 9 1
miles only The pole would he therefore 6 58 miles nearer the
centre and the equ ato r ial protuberance 3 9 6 miles higher than at
present Mr T aylor suggests that this w ould acco u nt for all
the cru m pli n g an d inclination o f strata and the elevation of
mo u ntain chai n s It is v ery doubtful whether it wo u ld do
so ; the mean inclination of strata at all depths is probably
not less than
and this could not be prod u ced even with
one tenth the equatorial contraction , supposing the inclina
tion in the past const a ntly increa sed instead of oscillating
locally u p and down d u ring all geological time , w hich mu st
have been the case from local volcanic disturbance that is quite
evident in extreme cases by some strata bei n g quite over
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A meri can Jou rn al of Sci ence, 3rd s eri es, v ol xx x p 2 49
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C HAN G E O F F I GUR E O F T HE EAR T H
1 59
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thrown and inverted Nevertheless it may be much more a
ver a ca u s a tha n the contraction theory of the late R obert
Mallet It may have been a cause of elevation of land in
the tropics as an early condition b u t it m u st have been
m aterially modified by the condensation of nebul ar mat te r
at the poles which I shall propose fu rther on
2 2 0 The e ffects o f the rate of rotation of the earth upon
its oblatenes s app ear to have been first s u ggested by the
Re v O Fisher , and carefu lly considered ; but he regards the m
‘
as very slight
In his interesting work on the P hysics
of the E arth s Crust he s ays
The friction of the tides
whether oceanic or bodily must necessarily have diminished
the rotational velocity and lessened the oblateness The p a rts
of the crust about the poles wil l have been s u bj ected to
stretching and those of the equator to compression There is ,
however no apparent reason immediately tO connect the
inequ alities with this cause , for the continents do not occupy
an equ atorial belt as they wo u ld do under this hypothesis ,
nor have the polar regions been free from the compression
which all continental areas have experienced
This fact
appears to me to be a sound objection to the whole hypothesis
of a former rapid rota tion of the earth, seeing that the know n
geological evidences of early stratification are directly opposed
to it
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Ph ys ics of th e Earth s Crus t, C h ap xiv p 1 8 3
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1 60
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C HA P TE R XI
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S U G GES T ED S U P ERFICIAL C O ND ITI O NS O F T HE F O R M A TIO N O F
T HE E AR T H, PAR TICU LARLY T H O SE D U E T o D I S C RE T E
C O NDENSA TI O NS WH IC H M AY HA V E BEEN F O R ME D PR IN CI
PALLY BE T W EEN T HE E AR T H S O R I G I NAL NEB U LA Z O NE
AND T HE O RB IT O F T HE P LANE T MARS
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i nto the E a r th s S u rfa ce —In this chapter it will be convenient ,
221
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in order to simplify the subject to take the conditions which
were proposed s econd ly 2 0 7 ) of the factor of earth formation
from pla netoid m atter deferring the more importa nt con
sideration of neb ular formation until the next chapter The
fall of m eteoric or planetoid matter which may have been
for m ed originally by condensation in a part of the space
interval between the earth s original nebula zone and Mars
will be now considered
2 2 2 A ssuming the discoidal system of our sun s nebula
shown in fi g 10 p 8 5 we should have between the earth and
Mars a t hin attenuated neb u lar plane , in which local con de n
s a ti o n s would occ u r similar to that before s u ggested for the
system of asteroids
U nder certain local conditions
such conde n s a tions m ay have ass u med an y possible dim en
sions of m a ss according to the amount and disposition of the
surrounding nebular matter and to its ini tial motion being
dire cted so as to form a centralized system or otherwise
Upon these conditions any local condensation would form
se pa rately what w e may term a small planetoid or merely an
isolated u nit of impalpable d u st
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N OT ES O N T HE N EB U LAR T HE O RY
16 2
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peri h elio n position w it h t h e ea rth s plac e at th e time of
internal conj u nction
2 2 4 Under the above sta te d conditions , during the di s crete
condensation of intra Mars neb ul ar mat ter and its projectio n
earthward, so far as this could overcome the resistance of the
nebulous matter to continue its proj ection in a solid form , it
wo u ld form earth s u rface matter in combination with the
nebular earth z one which would still be forming B y thi s
entire e ffect , the surface of the globe wo uld receive a mixe d
condensation of matte r upon its surface composed of the
discrete matter , which would contain every form of solid
elementary matter, and of the residual neb ul ous matter that
was condensing at the period
The above de fine d mixed conditions of deposition correspond
fairly well with actual observed conditions as it is clear that
we have no regular density sys te m such as would be pro
du c e d under the condensation of a purely n ebular sys tem
We have gold, copper iron , and other dense metals upon the
surface, which may at an early period have formed the cent ral
systems of discrete condensations from the universal pneuma
before thei r proj ection to the earth
2 2 5 In the small amount of exterior matter that has falle n
upon the earth in recent times we have been able to recognize
the presence of 2 3 elements , for the greater part the se that
generally prevail upon the earth , but in a few cases some of
its rarer elements They S ho w upon the whole that they are
condensations from an original universal nebula , in which the
h eavier as well as the ligh t er elements appear iro n largely
predominating The mean density of the entire mass o f such
mete ors as have fallen to the earth in m ode rn time s is possibly
not far di fferent from the mean density of the earth , about
5 6 times that o f water which should be the cas e under
purely open nebular conditions of condensation from a
universal pneuma system
It can not, however, be s ugg ested t hat th e prese nce of
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F O R M A TI O N O F LAN D AREAS
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16 3
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h eavy me tals upon the earth s surface is en tirely due to its
re ce ption of meteoric matter
There are other suffi cient
causes made qui te evident in special cases Metallic veins
appear in many cases to be ca u sed by the evaporation of
metals from the heated interior through fissures which were
produced by the upheaval of primitive and later rocks This
e va poriz e d matter is ei ther in the form O f pure or alloyed
metals or of haloid compounds often modifi ed by the presence
of heated water and possibly originally combined in gaseo u s
emanations There is another cause to be proposed further
on , namely the effects of the loading of ice at the poles upon
th e central system of the globe causing proj ection of interior
matter ; so that the formation of land by the incl u sio n of
mete orites may not be thought to be even a necessary
condition of its formation but only a very probable factor
2 2 6 To recapitulate the condition proposed that possi b ly
will agree with observation of geological str u cture — W e
may assume that after the formation of Mars at the limits
of the sun s neb u lar pe riphery , planetoids were again formed
somewhat similar to our asteroid system existing exterior to
Mars , fro m condensations due to the reduction of the tem
era tu re to the critical te m perature of the sun s neb u la within
p
a thin peripheral plane M , E fig 1 0 p 8 5 We may assume
that these planetoids were formed at fi rst O f the more
refractory nebular materials That they moved at first in
their partially free orbits in Spiral paths sunward under t he
resistance of the resid u al more attenuated or less refractory
n ebu lar matter that remained by its elasticity ab ove the
denser part of the nebula nearer the s un s s u rface T hat u pon
fu rther shrinking of the sun s nebula and fall of temperatu re
in a more regular manner the earth s nebular zone w as fi rst
formed as a mass extending in vol u me much beyond the
moon s orbit under conditions alrea dy discussed That thi s
condensation , which finally formed the earth , was set in
r tation consis te nt with its mode of formation due t o the
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N O T ES O N T H E N EB U LA R T HE O RY
164
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difference between the linear vel ocities of its outer and inner
parts which w ere moving at equal ang ular velocity , as before
d isc u ssed
2 2 7 That under the above stated conditions the nebulous
earth being of much larger mass and condensing much later
than the outer small planetoids , remained gaseous for a long
time after they had condensed That it became a liquid
globe surrounded by a volumino u s n ebulous atmosphere a t
the time that the intra Mars planetoids represented in minia
ture cold bodies similar to the present earth That the s e
planetoids after cooling possessed dense metallic centres
probably still highly heated , surrounded by oxidized metals
and haloids with water or, m ore probably, ice and air upon
their surfaces That the planetoids m oving under the resist
ance of the still a ttenuated nebul a surrounding the sun with
their small excess of angu lar velocity drifted slowly as regards
inward motions s u nward into the neb ula of the new forming
globe u ntil they were drawn to its surface and became finally
incorporated about the perihelion positions of thei r orbits
The effects of th e percussion again developing great heat but
not s u fficient to convert t he perfectly cooled planetoid pro
e cte d u pon the earth s s u rface , if this w a s of large mass
j
again into a liqu id state or to b ring the earth and the
plane to id back t o the form of a single neb u lous globe
2 2 8 S u ch systems of collisions as inferred above at every
uni on of a planetoid , if this happened to be of large mass
might be considere d to form at the time of contact a close
binary system The parts of the planetoid I n con tact with
t h e ea rth would become highly heated by the e ffect of the
collision and Sinking with its lighter coating into the liquid
central globe of the earth would prod u ce convection currents
d u ring its immergence bringing the lighter lique fied surface
In
m atter into equilibrium of the mean gravitation system
this process the lighter oxidized matter from the former b u ried
s u rface of the inj ected planetoids being slowly floated up to
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N OT ES O N T H E NEB U LAR T HE O RY
16 6
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about th e periphery of the intruded mass , and the solid centre
of the planetoid would gradually Sink into the globe until it
reached a position of gravitation equilibrium and became a
part of the interior metallic density s y stem of the globe This
could not occur, however without m u ch confusion and violent
plutonic action within the central matter during the time that
the lighter oxidized forme r surface matte r of the planetoid w as
reaching the permanent surface of the globe by convection
currents
These currents would form special drifts and
bring much of the metallic matter to the s u rface by tearing
it away in collision as it is a property of semi fl uid siliceous
m atter to bite into a metallic surface , as we fi nd in the
process of enamelling
2 3 1 The final r es u lt of such a motive system as here
presented would be the projection of a mass of vitreous rock
above the earth s surface entirely added to the earth s super
fi cial system forming a hollow plane produced by the excess
siliceous material floated up at the periphery of the included
planetoid
The lowest part of the sur fa ce of the earth
covered by the projected planetoid would be raised above
the mean gra vitation plane of the ea rth s surface the entire
upheaved rocks being in equ ilibri u m excess of mass o f the
volume of the Vitreous rocks upon the surface of the partially
included planetoid The effects of the incl u sion of a planetoid
upon the early globe as herein described may be better
shown by a diagram L et fig 2 2 A be the metallic core of
’
the plane t oid ; b b the surro u nding tertiary matter ; c c t h e
”
sur face of the globe ; d d d the mass in section of the
terti a ry matter finally resting above the s u rface o f the globe ;
” '”
t t and t t
will Show the lines of greatest mass that will
rest above the surface The tertiary mass in segment of arc
in a heated viscous state would float round the dense r
z z
core and finally a ppear upon the e a rth at d and d
The
extruded tertiary m a tter would generally fi nally rest in
gravitation equili brium with a part of its mass sunk in the
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P LANE TOI D C O LL I S IO N WIT H T HE EAR TH
16 7
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matrix matter of th e globe , and being vitreous it would also
tend to run down upon the s u rface but in its early extrusion
being at the same time subject to the ra diation of heat when
project ed m u ch beyond the earth s surface it would partially
cool down and finally take a mean gravi tation position in
r elation to the dense metallic core o f the ea rth with con
s ide ra b le projection therefrom
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232
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A s the planetoid may be assumed to strike the globe
near its equa tor, it would have more of its matter included
The
U pon the equatorial than the polar side o f contact
plutoni c mass would therefore tend to ex tend polewar d
diminishing its vol u me so as to leave the conti nent due t o
its projection of pear shaped outline , with its broadest end
towards the equator
2 3 3 The cold planetoid falling towards the earth centre
wo ul d leave its upper surface exposed for a period and this
shutting o ff the radiation from the hi ghly heated globe beneath
would cause a rapid deposition by co ndensation of th e supe r
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NO
T E S O N T HE NEB U L AR T HE O RY
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impo sed nebula , S O that It would acquire a heavy surface
strat u m of ne w deposition beyond that of the planetoid s mass
2 34 In the above we have taken an extreme case
The
special condition of the fall of small bodies of meteoric matte r
co u ld not have produced distinct features u pon the earth s
surface If meteoric bodies fell in swarms , the e ffects wo uld
be the same as those j u st considered for single planetoids ,
but probably with more dispersion upon the earth s s u r face
The general detached fall of single small meteorites co uld only
prod u ce a certain amount of incidental inclusion of that which
appe ars to be foreign matter to the system of stratification
wherein it fell which is recognized by geologists
2 35 It cannot be assumed that the foregoing conditions of
proj ection of large planetoids could remain permanent, being
since subj ect to long periods of atmospheric den udation and
all the after conditions of o u r globe of which we have full
knowledge by geological evidences that remain in volcanic and
stratified rocks ; but u pon the whole the initial setting out of
the globe in local land areas , if it occurred by the incl u sion of
planetoid matter in the manner proposed could neve r be
eradicated The forms of ancient continents have no doubt
been modified in time by atmospheric conditions , and by the
e ffects of oceanic curre nts through the direction given by
solar i m p u lse , causing wear in their proj ecting parts and
deposition of matter in quiescen t con tiguo u s water , owing to
which the great ocean basins at the present time approach
circ ular areas of circulatio n of free oceanic surface , which I
have c onsidered in my work on fluids (fig 2 2 ) U nder these
conditions the central continental mat ter may in some cases be
undistu rbed The general mass of vitreo u s mat ter localized
in great depth o f rock by such projections as s u ggested co u ld
never be entirely dis t ributed by forces known to us as having
been active upon them
s ‘Fl u id s
1 8 8 1 pp 3 54 3 77
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
170
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the nebula w h ich formed the eart h due to radiation of its heat
only into space , u pon which the varying o ut ward conditions
of the state of the sun wo u ld be superimposed Under such
p u rely nebular conditions we will assume for the present
that the s u n s condensation may be taken as a constant and
that the temperature of the earth s nebula was decreasing at
a uniform rate The more special con dition of variation
will be considered in th e following chapters The factors of
purely nebular conditions will be most conveniently taken
under separate headings
I P eriod o f dissociatio n of elements onward to the time
of the early condensations which w ere adapted to
fi nally produce the globe in a liquid form
II P eriod of condensation o f volatile metals , association
O f oxygen and the h alogens with metals and meta ll oids
to form the earth s crust
III P eriod of deposition of wa ter
IV P eriod of deposition of sno w and of ice formations
This last perio d is very important in completing the causes
of ch anges that have passed ; although in this we go beyond
purely n eb u lar conditions , still the mode of action is con
This subject may b e better considered in a separate
t inu ou s
chapter
These periods although it is proposed to take them
separately run necessarily the one into the next by in ter
mediate stages as th e separate systems defined depend upon
the e ffects of time which is continuous
I P er iod of Conden sa tion of H ighly R efr a ctory
238
M a tter — A t the commencement of the first p eriod s u ggested
above we may ass u m e that immediately afte r the separation
of the earth s neb u lar ring from th e sun s neb u lar system
the heat at this time may have been suffi c ient for the disso
at le ast so far as a gaseous or vapo u ro u s condition
cia ti on
of that which w a s to become terrestrial matter A t such a
time if the nebular ring w e r e dense r in any part or if it
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C O NDENS A TI O N O F T H E EAR T H
.
were broken by any di srupting cause , such as the intrusion
of a comet a local density system would be formed in some
part which would then become the nucleus of our earth
The ring of neb u la after its detachment from the sun is
assumed to be in equilibri u m in its mean orbit , so that all
pa rts of its matter would drift slowly to w ards any denser
parts by conse cu tive attraction of its near parts In such a
syste m if the nucleus was formed by heavier heated matter than
the condensation o f the exterior nebulous matter this wo u ld
drift thereto and approa ch the centre in convection curren ts
These c u rrents wo uld be constantly active in proportion to
the difference between the density of the central system and
that of the surrounding vapours or gas to cause t he spe ci
fi cally heavier vapours as for instan ce those of the heavie r
metals , to move through the minor resistances of the lighter
gases towards the centre of the system A t the s a me time
light elastic gases would be buoyed up to the extreme outer
circumference of the system This is exactly the case at the
present time with the exterior of the chromosphere of our
sun which we fi nd s u rro u nded by hy drogen the lightest
kno w n element with denser gaseous and vapo u rous matters
placed concentrically beneath
2 3 9 Immediately following the first condition of an exten
sive nebulous or gaseous atmosphere surrounding the n e w
globe system forming from the continued process of radiation
of heat there must necessarily come a period of con
densation of the nebulous matter to liquid or solid matter
Whenever this period arrived it would be quite indi fferent
in what part of the neb u lo u s ring system about its exterior
surface the condensation occurred
The condensed matter
would by its superior specific density, immediately pro
cee d to pass through the lighter gaseous parts towards the
centre of g ravity of the system , even al though the syste m
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9"
Lockyer,
S tu dies in S pectrum Analy si s , p 147
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N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O R Y
172
.
might remain almos t entirely nebulous , j u st as rain passe s
through the atmosphere Thus , if w e imagine the platinum
group of metals to be widely diffu sed in the nebulous State ,
these wo u ld not only tend to take a central position by
gravity , but in all possible conden s ation thro u gh exterio r
radiation they would fl o w towards the centre
P ar tie n
larly in this case , as s u ch matte r as platin u m wo u ld have
little affinity to unite with the oxygen or halogens present
thro u gh which i t might pass F u rther, this metal would
condense at a te mpe rature s o high that the more general
matter prev a iling would remain gaseo u s L ike conditions to
those j u st expl ained for platinum would hold also with all
other dense refra ctory elements ca u sing constant exchanges
of rel ative gravitative positions thro u ghout the long period o f
conde n sation u ntil the densest and possibly the least oxidable
of the original nebular matter formed a considerable globe
2 40 W hatever may have been t h e composition of the
early condensations or primitive liquid matrix whi ch formed
the early earth , whether this was metallic or mine ral , in the
ordinary sense of the ter m , one thing is certain , that the
present cru st as we know it is very largely composed of
It is therefore reasonable t o
m eta llic a n d siliceous oxides
s u ppose that oxygen , being lighter in its pure or gaseous state
than the avera ge m ass of the e a rly nebulous globe , remained
in the early highly heated nebula an exterior element , and
t hat compo u nds or oxides der ived therefrom were deposite d
a t a later period than the refracto ry meta ls
Under the above conditions , assuming that the dense r,
more refractory matters continually condensed about t he
central system or globe this condensa tion might occu r eve n
while the s u rfa ce maintained an almost incandescent tempera
ture ; so that possibly at a period when the earth measured n ot
less than w ithin 400 miles of its present diamete r it was still
a liqu id globe at a white heat comparable in temperature at its
surface with that of the lavas which issue at the present time
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N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LA R T HE O RY
1 74
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extended much beyond the orbit of Venus A t this time
the earth w as possibly outwardly a se lf l uminous globe partly
obscured and surrounded by a moon ring or nebul ous m oon
P ossibly also the planet Jupiter w as not wholly condensed ,
but appeared as a large heat giving nebulous body dispe rs in g
a small part of this heat to the ea rth Unde r these conditions
the earth s equator by reciprocal radiation o f heat exchanges
with the sun , and in a less deg ree with the othe r planets main
The polar
tain e d nearly its initial temperature fo r the time
regions being open to space would be ra diating their initial
heat more rapidly than th e equatorial regions , thereby re
presenting the area o f cooling surface to which condensing
nebulous matter nea r the earth s surface would drift in aé rial
curren ts a co ndition w h ich as regards the vapour of wate r ,
has remained to a certain extent pe rmanent
P er iod of Condens a tion of Vola tile M e ta ls ,
243 II
A s s oci a tion of O xygen a n d the H a logens w ith M eta ls a nd
—
l
i
s
M eta lo d
W e may n o w consider the conditions of a period
when the sun s photosphere had s h runk to nearly the
orbit of Ven u s and heat exchanges within the planetary
plane had grown much less active ; when the polar regions
through radiatio n of their initial hea t may have been reduced
to a red heat and assumed a viscid consistence Under th ese
circumstances , by the continuous radiation of heat from
the exterior nebulous surface or atmosphere and the coolin g
by radiation of initial heat from the surface of the globe ,
volati le metals wo u ld be deposited and oxygen and the
halogens would approach more nearly to the earth in its
n eb u lous atmosphere by which means their association with
metallic vapours near the surface wo u ld be possible and
A t this period under the great
m ight even be rapid
n ebular atmospheric pressure then present , the n e w formed
oxides would fall as rain ove r the cooler polar regions , where
the s u rface heat co ul d not support the vapourous state and
w e may assume that at th eir grea t h eat they wo u ld remain
.
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C O NDENSA TI O N O F T H E EAR T H
i n a viscous
.
s ta te and therefore would fl ow outwards from
the cooler polar regions towar ds the equator to gravitative
e q uilibrium , combination with the central matrix being no
longer possible as in the early conditions with prevalent
metallic surface matte r
2 44 In continuity of what is here taken to be the sa me
period we come upon condi tions most importa nt to geology,
namely when it beca me p os s ib le a s a na tu r a l resu lt of the cooling
o r s o lid oxid es w he n t he
or med te rt i a r
t
f
m
a
t
r
u
o
n
er
t
o
e
s
t
,
f
y
y
,
p
This occurred at first possibly as a
the s u rface of the glob e
kind of oxidiz ed scu m , such as w e find floating in the ordinary
melting of metals exposed to the air, and no d oubt only over
The presence of
t h e colder area of the poles as j u st stated
such a scu m acting i m mediately as a non conduc tor of heat
would shut off a part of the initial radiation from the surface
of the central matrix of the earth , which previo u sly kept the
gaseous m atte r above it from condensation at ne arl v its
critical point This loss of the s u ppor t of radiated heat from
the earth would cause the condensation of vapouro u s and
gaseou s matter to appear as dense clouds and finally to pre
cipi ta te the condensed oxides , of which the clouds were forme d ,
u pon the cooler polar areas of the earth Under these con
ditions , as soon as a cooler primitive sc u m was formed , this
would be immediately covered by further nebulo u s deposition
of oxidized matter
2 45 A s the polar regions of the earth cooled down thro u gh
open radiation the early basic matrix wo u ld no longer main
tain su fficient surface heat to retain a liq uid s urface and the
early siliceous oxides would become by loss of heat stifli y
viscous A fter this period the same oxides that fell at great
heat in a li q uid or v isco u s sta t e might fall over the cooler
areas as a kind O f tertiary m ineral sno w and in this way
c Ov e r up the pri m itive V iscous scum , possibly even to very
great elevation At the same time this would depress the
supporting liquid and the viscous surface beneath , causing
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N O T ES O N T HE N E B U LA R T HE O RY
176
.
this S urface matter to move outwards from the poles t o equi
librium of gravitation by displacement
In this manner
gravity wo u ld spread out or carry the newly formed oxides to
great distances from and around the poles
2 4 6 In the above scheme it is assumed that oxygen and
other elements of low speci fi c gravity at a high temperature
could not reach the earth for combination with denser metallic
B ut if we suppose
m atter at any early period of condensation
there were certain combinations which would be precipitated
even before the
a t any given te m per ature from the neb u la
complete metallic matrix was formed their specifi c gravities
wo u ld still maintain them as a scum , and the after con
dition s as already described would not be materi ally modified
2 4 7 L ong after the deposition of the more refractory oxides
considered above w e should naturally have the deposition of
the m ore volatile chlorides and in a less degree the fluorides
and iodides and generally w e sho u ld have the most volatile
m atter of the solid earth longest in suspension in its primi
tive neb u lar atmosphere A t this point it therefore becomes
important to consider what bodies in combination may have
r em a ined gaseo u s at a moderate temperature capable of fi nally
contributing to the matter o f the earth s crust , which we
may assume from the presence o f their elemen t s in the
early rocks were possibly largely difi used previo u sly to the
formation of our present atmosphere
O f these gases as
most important we may take
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Al u minium
Aluminic chloride Al Cl
Iron
F erric chloride , P e2 C16
2
,
6.
.
O r descending to o u r present atmospheric temperature We
,
,
have
S ilicic hydride , S iH4
C hloride , S i C4
fluoride , S iF4
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N OT ES O N T H E NEB U LAR T HE O RY
178
.
take i t that at the period when oxygen and the halogens
entered into association with the prevalent basic metals , their
oxides were fi rst deposited over the cooler polar ar eas upon
principles j u st discussed that all the surface of the globe
except the polar regions which were most open to radiation
was in a highly heated li quid state and the whole s u bstratum
of the polar area in this state also Under these conditions
as the oxides condensed about the cooler areas of the poles
this lighter oxidized matter its lower part being in a pl astic
V iscous state loaded u p as it might be b y condensation at the
poles to great height , would have through the i nfl u ence of its
grav ity a constant tendency to be pressed o u twards from these
regions so as to float upon the s u rrounding liquid metallic
matrix into lo w er latitudes At the same time by n atu ral
affi nity these oxides would cohere together more particularly
at the base of the mas s where the internal heat and press u re
Th u s as the
w ould maintain them in a liquid viscous state
compound oxides accumulated in mass they must of necessity
have ov e rfl ow n or be thr u st outwards from the coo ler polar
regions from their o w n internal gravitation pressure and in
this m anner form coherent projections , taking the lines of
least resistance in moving upon the liquid or semi liquid
metallic matrix const antly towards the more highly heated
regions of the eq u ator to restore gravitation eq u ilibriu m Thi s
thrusting out would occ u r exactly in proportion to the accu
m u lati on of the lighter condensed oxidized matter from its
increased pressure through constant deposition at th e coole r
area of the poles
2 50 The form which the above described coherent pro
cti on s of oxidized matter would take would b e that of lon g
e
j
tears precisely the same as that of the boundaries of a mel t ed
metal or other cohesive liquid poured out continuously in bulk
u pon the centre of an extensive heated level Slab ; This form
wo u ld however be modified to a certain extent by the re
melting of part of its extreme prolongation particularly at the
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F O RMATI O N O F CO NTI NENT S
17 9
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thinner bordering edges in approaching the m ore highl y
heated that is the less cooled equator These prolongations
from the polar regions would therefore take the final forms
of pointed to n gues , m aintaining a wide base u pon the polar
r egi ons and diminishing grad u ally as they approached the
still ahn ost in candescent tropics where heat would be partially
held from radiation by the large predominant sun
2 5 1 Under the above conditions there wo u ld be also present
a constant tendency to widen the b a se of the prolongations
above described Firstly by the extension of the solid s u rface
of the polar regions through continued cooling and the
increase of the amo u nt of s u pport to the elevation of oxidized
m atter through s u b m ergence of the lower parts
S econdly
by the deposition of a greater amo u nt of neb u lo u s matter
which wo u ld increase proportionally to the su rfa ce shading
from the infl u ence of the radiation of the earth s initially
h eated matrix so that from both these ca u ses a constantly
wider area of base would be added to the floating prolongations
as they were pressed outwards from the pol a r regions making
the entire projections of conical form At the close of the
period above depicted so far as condensi ng nebular conditions
were concerned the whole of the n e w formed land surfa c e
derived from the deposited oxides would consist of pointe d
areas of projection extending to w ards and over the equator
proceedin g from an elevated base Spread over a wide region
around the poles The n e w land in lo wer latitu des w o uld
appear as a floating mass possibly of a dull red heat, upon
a liquid matrix of much greater density and more highly
heated than i tself
2 52 We may n ow consider a period when the whole
sur face of the globe proceeding from the poles began to set
to a viscid resistin g s u rface as an e ffect of the radiati on of its
initial heat into space and when the ne w land surface in
poin ted con tinental areas had become superficially rigid At
s uch a period t h e ce ntral areas of the n e w land , being pro
N2
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O RY
180
.
te cte d by a non conducting coating
from excess of radiation
from the still highly heated matrix beneath wo u l d possibl y
retain a semi viscid condition at a small depth We still as
sume that mineral matter is being deposited , although more
slowly , from space especially at the cooler areas of the poles
The n , however
n ow assumed to be much below red heat
much mineral matter should be piled up at the poles of the
earth , i t woul d be more and more resisted at the borders
of the now viscid s u rface of the matrix surrounding the
n e w continents
Under such conditions possibly the edges
of the new formed continents would be pressed up and
contorted by the resistance to fu rther projection and have
their borders thrown u p much beyond the average surface ,
s u ch edges bei n g contin u ally cooled and consolidated by
their exposure to radiation at the greater heights N e w
smaller tongues of proj ection mig ht break out here and there
at any points of least resistance for the escape of the in ternal
press u re of the semi liquid oxides flowing to equilibri u m
2 53 A t a later period when the floating movement of the
continental areas became q u ite impossible by the resistance
o ffered by a considerable depth of the cooled s u rface of the
ma trix and oxidized magma above , and the various matters o f
the neb u lous system were mostly deposited , the mor e heated
interiors of continents then formed where the polar o u tfl ow
was most continuous , would contract and si nk down in cooling ,
and leave the n e w land areas , although of grea t altit ude , of
basin like section
—
To summarize the con
2 54 D is tr ib u tion of L a nd a rea s
dition s here pr e posed : t h e continents may have been fu lly
delineated before water yet fi lled the oceans these appearing
as pointed land systems proceeding equally from each O f the
polar areas ; b u t if we consider the actual conditio n we find
w e have very li t tle land in the sou t hern hemisphere and much
in the northern There must therefore , have been , even at
this early period , some modifying con di tions to thos e n e w
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N O T E S O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O R Y
18 2
.
theory proposed upon nebular conditions only " This wo u ld
be very di ffic u lt to answer in the a ffirmative , b u t w e may find
that in certain points ther e is agr eemen t, which may possibly
be all w e m ay expect after so great a lapse of time , and with
other factors of formation that have been already proposed
2 5 7 B y the nebular system here suggested , w e should
have a mass of land at the north pole from early condensa
tions and a less m ass at the south pole from later condensation
B oth of these land areas would possess pointed prolongations
extending outwards to or possibly even over the equator
O f the actu al land areas which may be consi dered as consistent
with the principles discussed in this chapter, w e may take the
prolongations of land in N orth A merica with arctic base , the
lesser prolongation of G reenland , the prolongation of the
E urop a A siatic continent to Mocha that of the peninsula of
In di a within the G anges , and that of S iam extending at one
time possibly to S u m a tra We n ow find the most important
a reas of S A merica , A frica and A ustralia disconnected fro m
polar areas B ut as regards A frica if we take a wider vie w ,
this may be considered as a prolongation of the E u ropaeo
A siatic a rea leaving then only the di fficulties of accou nting
for the division of the narrow Mediterranean and Re d S eas
In the same manner A ustralia having the bro adest base to the
south w e may i m agine it t o have been once connected with the
antarctic polar system A t this period its area would extend
in pointed form , incl u ding and possi b ly extending beyond
N ew G uinea The principles disc u ssed leave S o u th A merica
an entirely detached continent , which considering its theo
r e tical form u pon the neb u lar principles just proposed , would
indicate that it must belong to the northern area but we
n o w fi nd it in the southern
Therefore , this may possibly be
better accounted for upon the di screte conditions previously
s u ggested
2 5 8 It is not probab le that the early condi tions of e a rt h
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D I S T R I B UTIO N O F LAND AREAS
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formation could be fu lly recognized , as very material change s
m u st have occurred since The anomalies to the theories
proposed of the detachm ent of S America A frica , and Australia
might possibly be met in a ce rtain degree b y s u pposing that
these cohesion systems were detached from the area of their
polar condensations and drifted when the earth s meta llic
matrix w as still superficially liquid into their present position
This might have been ca u sed by o u tward pressure from the
poles O f m atter which condensed at a certain period but
afterwards dissolved in the highly heated waters , deposited
in great volume and under grea t press u re which will be
presently discussed Taking all these matters into c onsider
ation , however it is not probable that nebular condi tions alone
ruled as there were no doubt also discrete condensations
about and without the neb ular zone or ring which in time
through crossing orbits with the earth , came in to collision with
it and materially modified the land areas , possibly in the
manner discussed in the last chapter
2 59 Following the above described hypothetical conditions
u nder which the ba s ic s up erfi cia l sy s tem of the globe may have
been formed w e have for the consideration of the present
continental for m s to allo w for the influence of forces acting
onward to the present period to which we must attribute great
modifi c ations Among su c h infl u ences we have erosion and
after deposition on c oasts v u lcanicity in its widest extent and
the wear of oceanic c u rrents forming altogether constant
elements of modification with others to be di scu ssed
2 60 W hatever may have been the special or local con
dition s of early continental formation it is very probable
that at the close O f the long period of deposition of oxide and
halogen compo u nds or what we may term the dry period of
deposition , the la nd areas were generally clearly de fi ned for
all fut u re time If these oxides as non conductors stopped
t h e radiation o f central heat and at the same time r adiated
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1 84
N oT E s
O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
their initial heat from the surface , the deposits wo ul d b e
piled up over such areas and by this loading press do w n
the lower surface of the land to gravitation equilibri u m , so
that the land of the earth may be represented as consisting
of m a sses of oxi dized matter floating u pon a lower denser
liqu id m etallic substratum
2 6 1 From the immense volume o f oxides known to exist
upon the s u rface of the globe by the mode of precipitation
here proposed the l a nd areas may have attained great height
possibly locally of te n to t w enty miles These areas O h
structive to radiation of internal heat, w o uld advance from
the poles so that afterwards deposition of oxi des or halogens
over such land areas woul d become general and upon points
of elevation as great as over polar areas , in the same w ay
that snow falls on mountains at the present time In such
n e w formed depositions generally pressing from their centres
outwards to gravitation equilibrium acting with deposition of
water we have possibly the entire factors of the great gneiss
forming age v estiges of which remain intact with all the great
displacements and contortions impressed upon it w hi ch are
still evident at the present time
This will be discussed
further on The depositions about the tropical land regions
which may have been produced by causes discussed in the
l a st c hapter would act in conjunction with the condensations
here considered and locall y magnify their effects
2 6 2 III P er iod of For m a tion a nd D ep os ition of Wa ter —It
has been calculated that the whole of the water upon the globe
if equ ally distributed wo u ld be about tw o miles in depth If
this at the temperature then prevailing formed an atmosp h ere
about the globe it would produce a pressure of about 4 00
atm ospheres or 7 0 00 lbs per squ are foot of surface It is
u nnecessary to say that this could scarcely occur at a time
when the earth s surface was even at a red heat , for at this
pressure water w ould possibly remain liqu id even at a white
heat Further by the classical experiment of Cagniard de
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186
N OT E S O N T HE NE B U LA R T HE O RY
.
manne r the ocean bottoms wo ul d be formed from the deb ris
of the early polar condensations , and the polar areas would
become channelled and in time become largely oceanic by
this constant den u d ation and chemical action of the constant
drenching of the highly heated polar rains
2 6 4 If we may assume that the process suggested above
continued until the sea reached to within half a mile or
so of its present level the condensation of vapour might
then have become possible over the n ow much cooled lower
latitudes , and the elevated tropical lands possibly began to
receive a copio u s rainfall
It is thro u gh out this period
until the ocean became of nearly its present level that we
may look for th e greatest aqueous deposits u pon all lands
in inland seas and shores together with a large deposit over
the bottoms of the oceans The deposits as they were washed
from the coasts and inland would be left by gravity piled up
against the borders of the continents and , generally by the
action of currents carrying mineral matter irregularities and
depressions u pon and abo u t the continents would be fi lled u p
or smoothed O ff
O f the gaseous matters previously considered as
265
possibly remaining longest in the atmosphere and incidentally
under decomposition formin g s u rface matter
the
most important are the chl or ide s, and these are not found
largely in the earlier rocks , but in the ocean The reason
for this is probably that they were decomposed in the presence
of oxide of sodium ; a n d as sodium does not form a gaseo u s
compound with chlorine at ordinary temperatures , it would
be at fi rst precipitated on the earth from the nebulo u s e n
v e lO pe as one of the later lighter oxides and this oxide after
wards in the presence of water would decompose the chlorides
present and still remaining in solution wo uld carry the chlorine
to the ocean as salt, leaving its oxygen reunited wi th elements
.
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a
t
Fl id
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s,
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h
b y th e Aut
or,
p 3 73
.
.
DEP O S ITI O N O F W AT ER
.
p resent which were not saturated to the highest or most per
manent state of oxidation
2 6 6 If we take the termi n ation of the aqu eous period to
be that at which ice was first possible of for mation a t the
poles t his wo ul d be the time of greatest general elevation
O f the ocean
; for altho u gh we m ay s u ppose that a m u ch
greater volume of water was held in vapo u r in the atmosphere
by the heat con ditions present still this would not nearly
equal the enor m o u s amount of ice at present elevated at the
poles above the oceani c level which in the case ass u med
would form part of the oce a n D r Croll has estim ated
that the melting of the antarctic ice cap a lone , considering
this as only equal to one mile in thickness would raise
the general oceanic surface 2 0 0 feet A mile is probably
much under the truth for the elevation of the interior of this
area ; b u t if we add to this the arctic ice above sea level and
t hat of all elevated i c e clad regions , the general level of the
ocean would be raised possibly more than 40 0 feet from its
present surface which added to the present sea level might
indicate approximately the level of the ocean at a period
before ice was formed Further it may be pres um ed that
the constant d eposition of water m u st have nat u rally reduced
the amo u nt of land so that the lower lands of the present
s urface were entirely submerged
2 6 7 This aqueous period , as w ill be hereafter considered ,
possibly occurred in the palaeozoic a ge and also later in the
miocene period , when a temperate cli m ate extended to the
north of G reenland
The general e ffect of these aqueo u s
periods upon what was at the time and what afterwards
became , lo w continental land w as the heavy and alm ost con
tinu ou s deposition of the d é bris of originally deposited matter
bro u ght down by constant rainfall to the Shallow coasts and
inlan d seas This deposit u pon principles suggested , although
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C li mate and T i me, p 3 88
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T H E O RY
188
.
less in proportion as it w as distant from land surface must
have been greatest towards the polar regions partially filling
the oceans in these regions and generally diminishing towards
the equ ator Therefore it is improbable that
deposits as the northern silurians will be fo u nd
regions their representatives being much
derived from the d é bris only of the elevated continental lands ,
produced entirely by causes already discussed
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1 90
N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
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disc will n o w be suggested These symmetrical conditions
were discussed by me in a paper read before the G eologists
A ssociation March 2 n d, 1 8 8 2 and are n ow reprod uced with
some slight additions
2 7 0 Ice , of w hi ch we have the greates t mass at prese nt
under the uniform condition o f condensation of the sun
probably formed when his apparent disc w a s not more than
ten times hi s present diameter and when the mean surface
temperat u re of the earth did not at most exceed its present
tropical tem perature A t this period we had a much more
aqueous atmosphere than a t present as it is the law that the
quantit y o f vapour in the atmosphere when this is saturated
increases in geometrical progression as the temperature in
creases in arithmetical We had therefore probably at t his
period , considering the relative areas of the globe un der
tro pical and temperate temperatures a mean of about ten
times the present amo u nt of aqueous vapour in the entire
atmos phere At this relatively warm period as compared to
the present we have only to imagine that a polar area became
suffi cie ntly cooled through excess of radiation of initial heat
from the earth for condensation of water to occur in the solid
form O f sno w , and w e have then the certainty o f a continuous
copious fall of sno w over the same cold regions during the
winter in the place o f a former rainfall
2 7 1 If we take the process of the cooling of the earth as
being quite gradual omitting variations in the heat giving
power of the s un w hich may have been bro u ght abo u t under
conditions already considered and other e ffect s to be discussed
in following chapters w e may s u ppose that the cooling of the
earth s u fficient for the deposition and formation of ice wo ul d
at an early period prod u ce ve ry little geological change
if we o m it consideration of all e ffects upon animal and v e ge
table life which would be materially affected by frost The
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N ature M arch 2 9 1 8 8 3 ; Proc G eol A ssoc v ol vii i p 8 9
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PRE—
GLA CIAL AND GLA CIAL PER I O DS
19 1
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ice formed at this early period in the winter wo u ld be dissi
pated in the s ummer u ncovering the land s u rface and leaving
it at about the same level , except for a small amount of
denudation
2 7 2 After the early period de fi ned a b ove the immediate
e ffect of the furt her cooling of the earth from any cau se
astronomical or secular would be the greater deposition of
snow in high latitudes which as it constantly accumulated
in m ass wo u ld slowly bring about th e proportionate lowering
of the oceanic surface upon the entire globe fro m abstraction
of the surface water Under these conditions the littoral areas
formerly s u bmerged in shallow water would be gradually b u t
slowly uncovered u ntil in the co u rse of time the present
extent of land s u rface appeared
2 7 3 If w e assume u pon the symmetrical conditions pro
o s e d t hat the entirely aqueous epoch closed with the mi ocene
p
period when ice of the present system due to decrement of
the sun s volume and other causes probably began to cover
the poles in winter and melt in the summer , this would
evidently be the period of the greatest extent of oceanic
s u rfa ce for n ot only would the waters of the ocean be dis
trib u ted over its sur fa c e to g ravitative equilibriu m but the
land w o uld have become largely levelled down by the heavy
rains of the earlier period when the atmosp here w as more
highly charged with vapour W hen the elevation of ice at
the poles after this period slowly abstracted a much greater
part of the waters of the ocean m u ch of the shallo w muddy
shores mu st have become soil adapted to vegeta ble growth
over the temperate region s
2 7 4 The continuity of the oceanic depression upon the
condi tions just stated and contemporary circumpolar elevation
by deposition of snow as it chan ged the extent of land areas
must have affected the land resistances to the direction of the
proj ection of oceanic currents and with them the superimposed
air cu rrents , and have caused local variations of tempe rature
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
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in polar and temperate regions by the di rection given to these
currents due to heat and expansio n o f air and water from
t h e diurnal impulse of the sun
2 7 5 The elevation of sno w to great height by condensation
at the poles would by its pressure upon the yielding mass of
the globe , whose equ ilibrium could only exist in a form
consistent with its gravitation and rotation as a spheroid
of revolution cause an excess of pressure u pon polar are as
which would react upon the lower viscous superficial strata of
the earth and cause extrusion of viscous rocks to the surface
or the elevation of certain areas of the surface which O ffered
the least resistance to the imposed internal pressure until
approximate equilibrium of the rotative gravita tion system of
the globe w as restored This elevation would be brought
abo u t by the extrusion of felsitic or basaltic rocks to the
or
s urface , or slowly in the u pheaval of extensive land areas
,
more violently in earthquakes and volcanoes according to the
state of resistance d u e to the density flexibility , or previ ous
faulting of the more or less yielding surface rocks
2 7 6 It must be impressed that the necessity for the main
te n a n ce of land areas depends upon the eleva tion of r ocks by
plutonic forces D egra dation by atmospheric forces and tidal
action is constant so that unless the elevation is in excess of
the depression in t h e ratio of this constant degradation land
areas must constantly diminish by levelling down , and j u dging
from the q uantity of sediment know n to remain at present
in stratified rocks all land areas m u st therefore have been
wasted away ages ago
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P
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Under
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2 7 7 T he D s r b
f
diti o n s discussed 24 5 the N orth P ole would be the first to
cool down for the deposition of O xides , S O that deeper surface
This deposition being
r ock S would form at fi rst at this pole
of a large mass of matter would distur b the centre of gravity
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Fl id p 39 1
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N OT ES O N T HE NEB ULAR T HE O RY
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premises of the e ffects of the action of elevated masses of ice
upo n certain portions of the earth s crust In the fi rst place
there can be little doubt that there is at present a great
accumulation of ice at the poles of the earth In the souther n
ocean this forms a wall about the An tarctic Circle according
to S ir James R oss of seldom less than 2 00 feet above the
sea level where icebergs are constantly detached
In certain
d istricts these are evidently of much greater height as we
fi nd large icebergs floating with the upper surface said to be
as much as 6 0 0 fe et ab ov e sea level , indicating a submergence
of probably five times this depth or 3 000 feet A s these ice
bergs are detached from the front of the coast it is q u ite clea r
that the ice must fl ow down from the interior as in the ordinary
glaciers ; therefore there must be heavy deposition of snow
accumulating at the back o f them Mr W H opkins has cal
c u late d that ice will just move downwards at on e d egr ee of
inclination
In taking the inclination of ice over some
mountain va lleys in the G rindelwal d glacier in S witzerland
whi ch is a very flat glacier for about a mile , I found that the
mean for the lower parts of this glacier was not less than two
The southern ice cap incl u des an area approximately
d egr ees
equal to the entire A ntarctic Circle that is of about
sq u are miles Taking Mr W H opkins s estimate one degree
of elevation (as pointed o u t by D r Croll T ) , makes the altit u de
of solid ice abo u t 2 4 miles in thickness Over the southern pole
S u ch a thickness assuming the ice by compression to take
nearly the solidity of surface water, would represent a po
t e ntial force upon the earth s cr u st of say 3 9 50 tons per
square foot abo u t this pole or taking an area of 1 0 0 00 square
m iles of surface around the S outh P ole a pressure upon the
crust in this region would be maintained of over 3 900 tons
per square foot
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S eas, S ir J ames C R oss , vol i p 2 19
as
V oyage to th e S ou t
1
C limat e an d T i me, p 3 75
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P RESEN T CO ND ITIO NS C AU SE D B Y IC E
195
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We may consider further that it is scarcely possible
to suppose the ice a floating m ass wholly breaking away
at the coasts or that it rests u pon a le vel p la ne the probability
being that the surface is extremely mo u ntainous or irregular
inland near the terminal glaciers ; in this case we must allo w
f or greater friction on the motive plane c onsequently for
greater depths of ice before slipping can occur If 2 4 miles
of ice be ass u med to co ntin u e in a static condition at the
S outh P ole above the symm etrical e a rth considered as a
it appears to be highly improbable
s pheroid of revol u tion
t hat the crust s u pported upon a liq u id matrix could resist
t his excess of press u re witho u t de fl ection ; a n d even if it
sho u ld do so , the accum u lation of ice s till re m ains a constant
factor until the resistance is overcome We must fu rther
consider that in Mr W H opkins s experiment the free surface
of the ice was only a short distance from the artifi cial inclina
tion measured
It is possible that in the case of ice hundreds
of miles inland , in every way supported by s urro u nding ice
grounded on a fri ction a l or even possibly a s u rrounding
mo u ntainous plane and at a mu ch lo w er degree of te mperatu re
than in these experim ents downward movements wo u ld not
be possible at one degree of surface inclination Under such
conditions ice might be permanently retained if the earth
were su fficiently rigid , possibly at two or three degrees of in
W ith such a local
clina ti on as i t is in o u r inland glaciers
pressure u pon a yielding sphere wh ich w e assume the earth to
be , w e can scar cely imagine the possibility of its resistance
Further, ice in cooling increases in density , and we can
—
1 0 0 Centi
form no exact conception of its rigidity at
grade as it probably exists at this pole Forbes s observations
showed that ice moved dow n wards in gl a ciers with velocity
somewhat proportional to its temperat ure T A ccepting all
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P h il M ag 1 845, v ol xxvi
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T Forb e s, N orw ay and its G laciers , 1 8 53, p 2 34
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N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LAR T HE O RY
19 6
.
the conditions as active upon a de fl e ctib le globe , to cause
reactions u pon its cr u st, then the elevation of land earth
q u akes and volcanoes could be easily explained S imilar
c onditions to those defined for the S outh P ole would hold at
the N orth P ole , although at the present time less e ffectively
Unfortunately the poles of the earth cannot be
281
reached for exact evidence of the above assumed conditions
of accumulation of ice but we happen to have in G reen
l a nd a similar state active in a less degree and on a relatively
sm all scale H ere t he inland ice being elevated above the
snow line , vapour currents are constantly condensing to snow ,
which as constantly accumulates S O that the greater part
present time a complete glacier
O f G reenland is at the
mo u ntain of possibly 7 0 00 to 8 00 0 feet of interior elevation
In the southern part we have at the present time land
s u rface , and here the coast is now known to be sinking fo r
E xact measurements have not
the space of 6 0 0 miles
been taken of the rate of sinking ; b u t ancient b u ildings
u pon the rock islands are said to be sinking benea th the
o c ean s u r face so that experience has ta u ght the native
G reenlander not to build his b u t near the water s e d ge T
2 8 2 It is very possible that the rate of sinking is nearly
proportional to the increase of weight of snow annually
piled up inland
S uch pressure as may be produc ed in
G reenland , situated as suggested over a visco u s sys t em of
matter , will act hydrostatically and be felt elsewhere possibly
by elevation in Iceland or S candinavia ; but as the pressures
will com bine with the general system of the polar pressures
in acting upon the heated magma beneath , where this par
t icu la r pressure is most reactive at present , that is where
the c rust is least resistant , it is impossible to discover except
by O bser vation
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Nature S ept 2 0 th 18 8 3 v ol xxviii p 48 8
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T Lye ll s Principl e s of
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ii p 19 6
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LA R T HE O RY
198
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globe, we may be assured in the fi rst place that such ele
vation will be subject to t w o important conditions of the
—
a
cr u st O f the e rth
1 The cru st may be nearly uniformly
rigid ; 2 The crust may be fractured in parts , or possess
lines of weakness
We will take the fi rst condition
2 8 5 If the crust of the earth is nearly uniformly rigid
througho u t its exposed parts it will be still evident that if
there is an ice cap of some miles in thickness co vering both
the poles of the earth , this ice cap will materially add to
the rigidity of the parts th at it covers for w e know it is the
property of ice by regelation to heal any possible fractu re or
strain that may occur from any cause and thereby constantly
to present a v e ry rigid mass , partic u larly if it is retained
in a close area or s u pported by irreg u lar or rigid surface
matter as before stated
In this respect it possesses a
property of rigidity not shared by the tertiary matter of
the earth as this rem ains faulted after it has been once
fractu red by an internal strain
2 8 6 If we im a gine the ice crust to be m aintained at its
s u rface at an elevation equal to one degree over the A nt
arctic Circle , that is 2 4 miles in thickness at the S outh
P ole and to be possibly of great thickness at the N orth P ole ,
w e may then suppose that the land s u rface covered by this
coating will be highly in d e fl e ctib le Under these conditions
the greatest e ffects of the opposing press u res of the poles
would fall more nearly u pon the tropical regions w here there
is the greatest s u rface c urvat u re , an d each meridian would
represent as it were a bent bow u nder the excess of polar
pressu re ; therefore in the tropics there wo u ld probably occur
N o w as we
th e greatest pl u tonic or volcanic eleva tion
kno w also that the tropi cal area from rain fall is the area
of m ost rapid den u dation and consequently of more a ctive
thinning of the crust, we o u gh t also to find eviden ce of :
this being th e area of greatest volcanic action , and this upon
the whole is fairly consistent with observation The following
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IC E P RESS U RES
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19 9
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diagram , fi g 2 3 , will give details of the conditions proposed
L et N and S be the poles c overed by an ice cap E and W
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the equator , T T , T T the tropical regions
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We s h o u ld then expect the surface of the earth or the o u t
fl ow o f volcanic lavas from I nternal pressure to rise to the
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greatest height at T to T , T to
altho u gh this w o u ld in
all case s partly depend upon the viscosity an d other conditions
of friction within the strata through which the internal
pressures must pass from the region of polar press u res
2 8 7 Taking the above condi tions , there are many matters
which at once strike one as relative Th u s the mass O f ice
at the poles , placed originally by vapour forces out of equ i
libri u m with the earth s symmetrical gravitation system as
a spheroid of rotation , exerts a force upon the solid c rust of
the globe , whi ch it overcomes in proportion as it is insu f
In this m anner the res istance
fi cie n tly rigid for resistance
be comes distributed so that it is not only from internal or
hydrostatic pressures but by direct horizontal pressure upon
the crust that we may ha ve cer tain facilities of upheaval an d
deflection of the surface rocks
2 8 8 Further if w e assume a line of expansion over the
tropical area , which the elevation of lower or interior matter
of the earth and constant den u dation really indicates this
would produce also perpendicular Strains in the rigid materials
of the earth s crust, which would follow the meridians , par
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
2 00
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in the lines of original polar extension of the
lighter elements of matter
Thus w e should have
bro u ght about the conditions O f lines of weakness where the
press u res at the poles would not act in a direction to cl o se
them by any form of crumpling action as they might be
assumed to do in the latitudinal lines This p rinciple may be
shown experimentally by the fracture of an india rubber b all
or a bladder fi lled with water or air by opposite press u res
to w ards the centre thro u gh one diameter , as S hown in
wherein a fracture is pro du ce d from n to s
t icularly
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Fi g 2 4
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From these causes it is probable
that although
regions exist around the globe as an e ffect of internal pressure
we have the greatest volcanic e ffects in the tropics othe r
conditions being equal , which may occur in lines at nearly
right angles to the E quator , and continue poleward over land
areas as in the S outh American range
2 8 9 The above cause O f fract u re , and the lines of weaknes s
pointed out , may generally rule the positions of volcanic
elevations
B u t another cause of weakness or faulting
m ay be suggeste d, which is particularly relative to the
—
distribution of ice that is that in the immediate vicinity of
great accumulations of ice there will be great compression
locally upon the immediate surface strata , and this reacti ng
with less frictio n than at a distant part may cause faulting
near the area of p r essure t o a considerable depth, as at points
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
2 02
h eated for its
.
liquefaction so that the proc ess of liqu efaction
and u n de rfl ow would be continuous for the dispensation of
polar press u res
Further as the water would u n de rfl ow
from near the s u rface of the metalli c core in an approximately
horizontal direction and at the same time be released from
a part of the superimposed pressure in passing beyond th e
polar area, its tend ency would be to fl ow u pwards thro u gh
liqu id rocks nearer to the sur face , which would be of les s
thickness fu rther from the poles
Therefore , convection
currents would be impossible backward to the earlier position
of the melted rocks In this manner the u n derfl ow ing wate r
might become highly heated by the lower semi liquid rock
thro u gh which it flowed This process may be shown by a
diagram, fi g
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Fi g 2 5
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291
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L et A be the highly heated metallic core of the globe
,
the mineral co ating of the lower part of which is Shown
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Then by the press u re
at x x w w
N a S a the ice caps
u pon the lower s u rfaces at a: and w the lower liq u id heated
matter u nable to resist the press u res wo u ld be dri ven to
equ ilibrium of symmetry with the earth s spheroidal form by
"
Fu rther
in
the
liquid
plane
auv to w ard a x
u n d e rfl ow in
g
if the ice which formed the caps N a S a by contin u ity of
pressure penetrated to the surface of a non conducting
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W A T ER IN V O L C AN IC ER U P TI O NS
2 03
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t
stratum at w a where matter was at a white heat within a short
distance fro m the polar region it wo uld dissolve and carry
with it mineral matter from the lower surfa ce rocks , which
wo u ld be extr u ded at the first position upon the globe
where it co u ld overcome the resistance of surface rocks to
establish static e q uilibri u m
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Fi g 26
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Fig 2 6 shows details diagrammatically of the manner
in which water dissolving mineral matter co u ld u nde rfl O W the
292
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.
central s u rface rocks of the globe I represents th e so u thern
ice cap N the dense metallic nucleus matter V B the lo w er
heated viscous rocks resting u pon the n u cle u s matter CR
the present chilled viscous matter formin g th e surfa ce rocks
0 the chilled surface of the lower viscous matter which serves
as a non conductor between the heated n u cleus matter and
the ice L the position W here the ice pressure becomes
suffi cient to force the lower water beneath it into the viscous
matter This occ u rs at a lateral position where there is the
least resis tance to the hydrostatic pressure The water is
forced to form a channel through the visco u s rocks into
A s the
w hi ch t h e remaining water below the ice cap flows
wate r flo ws from the polar sub basin it becomes hea ted and
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
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expands possibly to double its former volume and dissolves
mineral matter from the channel it has formed The aqueo u s
mineral matter being of less specifi c gravity than the viscou s
rocks flows towards th e s u rface of the globe , where it may be
proj ected as volcanic matter o r by its hydraulic pressure
float up the surface rocks
The a ction of release of polar pressures W ill be generally
paroxys mal as the channel once opened by the pressure will
continue flowing thro u gh backward pressure until the liquefied
ice beneath the ice cap is exhausted The channel will then
close until the hydra u lic press u re again overcomes the resist
tance an d ca u ses it again to break th r ough the chilled surface
of the lateral viscous rocks
A channel originally driven through the viscous rocks
wo uld fi nd ventage near the point of polar pressure , b u t the
water at the same time would chill t he sur face rocks from
which it derived its heat Under this condition the ventage
wo u ld become consecutively lower owing to the surface r esist
ance becoming greater, until as at the present time , the mass
of chill e d matters shown in our diagram at CB prevent the
outflow or proj ection of the aqueo u s mine ral matter until it
reaches a great distance from the pole
The water forced to form a channel in the lower viscous
matter in becoming heated after a certain length of fl ow
wo u ld react u pon the infl ow ing current thro u gh its e xpan
sion as a resistance
In this manner its injec tion would
become intermittent I arranged several experiments to show
this and found one that would do so very simply Making the
stem of an ordinary clay tobacco pipe red hot and plun ging
it into water , the water enters the tube of the pipe inter
mitte ntly and is expanded and projected t h rough the pi pe
into the air i n separate spirts
T he points of departure for the u n de rfl ow channels pro
e cte d by s u b glacial pressures from the A ntarc t ic pole , must
j
occur at the points of greatest extension of lan d W here the
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N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LAR T HE O RY
2 06
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them to great heights in the atmosphere The dust I examined
was swept u p from the deck of the bark Arabella, saili ng
in th e P acific at 1 000 miles east of Krakatoa
It is not necessary to discuss the manner in which
heate d water at high pressure dissolves rocks i n detail
Water is proved experimentally at a temperature of 41 2 C
and at a pressure of 10 0 atmospheres to occupy about four
times its original vol u me , in which state it dissolves gla ss
At a higher tempe rat u re it dissolves siliceo u s
rapidly T
rocks so that this co u ld very well form an u n de rfl ow ing
c u rrent of siliceo u s matter to the volcano upon the principle s
s u ggested
2 9 3 In all volcanic s y stems irrespectively of internal
expansion of projected matter there m u st be a tendency upon
th e principles discussed for the volc a nic outflow to rise t o
hydrostat ic equili b rium with the polar press u re Thus such
constant open volcanoes as Kilauea may represent safety
valves of this press u re b u t as this mo u ntain is not so high
as some other vo lcanoes which have extruded lava recently ,
it is q uite clear that upon my theory the friction of the under
c u rrent O f viscous mineral matter must wi t hhold a part of the
hydrostati c press u re c aused by elev ation of ice at the S o u th
This is also evident in the differences of altitude of
P ole
Mauna L ao and K il auea which are near together
2 9 4 We m ay concl u de that if a volcanic vent rises nearly
to equilibri u m with the distant press u re system the exposed
mass will cool q u i ckly in the atmosphere , and the former
point of le a st resistance may become the point of greatest
resist a nce and the volcano become permanently extinct or
it m ay overcome s u rfa ce resistance nearer the base of the
If the volcano does not
m o u ntain than the original crater
rise to the point of e q u ilibrium it may become intermittently
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r
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v
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l Cagniard de Latour A nn de C h i mi e s er 2 xxi
u ar
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W A T ER AND S T EAM IN V O L C AN IC ER U P TI O NS
20 7
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active with others in the same state each eruption evidently
clogging or preventing by the weight of ejected matter in
the c rater fu ture eru ptions for a time in the lo cality and
making the eruptions thereafter more paroxysmal
If we
o mit the friction of the system from consideration then the
press u re of the highest vertical col u mn of the chimney of a
volcano may be taken to represent the hydrostatic pressure
u pon the liqu id m atrix beneath and f rom this the height of
ice at the S outh P ole might be estimated For this Chim
b o raz o might be taken
B ut the evidence j u st qu oted of
M a una L ao an d Kilauea shows that friction m ay form a large
fa ctor of resistan c e to the distribution of polar press ures , so
that equilibri u m by venta ge c annot be estimated
2 9 5 It is impossible within the limits intended for this
work to discuss pop u lar theorie s w it h whi ch the above may
at some time com e into competition , but it may be well just
to mention the tw o most pop u lar
Firstly that volcanic and pl u tonic phenomena are due
to the Shrinkage of the earth from cooling which theory
appe ars to persist in our text books This is fully worked
o u t by the late Mr Mall et in over one hundred pages O f the
—
1
7
hil
Tr
a
ns
4
5
8
B ut the whole matt er is b uilt upon
P
inex a ct data and there is s u ch great error in the c alculation
that this m u st in time suppress this weak theory
O bserva
tions of stratified rocks give evidences almost universally of
vertical separation by open cracks which indicate quite the
reverse of a horizontal surface pressu re , such as would be
the certain result of an internal contraction from loss of
heat demanded by Mallet s t heory to ca u se the elevation by
crumpling up of the surface rocks The universal open cracks
are on the other hand the nat u ral result of the effect O f
elevation by plutonic forces as herein proposed
S econdly , the theory that volcanic phenomena are p r o
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N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LA R T HE O RY
2 08
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du ce d by the expansive force o f steam , originally proposed
by S pallanzani in 1 7 8 8, but best known by its development
by S crope
Thi s theory could not have been proposed
with a better knowledge of physics The experiments of
Ca gniard de L atour before mentioned in whi ch w ater was
made red hot at a temperat u re of 4 1 2 C with an expansion
of only fo u r times its vol u me in a hard glass t u be witho ut
bursting demonstra te that water co u ld not act e ffectively
in the proj ection of rocks as in vol canic phenomena under
a very moderate press u re of s uperimposed rocks , say one
hundred feet o f liquid basalt where the water might exist of
a w hite heat and of not over do u ble its ordinary volume O f
course , i f the rocks were dissolved in white hot water, as they
wo u ld be at this temperature , the water would expand into
steam when the press u re w as released by its coming to the
earth s s u rface b u t this is very di fferent from the assumptio n
that steam at such pressure is able to cause the elevation
of thousan ds of feet of solid rock
2 9 6 There is a fu rther conditio n fre que ntly o ffered to
s u pport the steam theory in the assumption in opposition to
hydrostatic laws o r the observed conditio ns of heated rock,
that water may percolate rock a t a low level from the ocean
and be projected at a high level where the superimposed
pressure of s u rface rock is gre ater , which is eviden tly
impossible N eithe r are deep seated rocks as we fi nd the m
in deep mines porous eno u gh to admit of such perco lation
even if it were su fficien t to acco u nt for act u al phenomena
2 9 7 The conditions stated in th is c h apter relate to deposi
There were possibly
tion of ice since the miocene period
earlier depositions of ice the conditions of which will be
discu ssed in the next cha pter B u t I anticipate that all the
greatest e ffects of polar compression by ice and therefore of
volcanic er u ption and plutonic action, follo w ed the miocene
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S crop e on V ol canoes, 18 2 5, p 17
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2 10
CH A P TE R XI V
.
P R O D U CED B Y
EFFE CT S I N C I DENT AL T o T HE N B E U LA H CL O U D ING A T
I NFER I O R P LANE TARY F O R M ATI O N, AND A T CR ITI CAL
TE M PERATU RES O F MA TT ER S U RR O U ND ING T HE S U N
P ER I O D I C CO ND ITI O NS
OF
E AR T H F O R MA TIO N
-
.
2 98
Condition
the
S u n d u r ing E a r th forma tion
f
Taking the earth system to have been abandoned by the sun
as a nebulous z one according to the theory of L aplace the
earliest condition o f the sun in relation to this zone would be
that o f a luminous globe of nearly the diamet r of the earth s
orbit A s the earth zone commenced to condense and form a
planet the su n s volume wo u ld at the same time be also con
d e n s in g and leavin g this zone more free by distance
If
there w a s any inequality of density in the zone ring th e
most probable condition , there would then be a separation at
the most attenuated part of t his zone , and a further con
densation in another part by the continuity of the system of
attractions of th e denser matter S o that it is probable that
the earth condensed into a nebulous globe by concentratio n
be fore any solid matter was formed at its centre
A fter the detachment of a neb ular planet z one this z one
having much greater surface area relatively to volume in
comparison with the voluminous sun , and being open to free
radiation into space in all parts not directly facing the sun ,
would condense much more quickly than an equal volume
of the sun s nebula
2 9 9 In considerin g th e condensation of the nebul ous zone
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T HE S U N
D U R ING E A R T H F O RMA TI O N
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as a Special exterior formation , we may conclude that no
c ondensation could o ccur unless the radiation of its heat into
space exceeded that derived fro m the condensing sun although
at the same time the nebulous z one must have conti nuously
absorbed the sun s h eat fall ing upon it Under these con
ditio ns the r diation of heat into Space from the zone must
have been of its initial amount plus that co nstan tly received
from the solar centre If w e imagine wh at is most pro
bable that at the early time O f condensation by cooling a
clouding would be produced in this z one through excess of
radiation then the sun s rays absorbed into the zone would
be di ffu sed within it so that the radiation w o u ld take place
from the zone in all directions , but more p articularly in the
exterior pa rts and those perpendic u lar to the plane of o rbit
where it w as most O pen to free Space
3 00 Under the above stated conditions W e may consider
the effects of the fo rmation of a nebulous planet forming zone
upon the amount of r adiation of heat and light that the sun
would be able to disperse beyond th is impediment to an
exterior planet assumed to be fully formed at the time
Then , ass u ming the earth already formed and the s u n
contracting in volume before t h e peri od of the formation of
an inner planet , as Venus a nebular band or what w e may
term the Venus zone would appear across the sun s disc
which would contin u e to obstruct a large part of his rays and
this would last until the com plete fo rmati on of Venus as a
planet
The like would again O ccur before the complete
formatio n of Mercury W e have appa rently , upon a large
scale , nebulae in this condition
A fter a nebular planet z one w as detached from the s u n
its futu re condensatio n would depend upon co ntingent
circumstances
In fig 2 7 the possible appearance of the large nebulo u s
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2 244 G en C at , R os se N e
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b ula p 90
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N O T ES O N T HE N E RU LAR T HE O RY
2 12
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sun is represented partially ob scured by the V enus nebular
zone at a certain stage of its condensation
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Fi g 2 7
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301
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If Venus or Mercury , from inequality of distrib u tion
of neb u lar matter after the time when their zone rings were left
by the sun or from any following disturbi n g cause as the
intrusion of a comet condensed at first into a nebular globe
as just proposed for the earth ; then this globe after its
formation would in time concentrate to an intensely heated
n u cleus at its centre
This nebular system wo ul d obstruct
the s u n s light through cloudiness at its early period of
formation
but afterwards for another following perio d,
when it became incandescent , it would present the same
light and heat giving radiation as that of the neb u lous sun
to the surface of an exterior planet or greater in propor tion
to its visible surface and its state This ne w formed planet
as before stated would therefore be obstru ctive to light and
heat from the sun if it was nebulous , or a u xili ary to it if it was
incandescent In either case this excess or defect of light
and heat would occur in periods of the newly form ed plan et s
synodic revol u tion in relation to an exterior planet producing
in either case intermittent periods of intensity of radiation of
light and he a t upon the exterior planet
3 0 2 A fter th e periods of the entire condensation of a
newly formed pla n et to non obstr u ctive or non auxi li ary heat
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N OT ES O N T HE N EB U LA R T HE O RY
2 14
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nebulous sun as a dark band
The local condensation
within the neb u lar band w ould ultimately form Venus into
a large globular nebulous planet the clouding e ffects of
which when moving ove r the sun s disc would diminish the
sun s heat in transit and make it therefore in te rmittent in
intensity with regard to the earth as just stated , in periods of
5 8 4 d ays
This passing of the neb u lous planet over th e large
nebulous sun at th e time o f inferior conjunction might
possibly at first nearly obscure his light and heat at other
times exceeding nin e te nth s of the period of revolution , the
n ebula r s u n wo u ld appear bright and open
30 5 It will be seen o n examining the conditions just pro
posed which must be incidental to inferio r planet formatio n
as regards the earth , that there were nine somewhat distinct
periods of minus and plus sol ar radiation , therefore of greater
or less h eat and light radiation , affectin g the formation or
depositions of matter upon the earth s surfac e These may
conveniently be d efined to Show the e ffective state of th e sun
as a radiating body under the entirely nebular conditions
proposed during the formation of V enus and Mercur y as
far as they wo u ld affect the earth
1 P er iod of open r a dia tion of bright nebulous li ght and
heat lasting from the separation of the earth z on e from the
su n until the commencement of the condensation of the
Venus zone , d u rin g part of which pe riod the earth was a
nebulous globe
2 P eri od of n ebu lou s obs cu r ity of the sun caused by an
absorptio n band across the sun s disc perl od of d ull nebulo u s
light and h eat lasting from the early part o f the condensa
tion of the Ven u s zone until its formatio n as a nebul ous
planet
3 Inter mittent light a nd d u ll p er iod s o f abou t 5 84 days ,
the bright periods much exceeding the dull periods and 1n
creasing in brightness from the time of the condensation of
Venus to a globular nebulous planet until it became non
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D I S TIN CT S O LAR HEA TIN G P ER I O DS
215
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bstructive to solar radiation P eriod of great disturbance
of local conditions of deposition u pon the earth
4 P er iod of in ter mi tten t ex ce s s of b r ight n eb u lous light a nd
hea t caused by the presence of Ven u s as an incandescent
body partic ularly near the period of transit lasting from the
t ime of condensation of Venus to an incandescent liquid or
solid planet until it ceased to be in any degree auxiliary to
the s u n s heat
5 Se con d p eriod of br ight Op e n light of the s u n lasting till
the co mmencement of the formation of the Mercury zone
6 P er iod of n eb u lo u s obs cu r ity by a d en s e b a n d a cr os s the
s u n s d i s c lasting from the early part of the condensation of
the Mercury zone u ntil the complete fo rmation of Mercury
as a nebulous planet
7 S econd p eri od of in ter mitten t light a nd du ll p er iod s o f
about 1 1 6 days , the bright periods much exceeding the d ul l
periods , the light increasing with time , lasting from the time
of condensation of Mercury to a nebulous globular planet
until it became non O bstructive to solar radiation P eriod of
local di sturbance of systematic strati fi cation of disintegrated
m atter upon the earth
8 S eco nd p er iod of a u x ilia ry light a nd hea t when Merc u ry
became an in candescent globe , lasting until it ceased to add
to the sun s light and heat The whole period much less
active than the corresponding period of Venus condensation
9 T hir d op en p eriod of b right light lastin g from t he com
l
e te formation of Mercury as a non auxiliary light giving
p
planet until the present period of intense solar radiation and
for all future time of e ffective solar energy
3 0 6 I nflu ence of I nclin a tion of the O r bits of I nferio r P la nets
—
n
will
be
seen
with
regard
to
the
Ven
u
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E
t
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I
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d
cc
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a
y
zone and the second period of dull nebulo u s light, that owing
to the inclination of the plan e of the orbit of Ven u s 3
u nless the nebular zone had a sectional diameter of abo u t
1 0 million miles t ransverse to this plane it would n ot
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
2 16
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continuously cover the centre of the s u n s disc , S O that I t
wo u ld appear to shift about from north to south in synodic
periods the entire variation of which would take ab out 2 43
years This would occur u ntil its condensation into a n eb u lar
globe
The same conditions as described above would occur in the
sixth period with the Mercury zone ; but in this case we h ave
an inclination of orbit of 7 with great eccentricity, so that
the centre of the sun s disc would be covered by a neb u lar
band of 5 millions of miles and if it were of this diameter
transverse to the plan e of orbit its e ffects u pon the diminished
solar disc wo u ld be nearly the same as that of Venus b u t in
shorter periods of 7 1 3 or 4 6 years Under these conditio n s
the dull periods proposed wo u ld be in degree intermittent and
produce great changes in the atmospheric conditions of the
earth
3 0 7 A t the formation of a nebulous globe in the early
part of the sixth and seventh intermittent periods it is pos
sible that each of the planets Ven us and Mercury , when a
nebu la s u btended as great an angle at the earth as the neb ular
sun of these separate periods In this manner the sun wo u ld
be obscured at every inferior conjunction and have its disc
partly obscured for nearly one tenth of the partic u lar planet s
synodic period This intermittent condition would probably
produce greater effects u pon the earth s atmosphere , and
therefore upon deposition of rocks than the dull periods ,
second and sixth previously considered
3 0 8 It is scarcely possible to realize the enormous e ffects
that would be produced by the obscuration of the sun for a fe w
days only b u t very possibly this was only partial If actu al
nearly the whole of the waters of the vapour laden atmosphere
wo uld be precipitated
Terrestrial organic life woul d be
de s troyed by the sudden cold Inland lakes and rivers and
p a rt of the ocean wo u ld be frozen so that an entire organic
in animal life might follo w, this bein g possibly
change
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2 18
N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LA R T HE O R Y
.
G enera l E f ects of the la rge N ebu lou s S u n up on the
’
—
E a r th s M eteorologica l Cond ition
P erhaps th e most distinctly
3 10
.
important condition that wo u ld be due to a large nebular sun
free from the disturbing effects of planeta ry formation , would
be that the w hole of the earth might be diurnally lighte d and
heated by the s u n , and that this di ffusion of light and heat
would establish very cahn conditions in the atmosphere
The tropics wo u ld n ot be excessively heated and the polar
regions would receive at all times direct sun s rays , so that
a ssuming the body of t he earth had cooled below a temp erat u re
to affect the evaporation o f the oceanic surface there wo u ld
not be the excess of evaporation and expansion of air and
vapour over the tropics as at prese nt , due to solar radiation or
the great excess of condensation in polar areas to produce
the violent atmosph eric cur r ents we h ave at present in
storms and cyclones
3 11 A t the period when the sun had condensed to the
orbit of Venus , the diameter of his disc would exceed
so
that it wo u ld present a l u minous surface of this angle and
the poles even in mid winter, would have a segment of the
sun shining daily through an arc of 1 0 versed S ine A t the
period when the sun had decreased to the dimensions of the
orbit of Mercury it would still pre sent an angle of
There
fore , e v e n in mid winter , there wo u ld be at least a d aily twilight
Altogether the general conditions of the globe wo u ld be very
equ able as compared with the present , altho u gh , of course , the
polar area would still be colder, as being more open to free
radiation If on the other hand we conside r in contrast the
conditions that would be active d u ring the shorter intermittent
periods 2 , 3 4, 6 , 7 , and 8 , 3 0 5, the atmosphere wo u ld at
these times be subj ect to constant disturbance by high wind s
and heavy rams in intermittent hot and cold periods , which
wo u ld ca u se rapid decomposition of rocks and generally
prod u ce intermittent thin planes of varied strati fi cati on
3 1 2 A s regards depo s iti ons of matter upon th e earth fr om
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E FFE CT S O F LARGE NE B U L O U S S U N
2 19
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degradation of rocks these m u st depend always in amo u nt u pon
the atmospheric conditions present We might have a long
period d u ring which depositions went on very Slowly A
period of light rains and nearly constant s u nshine in which
very little matter wo uld be detached from the rocks or
bro u ght down to the sea level d u ring which time the con
ditions of life being constant there wo u ld be very little reason
for any change of form and the strata of u niversal matter
deposited altho u gh u niform wo u ld be very inco mmens u rate
O n the other hand we might have periods of
with the time
heavy rainfall and frost in hi gh lands d u ring which ti m e do
gradation and deposition w o u ld be very rapid and the strata
formed be very deep for the limited time of formation With
great change of atmospheric conditions there wo u ld be great
str u ggles for existence in which favo u rable varieties of life
forms only wo u ld s u rvive
S o that on the whole , no depth of geolo gi cal strati fi cation
nor even changes of animal life wi ll indicate with any exact
ness the extent of time of a geolo g ical period unl ess we p ossess
other data for conside r ation
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2 20
]
CH A P T E R X V
.
T IM E E LE M ENT S I N T HE S O LAR S YS T E M
P AR TICULARLY F O R E S TIMATI NG T H E AG E O F T HE E AR T H
AND FO R IT S G E O L O G IC AL P ER I O D S
C O NS I DERATI O N
OF
,
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3 13
T ime of Con de n s a tion of ou r S ola r S y s tem —This may
.
.
possibly be fo u nd with some degree of approximation by
estimating the rate of contraction of the o riginal nebula upon
For this c alculation w e may
thermodynamic principles
take the dimensions of the nebula at any period of its con
trac t ion when it occupied a space within the extent of o u r
sol a r planetary system until the present time , when it has
contra cted to the small volume of our sun In this propo
s itio n we again accept the probability that the nebula was
originally one of th e symmetrical planetary nebul ae of whi ch
w e possess many instances O pen to astro n omical observation
A probable form being that of one of the nebulae Shown
S uch a nebula u nder the conditions
P late II a b c or d
we have assumed thro u gho u t this work must have condensed
constantly by radiation of heat from its surface , and at the same
time have formed our sun by concentration of matter a b out
the centre We may form an estimate of the extent of this
nebula at least at a certain period by the extent of the
extre m e planetary orbits of our system and if w e kne w the
rate of radiation a t the surface and of concentration of matter
at the centre or sun as a heat focus w e could then estimate
the time the system may have taken to arrive at its present
state
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222
N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T H E O R Y
.
freely dispensed into O pen space Therefore w e may con
v e nie ntly consider the present con t r action o f t h e sun as a
periodical constant without great risk of error , for which w e
may obtain some data from thermodyn amic laws O n the
other hand , the con t raction of the atte nuated medium o r
pneuma which formed th e limiting volume , as this has
practically disappea r ed fro m the solar sys tem must have
p r oceeded at a higher rate F or this calculation w e may
ind u lge in certain assumptions which may give approximate
r esults
3 17 A ccording to the original calculatio n o f H elmholt z th e
sun s radius is diminishing at the p resent time by
part
in 2 0 00 years
or 1 2 6 3 2 feet annually This
estimate h as since been S lightly increased
F or an even
number we will take 1 30 feet , w hich for convenience may be
considered as a constant of time condensation of the solar o r
n u cleus nebula fr o m the early period which we are now
considering
3 1 8 A S regards the limiting supe rfi cial cont raction o f the
pneuma , we will suppose that it condensed in some degree
in proportion to its tenuity or distance from t h e solar centre
A t a distant position it may have been r apid on the sun at
present it may have nearly ceased We will take i t that at the
period when the solar nebula extended to the orbit of N eptune
the mean annual decrease of its r adius w a s , as an extrem e
condition , possibly equal to tw o miles
Upon thes e data
time elements may be ca lculated
3 1 9 F or the time of condensation of th e solar neb ula to
the present condition of our sun we will call the radius o r
mean distance of the o r bit of Neptune in fe et, r ; the
radial contraction of the solar nebula equal to tw o miles o r
feet , f and the constant of central solar contractio n
It is then clear th at f diminishes as it is
S = 1 3 0 feet
assumed to do , at a uniform rate until it has vanished at the
present time , its mean diminutio n was half this rate The r e
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TIM E O F C O ND ENSATIO N or S O LAR SYS T EM
223
.
fore th e mean total diminution of the neb u la for the limit of
nebula r co ndensation from the period will be
'
divided into r gives
7
S
+
§
g
l S
- -
.
This
=t, time ; whic h w e fi nd to be 2 7 2 3
millions of years —the suggested time of condensation of
the solar nebula from the dimensions o f the orbit of N eptune
to those of our present sun
3 2 0 T aking the same form ula for the earth calling its
orbit radi u s or distance from the sun r or about 316 of r w e
.
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,
T
have f
a)
=t
’
+s
’
,
which gives t (earth time ) about 1 00 8 millions
-
of years or, roughly 1000 mill ions of years for th e time of
the condensatio n of the sola r nebula from th e earth s orbit
until the present time
3 2 1 The abo ve calculatio n may be take n as q uite the
inferior limit of time ; no allowance has been made for the
condensation at the solar focus which ul timately formed our
present sun which might increase in volume directly as the
increase of gravitation from nearness of the more refractory
matter to this centre possibly in inverse proportion to the
distances of all par ts of the nebulous matter fro m the centre
The increasing compression of matter about the centre would
more perfectly conserve the heat of the system su rrounded,
as it wo uld be , by a denser nebular atmosphere according
to L ane s law , § 1 1 p 1 1 There fore it is not probable
that the decrease of volume from the e ffects of ou te r surface
radiation of the nebula would progress at quite so hi gh a
r ate as that just stated
We will n ow consider the conditions o f t ime—
variations o f
heat and light from the sun during its condensation , from the
period when we assume it to have been a nebulous spheroid of
the radius of the earth s orbit until the present time
3 2 2 D is tr ibu tion of Time up o n the E a r th thr oughou t the
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O R Y
224
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n
i
t
h
on de n s a tion o the S u n a n d the I nfer ior
e r iod s o
e
C
y gp
f
f
va r
P la nets — This may be taken from
the calculation just given
of 1 0 00 m illions of years making the divisions of time by
fi xing certain radii o f the nebulous s u n to correspond with
periods previo u sly defi ned, for the probable clouding an d
auxili ary e ffects upon the sun s exterior radiati on during
planetary formation In this proposition we may possibly
divide the pe ri od of radian t energy into four classes con
sistent with our table
We may take solar energy to be
—
—
open to be obstructed to be inter m ittently obstructed and
—
open or to be increased by th e energy of the conde n s e d
planet when this was in an incandescent state The d u ration
of these periods was probably proportional to the r ate of
condensation I will take as hypothesis the formation of the
nebular z one of Ven u s to have been obstru ctive to solar
radiation during the sun s contraction for one fourth of the
dis tance between the or b its o f the earth and O f Venus That as
soon as the sun s nebula was quite free from the Venus zone
Ven u s wo u ld co m mence to form a nebulo u s globe We will
suppose that this neb u lo u s globe remained intermittently
obstructive to the s u n s rays until the s u n had contracted to
one eighth the distance between the orbits of Venus and o f
Mercury That Ven u s then gradually contracted and bec a me
by incandescence a bright body of possibly not m ore than
six ti mes its present radius A t this time it would be com
parable with the s u n in de n sity and probably for a short
period much brighter than the nebulous sun even possibly
as bright as o u r present sun This state of Ven u s would
slo w ly cool down and possibly when the sun had contracted
to one fourth the distance between the orbits of Venus and
Mercu ry , Venus had ceased to become in any measurable
degree a heat and light gi ving factor to the earth After
the condensation of Venus as a cool planet shrinking to
nearly its present dimensions , the sun would remain O pen u ntil
the condensation to form Mercury Merc u ry wo u ld then go
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
226
.
the rotation of the earth at the present time
but
as we presume that this zone wo u ld be partially condensed to
discrete matter from exterior matter drifting in spiral paths
thereto
which in falling upon the earth would tend to
ca u se a negative rotation the cross section of the zone ring
proposed above may not be too great
Thi s zone after
d et achment co u ld not m aintain its heat to the extent
form erly sugg ested for the s urface of the nebulo u s sun as w e
have no large intense centralized source of internal heat
comp a rable with th a t of the sun within the zone ring so that
its heat would depend u pon its condensation only a n d
as this zone wo u ld possess m u ch larger s u r face relatively to
volume than the sun it woul d be O pen more freely to radiation
and contract at certainly q u ite double the rate of the sun
This would a s before stated o c cur principally at its o u ter
s u rface away from the s u n and at all outward angles trans
verse to the plane of orbit as no central heat from the sun
could fall u pon these parts In thi s manner the trans
verse radi ation o f heat from the z one wo u ld make the to tal
contraction of the zone proportional to its sectional radi u s
Upon this proposition taking the sun s neb ulo u s contraction
a t the position of the orbit of the earth as before proposed
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S , which will be 4 8 2 feet in a year , or at the position
3
of the o u ter s u rfa ce of the ring abo u t 50 0 feet in a year
denoting this by a the number of miles in the ring section
by b the n u mber of feet to a mile by c and dividing by 2 for
the cont ra ction of opposite sides of the ring and again by 2 to
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make the contraction do u ble of the sun s we have
’
,
x 52 8 0
bc
2 x 2a
years , for the period of con
2 x 2 x 500
’
traction of the earth s neb u lous zone upon itself to the position
of the a xis of the ring
3 2 5 In the above stated proposition the cont racti on of the
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F O R M ATI O N O F T HE NEB U L O U S EAR T H
227
.
’
earth s zone ring upon itself can only be considered the o re ti
cally as the m od u s Op er a n di To give the moon its revolution
period and the earth its rotation w e m u st i m agine a separa
tion to have occurred at some part of the neb u lar zone under
which condition simultaneo u sly wit h the contraction of the
section of the ring it w as being drawn together by gravita
tion acting in the linear direction of its circu m ference so as
to form a neb u lar globe This would of c ourse materially
complica te the condition s of the calc ulation of ti m e b y
a differentiation di ffi cult to follow ; but a s the radiation
surfa ce wo uld certainly b e constantly lessened d u ring the time
of glob u lar condensation w e m ay prolong the time possible
by ne a rly do u ble the a m o u nt of the ti m e s u ggested say to
5 0 millions of years for th e c ondens ation of our e a rth from
a nebulous zone to a liquid globe at a n intense white heat
s u rro u nded as it must necessarily have been by an extensive
nebulo u s atmosphere This globe would possibly be for m ed
principally of iron with the presence of other highly refractory
metals and beco m e the permanent n u cle u s of m u ch the gre ater
part of the volu m e of our present earth upon which the
deposition of oxidized matter may have been s uperimposed
upon principles already disc u ssed The s u perficial conditions
are represented by the geological periods of the earth to be
considered in the following chapter
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C H AP TE R X V I
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G EO L O G I CAL P ER I OD S C O RRELA T ED W IT H A S T R O N O M ICA L
P HEN O M ENA
32 6
.
G eologica l P eriods —L eaving
of consideration
an
notice
of
the
early
paroxysmal
school
of
y
eminent geolo gists among whom M u rchison S
Miller may be particularly distinguished w h o have made
attentive study of a sin gle gro u p of ancient rocks have
c ome to the general concl u sion that there have been special
periods in the past which have been conducive to the formation
of special kinds of rocks which , with the fossils therein con
ta in e d, are very distinguishable from other periods
T hat in
and during the different periods for an im m e n sity of time
wide areas of the globe were affected by like condi tions from
causes unknown S o that if we ta ke , for instance as the
most striking example the S ilurian pe riod of Murchison , this
appears to be characterized by the presence of fi n ely deposited
rocks in an entire broad band of u nequ al thickness surrounding
the N orthern H emisphere containing fossils of a similar
s u ccession of faunas , marked by partic u lar zones of genera
a n d species
It is probable also , j u dging from rock texture
and orga nic remains that similar general conditions affected
the l a nd areas of the S o u thern H e m
isphere during the same
lengthened period
A school of thought , founded by the geni u s of H utton an d
developed b y L yell wherein due recognition , n ot previously
ta ken is m ade of contemporary formations has arrived at
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
230
.
O f this may be mentioned the constant decrement of the
sun s volu m e the condensations of the sol a r neb ular matter
at critical temperat ures the astronomical constants of vari a tion ,
of eccentricity of orbit , precession of the eq u inoxes and change
of obliquity of axis and possi b ly also some changes due to the
revolution of the magnetic pole which have not yet been
recognized
3 2 9 B y a general consensus of geological O pinio n the
c oncl u sion is arrived a t that the long periods of deposition of
s u rface r ocks which are O pen to observation can b ut be
representatio ns of detached u nits of geological ti me This is
sho w n most clearly in the great changes of animal remains
between one st ratu m or set of strata and the next, in which
the lost period of evolution often appears to be much
greater than the long period made evident by the slow
deposition of a formation or indeed sometimes of a single
stratum
That this should be so may be inferred from
the slow but constant action of meteorological forces alone
in disintegrating rocks which must always have been
active upon the rocks protr u ded above the oceanic surface
and have prod u ced continuous contiguous de position of
these rocks in another form at a lo w er level This deposi
tion w hich is ge n eral over the floor of the ocean does
not necessarily at any period beco m e visible as s u rface rock
u nless it is elev a ted
by pl utonic forces above the level of
the oceanic surface The evidences of the fossil and other
remains in the rocks which remain permanent as it were
by the accident of being proje cted above oceanic level Show
in m any cases that o u r visible s u rface rocks may have been
elevated locally by plutonic forces and have been degraded
by meteoric forces many times before they prod u ced any of
the present finely disintegrated strata The materials of the
rocks appear after disintegration to be sor ted out as it were
so as to depart entirely in stru ctu re from their original
and therefore they must lose their former history
c haracter
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GE O L O GIC AL PER I O DS
23 1
.
Th e whole vestiges th a t
re ma in of the long periods of the
geologi c al p a s t represented by detached u nits genera lly of slow
deposition of m inera l m a tte r bro u ght do w n b y the a ction of ra in ,
sno w wind and tides together with the large ac cu m u l atio n
of rem ains of ani mal a n d vegeta ble life that h a ve es c aped
after degradation amo unt altogether to some 1 8 to 20 miles
in thi cknes s Of deposition only a n d these in s eparate deta ched
u nits a r e all w e possess fro m which to draw a n
inference
y
whatever of the long period of past geological ti m e
3 3 0 The above sta te m ent as regards the extent of past
geological time in its entirety does not pre cl u de our recog
n it io n if w e
l
e a s e t o a cc ept it of the evidences of cert a in
p
c onditions th a t r u led for certain long periods for whi c h we
m ay attrib u te a ctive ca u ses
Th u s as an inst ance d u ring the
gre at S il u rian period before mentioned w e find locally even
miles in thickness of finely a n d slowly deposited rocks in
even stratification in a system which appears to have extended
to a greater or less depth over the l a rger part of the N orthern
H emisphere In this w e find here a nd there ripple marked
surfac es left of the an cient q uies c ent oceans a n d of rain
marks on the s m ooth sandy bea c hes O f the period W e are
therefore upon these premises bo u nd to concl u de that during
this ti m e we have a period of mild qu iescent atmospheri c
conditions and of the m inimum effect of tid al action , possibly
with heavy rainfa ll for which causes m ay be fairly s u ggested
This s u bject will n o w be considered generally by taking the
separate early periods defi ned by modern geologists and
endeavo u ring to correla te them with the periodic conditions
which have been proposed par ticu larly with regard to the
a ction of the e ffective radiation of the s u n s h eat an d of his
conte m porary vol u me u nder circ umstances which have been
already discu ssed
3 3 1 A r chwa n P eriod — A fter the metallic nu cle u s of the
earth w a s formed
we sho u ld have the possible approach
of lighter neb ular matter a nd its union with the surrounding
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N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LAR T HE O RY
232
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oxygen and halogens present e ntaili n g complicate d chemical
processes the principal factors of whi ch wo u ld b e the con
de n sation and d eposition of oxides a n d h a loids upon the
cooler polar areas of the earth as before proposed The great
atmospheric pressure would cause a lso the heavy rains o f
highly heated water in circumpolar areas as before stated
The hot rains u nder the great press u re would dissolve the
siliceo u s aluminous and calcareo u s ro cks that w ere already
precipitated from the condensed nebula ne ar the poles and
those also that were crowding outwards in pressure folds
under the influence of gravitation whilst floa ting u pon the
central de n se liq u id metallic base matter B y the hot rains
t he protr u ding rocks as they were co n s ta n tly d i s s o lv e d at
thei r s u rfac es would be brought down into the hollo w s
3 3 2 A fter w ards as the atmosphere cooled the se m i liq uid
ro cks would be grad u ally deposited in a cry s talline form in
These depositions fro m aqueous
h ollows and lake basins
sol u tion probably produced the foliated crystalline rocks of
the period most largely in gneiss , but partially also in mic a
and hornb lende schists , chlorite Slate and crystalline lime
stone
3 3 3 The land areas formed of newly deposited rocks at
the close of the A rch aean period would be left elevated by
o u t w ard pressure of plutonic forces thro u gh polar press u res
to great hei ght at a distance around the poles These rocks
being constantly ov e rfl ow n with hot water left a system of
permanent rocks , as before stated lo c ally thrown u p at any
point of minor resistance upon the first thin crust of the earth
or retained at the lower levels deposited from sol u tion from
The constant o u tflow of the
i t s saturated m ineral waters
lower heated viscid rocks moving into equ ilibrium to gravita
ti o nal position ca u sed the upheavals from resistance to take
place more particularly at the rounded borders of continental
lands fro m c a uses already pointed out The general land
s u rface therefore w as thereby covered with lake basins formed
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234
NO
T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
excess of polar radiation cooling the superinc u mbent vapo u r
into rain clo u ds of sufficiently low te m perature u pon pre cipi
t a tion to allow the commen c ement of organic li fe in polar
regions This n e w li fe the cause of the beginning of which
m u st rest in the G reat Unknown , would be afterwards slowly
distributed in s uccession fu rther and further from the poles
as the latit u de temperature fell by th e contin u ous sec u lar
cooli n g at greater distance therefrom
The distrib u tion
u nder changes of circumstances wo u ld cause local variation
of Species o u twards from the po le for adaptability to the
surface conditions ; b ut as life variation is a very slow process
there wo u ld still be strong a ffi nities in the newer anim a l life
as it extended with that which preceded its departure from its
primitive polar home
3 3 6 The A rch aean rocks are here taken to be the earliest
chilled s u perficial rocks for the greater part projected to the
surface by plutonic forces and a c ted upon by the ruling con
diti on s present ; b u t if we consider that the same forces are
still evidently active to a certai n extent in prod u cing plutonic
and volcanic phenomena we can b u t take it that the system
is m ore or less a contin u ous one lasting u ntil the present time
The o u tward form of these rocks partic ul arly the mode of
crystallization must c ertainly vary in time from the di fferences
of s u rface conditions of the globe in the heat maintain e d at
the surfa ce the press u re O f the atmosphere the amo u nt of
aqueo u s vapour , and the m as s of such elements projected to
or beneath the s u rfa c e at any period b u t the materials must
vary very little in che mical co m position comi n g as they are
here s u ggested to do fro m the same u niversal source of
exterior nebular deposition
3 3 7 A s w e leave the A rch aean perio d we have n ew lights
breaking u pon us to g u ide u s to the evidences of past time
shown in the somewhat systematic evolution of organic life
B u t in this we have to contend with a constant eras u re of
e vidences thro u gh th e activity of th e atmospheric phenomena
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GE O L O GI CAL PER I O DS
23 5
.
within any period as before stated which may leave u s b u t
faint indices of the changes through which the life and
materi als of s u rfac e rocks may h ave passed before the rocks
tha t remain to observation were formed Th u s in the
feet or so of old Cambrian an d S ilurian ro cks to be presently
considered , there is little evidence that we can derive from o u r
experience of rock degradation and deposition th at these rocks
were formed directly fro m Ar c hae a n rocks In deed we m u st
alm ost conclude from the a verage fine str ucture of the S il u rians
that they may have been c h u rned u p by atmospheric for c es very
many times d u ring the A rch ma n period before they arrived at
th e state in which we find them in the S ilu ri a ns
W hat w e
appear to possess indices of in rock texture in m a ny cases
is that there were within the A rch ae a n period so m e speci a l
periods of deposition , separated possibly by longer periods
wherein rocks were deposited and disintegrated many ti m es
before they formed the Strata we find open to O bservation whi ch
may have been formed by a speci a l lo c al deposition at a certa in
period It is also probable that these periods of deposition
were apart from a ny uniform conditions a nd depended grea tly
upon certain spe cial conditions that were a ctive u pon the
globe from the astronomical causes already dis c u ssed
3 3 8 Ca m b r o S ilu r ia n P e riod — L ong before the condensa
tion of the Ven u s zone previously described nebulo u s matter
condensed interior to the earth s or b it would be floating in
Spiral bands towards this zone s u nward obsc u ring a large
part of the light and heat of the then l a rge neb u lous s u n
so th at the obsc u ration cau sed b y the con densation of the
Venus zone when it was abandoned by the sun might not be
very s u dden ; but as this zone cooled the obsc u rity wo u ld
c onstantly increase up to a cert a in point of its condensation
possibly even so fa r cooling the e a rth as to produce a tem
o rar y glacial period abo u t the poles
p
3 3 9 A t the co m mence m ent of the for m ation of the Ven u s
zone the vapour laden atmosphere wo u ld exert a press u re
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
23 6
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much greater t han the present The heavy temperate rains
that fell at first over the polar areas only, would gradually
extend over the present temperate regions by which th e
s u rfa ce rocks would be worn off and washed down to the s e a
shores and pelagic life Spreading origin ally from the poles
would inhabit these temperate shores The shores by the
ex c essive rainfall w ould be again covered with n e w deposits
brought down from the still elevated A rch aean rocks in w hich
the mineral rem ains of organic life would b e b u rie d u nti l
the sea bottom extended o u tward to a great area from the
co a st These deposits wo u ld be again fu rther di ffused by
oceanic c u rrents The sea wo u ld constantly but slowly rise
by the a mo u nt of deposition in proportion to the inland
denudation an d in a s mall degree by the loss of vapour in the
atmosphere and overflow its former bo u ndaries
3 40 The polar regions , by the effect of constant ra i nfall
wo u ld beco m e degraded as they wo u ld be also falling in
temperature through the obscurity of the s u n until in pro
cess of time the cold would be s u fficient at th e most obsc u re
period to ca u se life to become extinct through wide circum
pol a r regions A t the same time u nder diminished heat from
the sun marine life Spreading o u twards over the then tem
perate l atit u des fro m the polar regions wo u ld be supported by
convection currents from the warmer s ubmarine rocks not
yet coo led to surface temperature , so that life would extend
over the entire temperate and tropical regions of the
globe
3 4 1 In the most obscure part of the period the initial heat
of the globe s u perficially cooled down would maintain the deep
waters in the tropic al and temperate latitu des upon its surfa c e
at a fairly e q u able temperature favourable to marine life
A lthough under these conditions if by ebb of tides or other
c ir c u m s tance s such m arine li fe was exposed in restricted areas
in circumpolar regions witho u t the circulation of warm
currents it would be destroyed by the low temperature
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N OT ES O N T HE NEB ULAR T HE O RY
238
.
as before stated
1 53 , and the possibility at this time , from
the large disc of the dull nebulous sun subtending an angle
as proposed , of 6 7 degrees , that the small amount of heat
derived from the sun w a s so distributed over temper ate
regions that it was partic u larly conducive to the rapid spread
of marine life in the constantly su b aq u e o usly warmed seas
In fact it was as the fossil remains indicate a perfectly
equ able qu iescent temperate time although under very
—
consta nt rainfall ex cept only that the polar regions in the
m ost obscure time may have been deeply covered with sno w
and ice as before stated to produce about these regions a
te mporary glacial period with contemporary elevation of
s u rface rocks elsewhere u pon principles already discussed
D uring the p u bli cation of this work i t has come to my no tice
that the equable condition of S ilurian time as being d u e to a
large nebulous s u n , has been suggested by M 0 W olf in his
able work L es H ypoth eses C osmogoniques , p 3 2
3 44 The general evidences of the Camb r o S ilurian time
indicate th a t comparatively Shallow seas prevailed or extensive
The frail shells indica t e
fi at Shores which abounded with life
quiescent oceans free from storms and from much ti dal a ction
These Shores were constantly thickened by n e w deposition of
fi ne sands , m u d or calcareous concretions , conseq u ently to
rem ain Shallow they m u st have s u nk or the ocean must have
risen Most probably both these conditions occ u rred The
recently highly heated rocks would be Slowly Shrinking by
loss of heat in s uperficial strata ; and at the same time in
this early a ge there would be a slo w u n d erfl ow o f the still
viscid lo w er heated rocks that were moving equator ward to
gravitation equilibrium
At the sam e time the excess of
rainfall wo uld be lowering the surface rocks and in this degree
raising the oceanic level as before stated , the w hole co ndition
causing great depths of Shore deposits The ripple marks
which give the evidences of quiescent times , independently
of the even stratifi cation were possibly preserved to us by
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G
E O L O GI C AL P ER IO D S
239
.
occ a sional light clouds of dry dust blo w n over them from
the hi gher la nds d u ring summer
3 4 5 D evon ia n P eriod — W hen the nebular z one of Venus
had beco m e broken and ha d co m men ced to condense to a
n ebulo u s planet of large di am eter its disc would alternately
obscu re the sun and leave it O pen A t such a ti m e the
in t ensi ty of the he at and light of the s u n would be inter
mittent in periods of the synodic inferior conj u nctions of
Ven u s S uch intermittent periods , by causing periodically
rapid ch a nges of temperat u re from m ild to intense cold
would render the land s u rfa c e incap able of m aintaining
either vegetable or anim a l life and be also destr u ctive of
littora l m ollusk life
B ut in the O pen ocean where such
at m ospheric changes due to temperat ure wo u ld create great
distu rbance and thereby increase of the o c eani c circulation
deep sea m oll u sks and fi shes of migratory habit could
s u rvive It is at this period we have possibly the early
progressive evol u tion of distinctly vertebrate fishes whi ch
appear to be in a certain degree allied to the later forms of
cr u sta ceans and to the embryo forms of the fu t u re reptiles
possibly evolved partly I would suggest by ex t ension of the
cauda l parts of these e arly ani mals so that cert ain early
crusta ceans represent the head only of the l ater fishes These
fishes , whi ch came to perfect development in the period
represented by the O ld Re d S andstone in G reat B ritain were
evidently forms a dapted to the required conditions of migratory
habit They possessed in m ost cases powerful fins and tails
the fins in some cases being possibly adapted to rapid
sur face swi mming such fishes of the entire family of the
A sterolepid ae a s Coccos teu s decipz en s P ter z c/z t/zy s oblongus
O ther fishes were evidently adapted to
Cep lz a la sp z s Lye llz
deep se a swi mm ing as H o loP ty chz u s
O s teo lep z s
maj or a n d many o t her forms all of which were equally
ad a pted to m igratory life
3 4 6 A fter the int ermittent obsc u re pe riod there wo u ld be
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2 40
N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
a period in which the condensin g globe of Venus wo u ld
become ne u tral in its heating e ffects being neither obst ru ctive
nor a u xilia ry to the sun s heat A t this period we have all
the conditions condu c ive to the spre ad of vegeta ble life over
the land s u rface
3 4 7 From the period of greatest obsc u rity by the co u den
sation of the neb u lar globe of Venus to tha t of ne u tra lity of
this planet s effects upon the sun s radiation wo u ld be the t ime
of greatest deposition of sno w u pon the c ooler portions of the
earth d u ring the winter solstice Through this period the
earth s crust being m u ch thinner than at present , wo u ld
be more sensitive to u pheaval and intrusion of plutonic
m atter beneath the s u rface from press u re of the snow at the
poles bearing down the polar surfa ce rocks There w o u ld
th e re fo re b e evidence of plutonic action taken in its broadest
sense almost syn odi cally d u ring this period , elevating im
mense districts of land areas in steps
W hen Ven u s had condensed to an incandescent state
plutonic and volcanic action wo u ld cease and the entire snow
at the poles would be melted , so that there would be a retu rn
to p u rely aq u eous conditions with elevation of sea level
The entire period represented by the D evonian in G re at
B ritain I ass ume to have lasted ab o u t 6 0 m illions of years ,
extending beyond the third period of our table
—
This wo u ld commence in the
4
u
P
r
i
o
d
3 8 Ca r b on ifero s
e
interm ittent bright fourth period of Ou r table The tempe
r a t u re of the air wo u ld be raised at the perio d of internal
co njunction of Ven u s and gradually fall so that there wo u ld
be intermittent periods of bright s u nshine followed by heavy
rains This wo u ld produce thin intermittent stratification of
rocks u pon the Shores and in inland l akes These lakes would
over flo w at the rainy period and c u t incipient r1 v e r channels
leav ing thereby extensive marsh la n ds which wo u ld represent
in series exten ding co a stwards the rivers of the tim e W hen
th e s u n beca m e O p e n in the fi fth period these marsh lands ,
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
24 2
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the spread of pelagic life would in this latt er ca se cause
its d estruction The general cooling of the earth at this
period by the obscuration of the s u n s heat therefore pro
bably cau sed a steady drain of vapours from the surface of
the ocean seas an d lakes , which w a s deposited as snow upon
the higher land surface T he lakes on evaporation left saline
deposits in their beds co mbined with fine dust or sand blo wn
from the higher rocks disintegrated by frost The a c cu mu
lation of snow over all the present circumpolar temperate
lands caused by its pressure upon the stil l semi fl uid lower
rocks the general elevation of lands of the earlier periods
more distant from the poles floating these up bodily in
some district s and by local disturbance with unconform ity in
others
3 5 1 It is during the P ermi an period as it is represented
in G reat B ritain that w e find the d y ing out of p al aeoz oic
life In the early most obscure period possibly the conditions
were such that li fe became extinct within the entire present
temperate regions of the globe except in the deep wate rs of
the ocean Upon the earth s surface within the tropics alone
where the dim s u n could e ffectively di ffu se its direct though
obscure rays prevalence of life was possible
3 5 2 In the co n tinuity of life a fter the dull period we hav e
directl y the reverse conditions to those that ruled after the
earlier du ll S ilurian period We have life s preading from the
tropics instead of from the poles The m igratory species that
co u ld reach the temperate shores were also generally m u ch
more highly organized and locomotive and a dapted to bring
in the important factors of animal existence in the n e w era of
the Mesozoic period
This dull P er m ian period would break into the period of
the separation of the Merc ury zone by which an intermittent
period wo u ld be cau sed again prod u cing rapid changes of
thin strati fi cation of rocks not at fi rst conducive to the
existence of organic life ti ll the condensation of Merc u ry
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GE O L O GI CAL PER IO DS
2 43
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eased to obscure the sun What w e may possibly define
as the P ermian period lasted nearly through the sixth d u l l
period which according to o u r table p 2 2 5 would be about
6 0 millions of years
3 5 3 T r ia s s ic a nd R haetic P er iod s —
This division would
complete the second dull to bright intermittent period when
Mercury was formed as a nebulous planet obsc uring the s u n
when in inferior conj u nction The rapid changes prod u ced
in temperature wo u ld cause rapid deposition of rocks and
greatly restrict the conditions of organic life but gradua lly
the volume of Mercury would become less before entering
into the state of an incandescent planet and more calm
conditions wo u ld prevail The Triassic period would last
about 4 7 millions of years completing the open to dull period
—
4
u
i
3 5 J r a s si c P er od
The eighth of our ta ble or the second
auxiliary period We again enter into a time partic ularly
adapted to the rapid evolu tion and spread of pelagic organic
life T he se a Shores by the intermittent rainy conditions
due to temperature changes yet al w ays warm became
covered with fi ne mud from the lan d a reas bringing down
with it abundance of suppo rt for a suitable class of littoral
life carrying at the same time into the deeper oceans carbonate
of lime in solution available for all forms of life depending
upon it This period would extend througho u t the eighth
division of our table for abo u t 3 7 milli ons of years
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3 55
T ime
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Cr eta ceou s a n d E o cene P er iods onwa rds to the p resen t
These may have been partly conte mporary if we
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imagine that the Chalk was a formation more distant from
the ancient shores which was contin u ously over deposited in
some areas while elsewhere it w a s covered by argillaceo u s
This is taken to
rocks as the land s u rfa ce was degraded
This period under
re present the ninth period of our table
would be generally
constant dimin u tion of the s u n s disc
equable , prod u cing only gentle deposition of rocks locally
in drainage basins or in the distant ocean bottom It wo u ld
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N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
2 44
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otherwise be only subj ect to the set of changes that were
due to the condition of the s u n at the critical temperatures
of its former nebulous s u rroundings which may have pro
du ce d occasionally more or less obscure perio ds to which
we may add the changes d u e to eccentricity of orbit and
variation of axis which have produced great changes in
climate This long period drifts us into the pre se nt time
when the sun s disc has become very small relatively to what
it was in the past and of intense light and heat
T h e period set aside by our table to include the C retaceous
and Tertiary periods is 53 2 millions of years This may
appear long for the n u mber of superfi cial cha nges that are
evident upon the surface from the amount of mineral matter
deposited
In such a uniform period the variations were
probably all local and for the most part intermitt ent through
the periodical astronomical changes so that land was alter
n ate l
deposited
and
degraded
many
times
without
producing
y
any great entire depth of strata
3 5 6 W ith rega rd to life our only true index of time in
this period w e may conclude that where there I s a general
constancy of like conditions there is little rea son for chan ge
for adaptib ility to the circumstances present part ic ularly if
the organis m is elevated to a condition of migratory instinct
for accommodation to the seasons Therefore seeing that
the changes have been great the evolution period must have
been immense to have produced the variation in forms which
w e know to have occurred in this period , more particularly in
that of the elevation of the scale of the higher mammals
The changes within the tertiary period present wonderfu l
variations in the str uct u re of the mammalia to give the number
of species we at present possess without consideration of the
n u mber extinct There is one mark however, of contin u o u s
progress throughout all this period—the brai n constantly
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N OT ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HEO RY
2 46
C entral A sia
.
T his wo u ld again react
on the earth s equi
li b rium
B oth of these system s wo uld tend to lower the
sea level of G re a t B ritain ; b u t the subj ec t is too lar ge to be
even sketched in the present treatise
3 6 0 G la cia l P e r iod
A s regards this period , whi ch n eces
saril
comes
within
the
nth
division
this
as
a
consequence
n
i
y
,
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of the nat u ral dimin u tion of the s u n s vol u me has been
di scussed in Chapter XIII
My early r eflections upon thi s
s u bject, when strongly imb u ed with the Hu ttonian principles
developed by L yell , led me to think that there were probably
indices of s u fficient change under local conditions with slight
variations of elevation of land areas to account for this epoch
in E u rope These concl u sions were mainly based upon my
idea that the movements of aerial and oceanic c u rrents are
caused by the expansion of the atmosphere and in less degree
of the oceanic s u rface by the heat of the sun in its apparen t
di u rnal motion thro u gh the tropics driving before it an ex pan
sion wave of air and water
This as a syste matic motion
accordin g to my theory, wo u ld prod u ce whirls o r cyclones
lateral to the tropics , the position of which wo ul d depend upo n
the resistance of the coast lines Under these conditions the
resistances that locate the North Atlantic whirl are the coasts
of N orth A meri ca
The pec u liar conformation of this
coast at the presen t time deflects the N orth Atlantic
—
whirl into a b i whirl , o f which the northern part that
—
is , the G ulf S tream crosses t he Atlantic , passes along
the coast of N orway enters the A rctic Circle , and is de
fl ecte d back to its origin after passing along the coast of
G reenland which it leaves glaciated by the cold A rctic
current This direction of rotation is quite abnormal to that
of any other lateral tropical whirl It is clear, as stated in
my paper read before the B ritish As sociation in 1 88 5 T that i f
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GE O L O G ICAL PERI O DS
247
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th e lo w er central la nds of North A merica w ere only sunk some
3 0 0 fee t from the mou th of the Mississippi through to Hu dson s
B ay a result readily prod u ced by cosmic ca u ses already
discu ssed this whirl wo u ld then t ake its nor mal course as
other lateral whirls in the S o u th A tl anti c P a cifi c and Indian
O cea ns
Under these conditions Northern G ree nl and would
be placed in the tropical c u rrent and enjoy a very te m perate
climate and the retu rning A rctic oceanic and aerial current
wo uld ba the the co a sts of Western E urope leaving i cebergs
on the coast with i nl and glaciation a s at present in G reen
land This would include also the gl a ciation o f the northern
part of G reat B rita in
3 6 1 To ac c o u nt fo r the glaciation of N o rthe rn A merica
upon like principles to the above w e S hould require the mean
temperatu re of the N orthern P a cific O cean to be s u ffi ciently
high for its whirl deflecti on to keep the B ehring S ea open so
that the N orthe rn P acific whirl co uld contin u e its direct
motion in open water north of A l a ska , bringing the retu rn
Arctic aerial curren ts into the valley of the Mackenzie River
and thro u gh the G re at B ear and G reat S lave L akes into
the valley of the Misso u ri laden with s u ffi cient moisture to
prod u ce a contemporary glacial period in the northern p arts
of the S outh western S tates and distrib u tion by c u rren ts
thro u gh the lateral valleys
3 6 2 The considerations whic h ha ve made me somewhat
modify this idea , w ithout change of the p r inciples s u ggested
so far as they are active , were due to a more attentive study of
A m erican geology The glaciation of A rctic North America
appears to have been gre ater tha n these principles would
entail This to my mind is seen most p a rticu larly acc ording
to my theory in the evidence of the great outflow of b asalt
in the region of the S nake River Id aho , within tertiary
times To produce this great outflo w of lower heated rocks
upon principles herein discussed , there m u st have been very
great elevation of ice , most probably about the N orth P ole
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N O TE S O N T HE NEB U LAR THE O RY
2 48
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I assume that a press u re system of ice at the poles wo ul d
react throughout the entire lower visc ous ro cks ; b u t as these
ro cks are assumed to be s u pported by flotation u pon th e
denser metalli c n u cle u s the reaction by prot rusion to restor e
gravitation equ ilibri u m at a dista nc e fro m either pole wo u ld
be m u ch more fricti onal than that fro m a nearer pole T he
mass of basalt protruded in Idaho possibly equ al s the entir e
m ass of land above the oceanic sur fac e in G reat B ri tai n
There w a s also contemporary el e vation of the great plateau
of C entral A sia There may the refore have been an ice c ap
in the north somewhat equ ivalent to that of the Anta rcti c
The cold necessary to prod u ce such an i ce cap w e
Circle
can scarcely i m agine to have existed at the present me a n
te mperat u re of the globe It is therefore more consistent to
ass u m e that the e ffective radiation of the sun was diminished
for a period prob ably as I have p r oposed by clouding in the
condensation of nebu lar m atter at its critical te m peratu re p 7 4
This cannot however d estroy the evidence of gl a ciation being
at any ti m e local in intensity and the m arine shells in th e
gl a ci a l cl ays indicate an open ocean pole w ard T There i s
said to be no evidence of glaciation in the great plains of
S iberia and from m y own observation there has been non e
in the west of Nor w ay for instance u p o n the granitic and
gneiss rocks of the L ofoten Isles which ret ain the sha rp
pointed outlines of ancient rocks that have been subj e ct to
weathering only througho u t lo n g geological periods 1
Fo r gr e at elevation of circ u m pol a r l a nd or massive outflo w
of b a salt at any period , the extre m e cold of the previo u s
period may h a ve produced great rigidity in the ice system
The re action of s u ch a sy stem would
a n d contig u o u s rocks
c a use the more distant parts of the earth s cr u st to give way
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G l g y p 2 57
G l gy S i J W D w p 6 5
f A di
F b 2 3 18 8 7
p p G l S P
I A th
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N O T ES O N T HE NEB U LAR T HE O RY
.
and the lower shelvin g shores of the much red u ced tropical
oceans w o u ld become habitable lands
A t a still later period the tropical ocean beds would be
drained by evaporation in clo u ds drifting over to the sho res
which for the most part would never r eturn to them in the
frozen river streams The earth would then possess three or
fo u r o ceanic areas adapte d to life only— the lower beds o f the
P acific A tlan tic , and Indian O ceans
L ater when the s u n presented only a dull red disc appear
in g to move daily across the s tarry vaul t, the lan d s repre
s e n tin g the deep ocean beds would be froze n a nd life gradu a lly
become extinct
3 6 5 The entire clo u d drainage of the great oc e a ns and
the sno w c lad mo u ntaino u s lands surrounding them would
release the press u re upon the deep ocean beds in proportion
to the increase of the weight of snow upon the mo u ntains
The earth would probably s till be s u fficiently y ielding in i ts
interior to a dmit o f a certain amount of r eaction by dis tri b u
tion o f s u rface press u res by which the ocean beds would be
elevated to restore partial gravitation equilibri u m
This
e ffect wo u ld probably be produced by distri bution of small
volcanoes over the for m er l ower oceanic surface and, as the
s u rface wo u ld be shrinking slightly by loss of temperat u re ,
there wo uld occur also paroxysmal u pheavals in localities
where , through the tension and plutonic press u re below the
surface resistance wo u ld be overcome T h is wo uld leave
earthqu ake fis su re s as a permanent surface feat u re
3 6 6 It is possible that in one of the warme r tr opica l
valleys running east to west formed from one of the abo ve
described fi ssures in the deepest bed of the P aci fi c, and n e ar
to some residual thermal springs , the last individual of the
late s t evolved form of humanity may die o f h unger and clos e
for ever the records of science attained u pon our globe
Whether extinction o f life will occ u r within t he s hort
period of 1 5 milli ons o f y e a rs , as sugge ste d by th e th eo ry o f
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F UTU RE PER IO D
2 51
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H elmholtz for the sun to decreas e to the densit y of the earth
can scarcely be s u ggested
Whether we know the s u n s
specific heat or the law of dispens ation of solar heat into
space is do u btful b u t the probability is that world life will be
longer than this , if w e can accept the conditions which I have
reserved for disc u ssion in A ppendix A— as m y theory on this
point may be tho u ght not to be a necessary part of o u r
s ubj ect
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2 52
]
A P P E N D IX A
.
I M AY o ffer as a pure hypothesis that the energy of a light
and heat giving system may not be so rapidly dissipated as w e
kno w it to be by experiment unless it meet in radiation with
another material body as a recipient In fact th a t for the
rapid di ffusion of light and heat thro u gh cos m ic space there
m u st be one or more motive couples just in the sa m e w ay
as this is necess a ry for the action of gravitation energy , only
that light a nd he at bear reference to surfa ce only, not to mass
Upon this hypothesis light and heat , a s possibly gravitation ,
may be considered in cert ain cases as phenomena of i n du ction
and in action in a certain degree as regar d s the s u n
rese m ble the discha rge from one excited conductor to another
thro u gh an ins u lated medium The intensity of propagation
of forces from the sun s glob u lar mass being ass u med equ al
to that of the discharge of electricity from a point into a
—
space of direct insulation that is insulation from general
—
f
f
di u sion so th at the ind u ction to another body if present
falls in direct line only , with the loss only of a limited
amo u nt by free radiation In this case the form of force is
nevertheless that of light or heat not of electricity, from
which it may vary in any motive degree A theory upon
these lines to w hi ch I have devoted some years of study
but c annot extend here except to state the principle wo u ld
account for there being snow caps about the poles of Mars
whereas fro m his distan ce being taken inversely as the square
in comparison w ith that of the earth the amount of s un heat
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N O T ES O N T HE NE B U LAR T HE O RY
25 4
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in another body or a similar e ffect upon th e retina of th e eye
or a sensitive film in a camera That this luminous action is
probably caused by rotating the surface molec u les so as to
—
cause them to present the surface which affini ty in the dark
draws inwards— to an o u tward position A complete rev olu
tion being necessary for white and a pa rt ial revolution for
colour B ut this last stated idea is immaterial the self
luminosity is material
To mention one of my fi rst
experiments I made in 1 8 7 3 a drawer 6 by 6 inches of one
inch in depth very c arefu lly fitted in a velvet li n ed frame to
excl u de light The inside of the drawer could be expose d to
s u nshine while it was closed and drawn into a dark room
when required I attached tw o spiral springs to the front o f
the drawer and a catch to keep it closed when out in the sun
shi ne so that when the catch was released the drawer ca m e
instantly into the dark room I tried m any experiments ; the
first was that of writing my name boldly in In dian ink upon
a piece of white paper A fte r this had been a minute or less
in the s u nshine , and was then drawn into the dark room I
found th at I could read it easily fo r a short ti me in the dark
therefore I concl u de it retained a p a r t of i ts lu minos ity or
at least if it was lumino u s in the dark it must have been also
luminous in the sunlight so that its pe r ception to the eye could
not have been entirely from reflected sunlight as generally
assumed It appears to me therefore , that we are bound
to admit induced l u minosity as a factor of visibility These
e ffects as phenomena ascribed to phosphorescence are well
known and have been investigated most ably by B ecquerel
b u t my i dea of them is that they are not as assumed simply
phenomena of ph O Sph ores ce nce but of ind u ced luminosity
and that they are u niversal for all l ight giving bodies , that
is for all visible bodies or such as are not dioptric or for
black bodies , if any exist, or so fa r as they exist In this
hypothesis it is not necessary to suppose that a body may
retain its induce d luminosity fo r an instant in the dark
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A P P E ND Ix
A
2 55
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H eat conductors that is metallic bodies possess no such
power of retention the surfa ce m olec u le being a ssumed in
this ca se to be sensitive instantly to light a n d he a t infl u ences
This does not affe ct the la w s th at govern the action of li ht
s u ch as the reflective properties u nder the condition that a
body may receive luminous induction in one direction and
dispense it at coin cident equ a l a ngles or the refractive
properties of dioptric bodies by which the indu cing rays
are ben t only that in this l a st case the ind u ctive body
is behind the dioptric whi ch acts only as a cond u ctor thereto
in the sam e m a nner as a m et a l wire doe s to electricity b u t
following its own laws The direction of the light force of
induction is otherwise a lways in direct line My experiments
—
upon these hypotheses were m a de in 1 8 7 2 4 an d I have
discus sed some of the m with my friends S o m e of these ideas
‘
appea r to ha ve o c c u rred to a c orrespondent of the E nglish
Mechanic T W B last year 1 8 9 4 and so far as tha t p u bli
cation goes I acknowledge t he priority if it is of any val u e
In the m ultiplicity of tho u ghts by re a son of our simila rity
of orga nism some of o u r ideas must be like those of other
individ u als
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256
A P P E N D IX B
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TH E
generally accepted theory o f land formation is that
which w a s proposed or maintained by the late Robert Mallet
“
in a paper upon The am
ount of E nergy developed by the
”
S ecular C ooling of the E arth
contained in two papers over
1 00 pages , in the P hil Trans 1 8 74—5
A ccording to these
papers the amount of heat lost from the initial temperature of
the earth will represent the force of its contraction The
amo u nt of this energy is pres u med to be made evide nt in
compression of the s u perficial strata causing the elevation
inclination and crumpling of the strata and the entire
volcanic phenomena The data upon which the arguments
of these papers rest are assumed to be taken from calc u lations
of E lie de B eaumont, Forbes and L ord Kelvin , who estimate
the heat lost by the earth to be equ al to the melting o f a
plate of ice , respectively of 0 00 6 5, 0 00 7 , and 0 0 0 8 5 milli
metres ann u ally F rom these data it is stated that from 5 7 5
to 7 7 7 cubic miles of ice melted annually would represent the
loss of heat B y going over the calculations in this paper , I
was able to point out a considerable error in it s u fficient to
upset the whole contraction theory upon the lines laid down
A fter writing to S ir G eorge S tokes then
b y Mr Mallet
S ecretary to the R oyal S ociety , who clearly sa w the acci
dental error I read a paper upon i t before the G eological
S ociety in J u ne 1 8 8 4 showing that the contraction fro m the
data given was only abo u t one cubic mile ann u ally , that is ,
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Q u art Jo urn G eol S oc v ol x1 ( Proc ) p 6 7
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258
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A P P E N D IX 0
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IF the general theory of this work is
accepted at some future
time a more experienced practical geolog ist than myself
may shi ft the divisions in the rock series that I have adopted
to make them more exactly agree with the periodic conditions
proposed To do this perfectly would require refined ge olo
i
ca l observation , as the astronomical changes herein de fi ned
g
could not have been generally abr u pt so as to produce very
distinct divisions in stratifying rocks Fu rther there must
be superimposed upon the greater astronomical changes herein
suggested , the minor influences of variation of eccentricity
of orbit and change o f obliq u ity of axis which would produce
variation of deposition although possibly not to the extent
proposed by Croll and L yell S ome obj ection for instance
may be made to my grouping the cretaceous with the tertiary
in one long period wherein the chalk formati on is at least
very distinct and locally no doubt if taken in vertical series
the more ancient In this case we may consider the chalk to
be a deep oceanic formation that is still in progress , a theory
generally accepted since the Challenger E xpedition I
think a system of contemporary strati fi cation of the various
kinds of sedime n t distinguished by special chemical elements
m u st have been general thro u ghout all time , as we have
only one set of s u ch elements largely to deal with upon the
surface of the globe , however much they may have been
churned up or sorted o u t by local prevailing conditions
Upon this suggestion w e could at no period have had one
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A P P E N D Ix
C
2 59
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general system of deposition prevailing either of silica
al u mina or calcic carbonate in other than local areas The
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general scheme of deposition in qu iescent times and u ndis
t urb e d by oceani c c u rrents mav be shown diagrammatically
by the figure above which may represent say 2 00 miles
of deposition from a coast of the ancient rock surface of a
a line from the
certain period
0 the oceanic surface
an cient rock to a point F the surface of the newly formed
rocks where a band of fl ints occur in the chalk fro m organic
deposition at a certain distance from the co a st Then of the
prod u ce of the disintegrated rocks the coarser m aterials
wo uld rest at B the broken m asses of silica or sand at S the
lighter mu d or clay at C the perfectly soluble carbonate of
lime and silica at C H where it would be generally a bsorbed by
organic life This system would in all cases form s ets of rocks
and go on continuously over are a s of s u rfa ce drainage carrying
the disintegrated rocks if undistu rbed by oceanic c u rrents or
tidal action and could in the past only be arrested by such
great astronomical chan ges as herein p roposed These greater
changes cannot occur again so that the present period may
be geologically indefinitely extended for the time the ocean
retains its liquidity
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