3/26/25, 10:14 AM a mol/mole is Avogadro's number, number of units in one mole of any substance (defined as its molecular weight in grams), equal to 6.02214076 × 1023. The units may be electrons, atoms, ions, or molecules, depending on the nature of the substance 6 functions of proteins (CRITCS, sounds like critics) Contractile, regulatory, immunological, transport, catalytic, structural are all functions of these print.html "this linkage" is used to form triglycerides (show the process) ester linkage 1. concentration 2. temperature Contractile, regulatory, immunological, transport, catalytic, structural are all functions of these 6 functions of proteins (CRITCS, sounds like critics) A common example of a free radical is is superoxide, which is formed by the addition of an electron to an oxygen molecule A compound is a substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements A free radical is an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the outermost shell A hydrogen bond forms when a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge (δ+) attracts the partial negative charge (δ-) of neighboring electronegative atoms file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 2 thing that influence the chance a collision will occur and cause a chemical reaction A colloid differs from a solution mainly because of the size of its particles. The solute particles in a colloid are large enough to scatter light, A fatty acid consists of these groups a carboxyl group and a hydrocarbon chain A normal, lean adult body is 12–18% protein 1/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM A pH of 6 denotes 10 times more H+ than a pH of 7 A solution that has more H+ than OH- is an acidic solution and has a pH below 7 print.html A single covalent bond forms when two atoms share one electron pair . A double covalent bond forms when two atoms share two pairs of electrons example is H2 and O2 A single covalent bond forms when two atoms share one electron pair . A double covalent bond forms when two atoms share two pairs of electrons example is H2 and O2 A solution that has more OHthan H+ is a basic (alkaline) solution and has a pH above 7 A solution’s acidity or alkalinity is expressed on the pH scale Activation energy Activation energy Toggle Masks Toggle Masks A very important example of a polar covalent bond in living systems is the bond between oxygen and hydrogen in a molecule of water file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 2/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Activation energy Activation energy Activation energy Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Activation energy Activation energy Activation energy with a catalyst Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 3/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Activation energy with a catalyst Activation energy with a catalyst Aerobic phase of cellular respiration produces 30-32 ATP molecules. Toggle Masks Anaerobic phase od cellular repiration produces 2 ATP molecules. At the boundary between water and air, water’s surface tension is high because the water molecules are much more attracted to one another than they are attracted to molecules in the air. file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html Toggle Masks As water evaporates from the surface of the skin, it removes a large quantity of heat, providing an important cooling mechanism. this is due to the property of heat of vapourization At pH 7 (neutrality), the concentrations of H+ and OH- are equal (10-7 mol/liter). What are the concentrations of H+ and OH- at pH 6? H+ = 10-6 OH- = 10-8 Carbohydrate classifications (4) sugars, glycogen, starches, and cellulose are a part of this sugars, glycogen, starches, and cellulose are a part of this Carbohydrate classifications (4) 4/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Cellulose Cellular respiration supplies the energy needed to produce ATP polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot be digested by humans but provides bulk to help eliminate feces polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot be digested by humans but provides bulk to help eliminate feces Cellulose Comparison between DNA and RNA Comparison between DNA and RNA Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Comparison between DNA and RNA Comparison between DNA and RNA Comparison between DNA and RNA Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Comparison between DNA and RNA Comparison between DNA and RNA Comparison between DNA and RNA Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Chemical energy is a form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of compounds and molecules. file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 5/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Concentration Concentration Concentration (for collisions) The more particles of matter present in a confined space, the greater the chance that they will collide Toggle Masks Conversion of energy from one form to another generally releases heat, some of which is used to maintain normal body temperature. Toggle Masks Conversion of energy from one form to another generally releases heat, some of which is used to maintain normal body temperature. Describe two ways to express the concentration of a solution mol/L and %volume Dissociation of inorganic acids, bases, and salts Diets that contain large amounts of saturated fats are associated with disorders such as heart disease and colorectal cancer. Diets that contain large amounts of unsaturated fats are associated with decreases in disorders such as heart disease Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 6/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Dissociation of inorganic acids, bases, and salts Dissociation of inorganic acids, bases, and salts Does a catalyst change the potential energies of the products and reactants? No; catalysts only affect the activation energy (energy absorbed to break bonds) Toggle Masks Toggle Masks atoms Each named element is designated by a chemical symbol, Each type of functional group has a specific arrangement of atoms that gives characteristic chemical properties to the organic molecule attached to it Element names Element names Element names Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Each element is made up of file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 7/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Element names Element names Element names Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Element names Element names Energy (en- = in; -ergy = work) is the capacity to do work Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Energy (en- = in; -ergy = work) is the capacity to do work Excess dietary carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and oils are stored as triglycerides. Exergonic reactions release more energy than they absorb Formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids during dehydration synthesis Formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids during dehydration synthesis Formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids during dehydration synthesis Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 8/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids during dehydration synthesis Formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids during dehydration synthesis Formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids during dehydration synthesis Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Functions of proteins Functions of proteins Functions of proteins Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 9/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Functions of proteins Functions of proteins Functions of proteins Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 10/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Functions of proteins Functions of proteins Functions of proteins Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 11/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Functions of proteins Functions of proteins Functions of proteins Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 12/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html How an enzyme works Homeostatic mechanisms maintain the pH of blood between 7.35 and 7.45, which is slightly more basic than pure water. Homeostatic mechanisms maintain the pH of blood between 7.35 and 7.45, which is slightly more basic than pure water. Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 13/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html How an enzyme works How an enzyme works How an enzyme works Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 14/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html How an enzyme works How an enzyme works How an enzyme works Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks How are anabolism and catabolism related to synthesis and decomposition reactions, respectively? anabolism = synthesis catabolism = decomposition file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html How are dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions related? both use the removal or addition of water to form or break a bond How do bicarbonate ions prevent buildup of excess H+? HCO3- can function as a weak base and remove the excess H+ 15/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html How do inorganic compounds differ from organic compounds? inorganic compounds usually lack carbon and are structurally simple. Not used for complex biological processes. If Activation energy (absorbed energy) is < released energy, the reaction is If Activation energy (absorbed energy) is > released energy, the reaction is exergonic endergonic In a solution, a substance called the solvent dissolves another substance called the solute. In comparison to most substances, water can absorb or release a relatively large amount of heat with a modest/small change in its own temperature. organic compounds contain carbon In a suspension, the suspended material may mix with the liquid or suspending medium for some time, but eventually it will settle out Blood is an example of a suspension. When freshly drawn from the body, blood has an even, reddish color. After blood a while, the suspension splits in to RBCs at the bottom, and yellow liquid blood plasma at the top. In the reaction catalyzed by ATP synthase, what are the substrates and products? Is this an exergonic or endergonic reaction? the substrates are Energy, phosphate group, and ADP. This is an endergonic reaction (energy required) file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html Isotopes are Ionization is the process of giving up or gaining electrons. these types of atoms have same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers 16/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html these types of atoms have same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers Lipids make up 18–25% of body mass in lean adults oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are 4 _____ elements List the 4 major elements Isotopes are Main elements in the body Main elements in the body Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Main elements in the body Main elements in the body Main elements in the body Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Many of the carbons are bonded to hydrogen atoms, yielding a hydrocarbon Mass is the amount of matter in any object, which does not change. Monounsaturated fats are mostly in these foods this type of fat is mostly in Olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, most nuts, and avocados List the 4 major elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are 4 _____ elements Main elements in the body Toggle Masks Molecules that contain mainly nonpolar covalent bonds, by contrast, are hydrophobic file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html this type of fat is mostly in Olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, most nuts, and avocados Monounsaturated fats are mostly in these foods 17/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Nuclic acid structure Nuclic acid structure Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Nuclic acid structure Nuclic acid structure Nuclic acid structure Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Nuclic acid structure Nuclic acid structure Nuclic acid structure Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Nucleic acids contain huge organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 18/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Nuclic acid structure Organic compounds always contain carbon, usually contain hydrogen, and always have covalent bonds Organic compounds make up this % of the human body 38–43% of these compounds make up the human body Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 19/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Phospholipid structure 38–43% of these compounds make up the human body Organic compounds make up this % of the human body Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons OIL (oxidation is loss) Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 20/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Phospholipid structure Phospholipid structure Process of supplying energy to cells (hydrolysis of ATP) Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html Toggle Masks 21/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Process of supplying energy to cells (hydrolysis of ATP) Toggle Masks these are large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. some have sulfur Process of supplying energy to cells (hydrolysis of ATP) Toggle Masks Reduction refers to the gain of electrons RIG (reduction is gain) Proteins contain these elements these are large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. some have sulfur Solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds are hydrophilic Proteins contain these elements Synthesis of ATP Starches polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants. polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants. Starches Toggle Masks Synthesis of ATP Synthesis of ATP Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html Table sugar (sucrose) easily dissolves in water but is not an electrolyte. Is it likely that all the covalent bonds between atoms in table sugar are nonpolar bonds? Why or why not? No, otherwise they wouldn't be attracted to eletronegativity/positivity in the hydrogen molecules and dissolve 22/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule is called the carbon skeleton print.html The chemical reactions that take place in the body are very sensitive to changes in the acidity or alkalinity of the body fluids in which they occur. sensitive/insensitive The classes of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus), steroids (lipids that contain rings of carbon atoms), eicosanoids (20carbon lipids), fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) and lipoproteins The classes of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus), steroids (lipids that contain rings of carbon atoms), eicosanoids (20carbon lipids), fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) and lipoproteins The classes of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus), steroids (lipids that contain rings of carbon atoms), eicosanoids (20carbon lipids), fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) and lipoproteins The classes of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus), steroids (lipids that contain rings of carbon atoms), eicosanoids (20carbon lipids), fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) and lipoproteins The classes of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus), steroids (lipids that contain rings of carbon atoms), eicosanoids (20carbon lipids), fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) and lipoproteins The classes of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus), steroids (lipids that contain rings of carbon atoms), eicosanoids (20carbon lipids), fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) and lipoproteins The dense central core of an atom is its nucleus. Within the nucleus are positively charged protons (p+) and uncharged (neutral) neutrons (n0) The first electron shell (nearest the nucleus) never holds more than 2 electrons. The likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom depends on the number of electrons in its outermost shell, also called the valence shell. The mass of an electron, at 0.0005 dalton, is almost 2000 times smaller than the mass of a neutron or proton The midpoint of the pH scale is 7, where the concentrations of H+ and OH- are equal. The monomers of proteins are amino acids The most massive element present in the human body is iodine file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 23/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html The pH scale The names of enzymes usually end in the suffix -ase is the suffix this class of proteins usually end in -ase is the suffix this class of proteins usually end in The names of enzymes usually end in the suffix Toggle Masks The pH scale The pH scale The pH scale Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks The second electron shell holds a maximum of 8 electrons The standard unit for measuring the mass of atoms and their subatomic particles is a dalton, also known as an atomic mass unit (amu) Three common liquid mixtures are solutions, colloids, and suspensions. Three common liquid mixtures are solutions, colloids, and suspensions. The pH scale Toggle Masks The total amount of energy present at the beginning and end of a chemical reaction is the same file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 24/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Three important properties of enzymes Three common liquid mixtures are solutions, colloids, and suspensions. Enzymes are highly specific Enzymes are efficient. Enzymes are subject to cellular controls To ensure homeostasis, intracellular and extracellular fluids must contain almost balanced quantities of acids and bases. Triglycerides provide more than twice as much energy per gram as do carbohydrates and proteins Two principal forms of energy are potential energy, and kinetic energy Two principal forms of energy are potential energy, and kinetic energy Water as a solvent Water as a solvent Water as a solvent Toggle Masks Toggle Masks Toggle Masks file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 25/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Water as a solvent Water as a solvent Weight, the force of gravity acting on matter, does change (due to gravity). Toggle Masks Toggle Masks What are the components of ATP? adenosine (adenine + ribose) and three phosphate groups make up this adenosine (adenine + ribose) and three phosphate groups make up this file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html What are the components of ATP? What are the four nitrogenous bases in DNA? (GATC, "gutsy") Guanine (G), Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) are what? 26/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html What are the two phases of cellular respiration? 1. Guanine (G), Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) are what? What are the four nitrogenous bases in DNA? (GATC, "gutsy") Anaerobic phase: Partial breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid, yielding two ATP molecules. 2. Aerobic phase: Complete breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and 30-32 ATP molecules. are phases of what? What are the two types of nucleic acids? Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the teo types of what Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the teo types of what What are the two types of nucleic acids? 1. Anaerobic phase: Partial breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid, yielding two ATP molecules. 2. Aerobic phase: Complete breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and 30-32 ATP molecules. are phases of what? What are the two phases of cellular respiration? What enzyme replenishes ATP from ADP? The enzyme ATP synthase catalyzes the addition of a phosphate group to ADP, producing ATP. What is Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and its role in living systems? What happens when a water molecule is added to ATP? what enzyme is involved? The third phosphate group PO43- is removed through hydrolysis, releasing energy. reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ATPase. file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html this is the "energy currency" of living systems. transfers energy from exergonic catabolic reactions to power endergonic reactions endergonic reactions such as muscular contractions, chromosome movement, and molecule synthesis. What is a gene? A segment of DNA that determines traits and regulates the cell’s activities by controlling protein synthesis. 27/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html A segment of DNA that determines traits and regulates the cell’s activities by controlling protein synthesis. What is a gene? What is the main difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond? one requires electron exchange/transfer, the other requires electron sharing What is the primary function of RNA? this has the primary function to relay instructions from genes to guide protein synthesis. Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is formed when this molecule loses one phosphate group What molecule is formed when ATP loses one phosphate group? What type of reaction takes place during catabolism of proteins? hydrolysis file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html What is a pentose sugar? give the examples in DNA and RNA five-carbon sugar that attaches to each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose. in RNA is it ribose What is the primary function of DNA? this has the primary function to store genetic information and pass hereditary information to the next generation of cells. this has the primary function to relay instructions from genes to guide protein synthesis. What is the primary function of RNA? What process supplies the energy needed to produce ATP? The catabolism/breakdown of glucose through cellular respiration supplies energy to attach a phosphate group to ADP, producing what? five-carbon sugar that attaches to each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose. in RNA is it ribose What is a pentose sugar? give the examples in DNA and RNA this has the primary function to store genetic information and pass hereditary information to the next generation of cells. What is the primary function of DNA? What molecule is formed when ATP loses one phosphate group? Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is formed when this molecule loses one phosphate group The catabolism/breakdown of glucose through cellular respiration supplies energy to attach a phosphate group to ADP, producing what? What process supplies the energy needed to produce ATP? Which nitrogenous base is found in RNA instead of thymine Uracil (U) is found in RNA instead of its DNA counterpart Uracil (U) is found in RNA instead of its DNA counterpart Which nitrogenous base is found in RNA instead of thymine 28/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html Which nitrogenous bases always pair together in DNA? Which nitrogenous bases always pair together in RNA? Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U) Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) are this type of nitrogeneous base Which nitrogenous bases are pyrimidines? Which nitrogenous bases are purines? Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) are this type of nitrogenous base Which nitrogenous bases are purines? Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) are this type of nitrogeneous base Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) are this type of nitrogenous base Which nitrogenous bases are pyrimidines? Why are oxidation–reduction reactions important? Which pH is closer to neutral, 8.41 or 5.59? They are equally close to neutral Why is it that sucrase cannot catalyze the formation of sucrose from glucose and fructose? Sucrase has specificity for the sucrose molecule and thus would not“recognize” glucose and fructose a molecule is when two or more atoms share electrons file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html Which pH is more acidic, 6.82 or 6.91? 6.82 a covalent bond grows stronger when this happens they are fundamental to many biological processes, including cellular respiration and photosynthesis, where the transfer of electrons between molecules generates energy that living organisms need to function; increased electron pairs shared in a covalent bond cause this increased electron pairs shared in a covalent bond cause this a covalent bond grows stronger when this happens a pH of 8 indicates 100 times fewer H+ than a pH of 6 a pH of 8 indicates 10 times fewer H+ than a pH of 7 29/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html acid a substance that dissociates into (H+) and anions salts can be formed by the reaction of these acids and bases react with each other to form this a substance that dissociates into (H+) and anions acid activation energy is The collision energy needed to break the chemical bonds of the reactants the part of the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction amine/amino functional group active site (proteins) -NH2 acids and bases react with each other to form this salts can be formed by the reaction of these active site (proteins) the part of the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction -NH2 amine/amino functional group an important buffer system in the body the carbonic acid– bicarbonate buffer system. amphipathic has both polar and nonpolar regions the carbonic acid– bicarbonate buffer system. an important buffer system in the body file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html has both polar and nonpolar regions amphipathic another name for an acid another name for proton donor Carbonic acid (H2CO3) can act as a weak acid, and the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) can act as a weak base. Hence, this buffer system can compensate for either an excess or a shortage of H+. another name for proton donor another name for an acid 30/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html another name for proton acceptor another name for base atomic mass/atomic weight of an element is the average mass of all its naturally occurring isotopes atoms are neutrally charged because the # of e- = the # of protons buffer systems function to convert strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases buffers are the chemical compounds that can convert strong acids or bases into weak ones by removing or adding protons (H+) -COOH carboxyl group chemical reaction occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between atoms file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html another name for base are the tails of phospholipids polar or nonpolar. why? another name for proton acceptor they are nonpolar because fatty acid triglycerides have non electronegative oxygens atomic number the number of protons in an atom's nucleus the number of protons in an atom's nucleus base Many dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more cations function to convert strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases buffer systems carbohydrates make up only 2–3% of your total body mass atomic number Many dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more cations base buffers are the chemical compounds that can convert strong acids or bases into weak ones by removing or adding protons (H+) carboxyl group -COOH chemical bonds are the forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or a compound chemical elements are a substance that cannot be split into a simpler substance by ordinary chemical means covalent bond is when , two or more atoms share electrons rather than gaining or losing them decomposition reactions: When two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and larger molecules. Aka, the sum of these is catabolism 31/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html dehydration synthesis reaction denaturation when two smaller molecules join to form a larger molecule and water molecule is one of the products formed when a protein encounters an altered environment, unravels, and loses its characteristic shape dipeptide when two amino acids combine when two amino acids combine a combination of 2 monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis disaccharides file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html dipeptide double helix model spiral ladder-like structure of DNA, with two strands of nucleotides twisted together when a protein encounters an altered environment, unravels, and loses its characteristic shape denaturation disaccharides a combination of 2 monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis spiral ladder-like structure of DNA, with two strands of nucleotides twisted together double helix model 32/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html during reversible reactions, the enzyme will catalyze a reaction based on the relative amounts of the substrates and products. For example, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the following reversible reaction: each amino acid has these atoms/groups (4) During exercise, when more CO2 is produced and released into the blood, the reaction flows to the right, increasing the amount of carbonic acid in the blood. Then, as you exhale CO2, its level in the blood falls and the reaction flows to the left, converting carbonic acid to CO2 and H2O eicosanoids lipids derived from a 20carbon fatty acid electron shell 1 is closer to the nucleus than electron shell 3 file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html a hydrogen atom amino group (NH2) carboxyl group (COOH) side chain group (R) lipids derived from a 20carbon fatty acid eicosanoids electron shell 3 is further from the nucleus than electron shell 1 eicosan- prefix = twenty electrolyte ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions in solution electron shells are the region where specific groups of electrons are most likely to move about around the nucleus 33/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html electronegativity the power of an atom to attract electrons to itself endergonic reactions (end- = within) absorb more energy than they release. enzyme–substrate complex enzyme that catalyzes ATP synthesis is ATP synthase. when the substrates make contact with the active site on the surface of the enzyme molecule, forming a temporary intermediate compound explain how enxymes are very efficient exchange reactions consist of both synthesis and decomposition reactions. enzymes can catalyze reactions at rates that are from 100 million to 10 billion times more rapid than those of similar reactions occurring without enzymes. fat triglyceride that is a solid at room temperature. The fatty acids of a fat are mostly saturated. triglyceride that is a solid at room temperature. The fatty acids of a fat are mostly saturated. file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html enzyme that catalyzes ATP hydrolysis is ATPase. when the substrates make contact with the active site on the surface of the enzyme molecule, forming a temporary intermediate compound enzyme–substrate complex explain how enzymes are subject to a variety of cellular controls. Their rate of synthesis and their concentration at any given time are under the control of a cell’s genes. Cells may either or inhibit the activity free radicals are unstable because of their unpaired electron being reactive fat 34/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html glycogen free radicals may break apart important body molecules because they stabilize by giving up their unpaired electron to, or taking on an electron from, another molecule give an example of how Enzymes are highly specific -a polysaccharide made entirely of glucose monomers in branching chains -main polysaccharide in the human body when the blood glucose level falls, liver cells break down this into glucose and release it into the blood, making it available to body cells Each particular enzyme binds only to specific substrates When the body needs a quick boost of energy or when the body isn't getting glucose from food, glycogen is broken down to release glucose into the bloodstream to be used as fuel for the cells -a polysaccharide made entirely of glucose monomers in branching chains -main polysaccharide in the human body when the blood glucose level falls, liver cells break down this into glucose and release it into the blood, making it available to body cells half-life of an isotope is the time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample of that isotope to decay into a more stable form. half-life of an isotope is the time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample of that isotope to decay into a more stable form. glycogen file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 35/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html how do amino acids form (e.g. a tripeptide or polypeptide) heat of vaporization heat/energy required to change from a liquid to a gas. hydrolysis is the break down large nutrient molecules into smaller molecules by the addition of water molecules stepwise; by adding one amino acid onto a longer chain through dehydration synthesis for example, a tripeptide can only form by addin on to a dipeptide how do catalysts reduce the oxidation energy required for rxn? A catalyst helps to properly orient the colliding particles. Thus, they interact at the spots that make the reaction happen hydroxyl functional group -OH -OH hydroxyl functional group inorganic compounds usually lack carbon and are structurally simple; not used for complex bio functions in the process of radioactve decay, isotopes can transform into a different element dissociates into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OHinorganic salt file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html They include water and many salts, acids, and bases Inorganic compounds that contain carbon include carbon dioxide (CO2), bicarbonate ion (HCO3-), and carbonic acid (H2CO3) ion is an atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal numbers of protons and electrons inorganic salt dissociates into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OHIn the body, salts such as potassium chloride are electrolytes that are important for carrying electrical currents ionic bond is when ions with opposite charges exchange electrons 36/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html is the head of a phospholipid polar or nonpolar polar isomers (Ī-so-merz; iso- = equal or the same; -mers = parts). Molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structures law of conservation of energy kinetic energy is the energy associated with matter in motion lesser elements - how many, in what percentage? there are 8 of these that constitute 3.6% of the body's mass macromolecules large organic molecules major elements are ___% of the body's mass major elements are 96% of this energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another. lipoproteins hydrophilic porotein molecules join the outside of lipids to increase lipid solubilitiy there are 4 of these that constitute 96% of the body's mass major elements - how many, in what percentage? mass number the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons, but have identical chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons there are 8 of these that constitute 3.6% of the body's mass lesser elements - how many, in what percentage? hydrophilic porotein molecules join the outside of lipids to increase lipid solubilitiy lipoproteins major elements - how many, in what percentage? there are 4 of these that constitute 96% of the body's mass the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom mass number milk is an example of a solution and a colloid how? matter anything that occupies space metabolism is the sum of chemical reactions occurring in the body. the large proteins make it a coilloid, the salts, sugars, ions and other small particles are in solution file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 37/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html monomers small building-block molecules that may join together to form polymers most enzymes consist of these two parts apoenzyme (protein portion) cofactor (nonprotein metal ion or organic molecule) negatively charged electrons (e-) move about in a large space surrounding the nucleus. They do not follow a fixed path or orbit but instead form a negatively charged “cloud” that envelops the nucleus monomers (building blocks) of nucleic acids, made of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group. nucleotides triglyceride that is a liquid at room temperature. The fatty acids of an this triglyceride are mostly unsaturated oil file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html monosaccharides have ____carbon atoms and end in _____ these simple sugars contain from three to seven carbon atoms. They are designated by names ending in “-ose” mutation change in the base sequence of DNA, which can cause cell death, cancer, or genetic defects nonpolar covalent bond two atoms share the electrons equally— one atom does not attract the shared electrons more strongly than the other atom octet rule says One atom is more likely to interact with another atom if doing so will leave both with eight valence electrons only three types of subatomic particles are important for understanding the chemical reactions in the human body: protons, neutrons, and electrons these simple sugars contain from three to seven carbon atoms. They are designated by names ending in “-ose” monosaccharides have ____carbon atoms and end in _____ negatively charged electrons (e-) move about in a large space surrounding the nucleus. They do not follow a fixed path or orbit but instead form a negatively charged “cloud” that envelops the nucleus nucleotides monomers (building blocks) of nucleic acids, made of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group. oil triglyceride that is a liquid at room temperature. The fatty acids of an this triglyceride are mostly unsaturated peptide bond The covalent bond joining each pair of amino acids - forms between the carboxyl goup C and the amino group N 38/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html The covalent bond joining each pair of amino acids - forms between the carboxyl goup C and the amino group N peptide bond phosphate group A part of the nucleotide that alternates with pentose sugars to form the "backbone" of the DNA strand A part of the nucleotide that alternates with pentose sugars to form the "backbone" of the DNA strand phosphate group phospholipids have these components glycerol back-bone two fatty acid chains attached to carbons phosphate group are part of this glycerol back-bone two fatty acid chains attached to carbons phosphate group are part of this phospholipids have these components polar covalent bond sharing of electrons between two atoms is unequal—the nucleus of one atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than the nucleus of the other atom has occasional nitrogen polymers (poly- = many; mers = parts). arge molecule formed by the covalent bonding of many identical or similar small building-block molecules called monomers file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html polysaccharides tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis polysaccharides 39/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html polyunsaturated fats are mostly in these foods this type of fat is mostly in Corn oil, saff lower oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, and fatty fish (salmon, tuna, and mackerel) this type of fat is mostly in Corn oil, saff lower oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, and fatty fish (salmon, tuna, and mackerel) potential energy is energy stored by matter due to its position polyunsaturated fats are mostly in these foods saturated fats are mostly in these foods radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) decay because they have an unstable combination of neutrons/protons/excess energy this type of fat is mostly in meats (especially red meats) and nonskim dairy products (whole milk, cheese, and butter), they are also found in a few plant products, such as cocoa butter, palm oil, and coconut oil (solid oils at room temp) reversible reaction is when the products can revert to the original reactants. this type of fat is mostly in meats (especially red meats) and nonskim dairy products (whole milk, cheese, and butter), they are also found in a few plant products, such as cocoa butter, palm oil, and coconut oil (solid oils at room temp) saturated fatty acid these lipids lack double bonds between carbon atoms, which allow carbon atoms to be saturated with hydrogen atoms these lipids lack double bonds between carbon atoms, which allow carbon atoms to be saturated with hydrogen atoms saturated fatty acid saturated fats are mostly in these foods steroid structure four rings of carbon atoms steroids are weakly amphipathic because of this they all have at least one hydroxyl (-OH) group file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html substrate reactant molecules on which the enzyme 40/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html reactant molecules on which the enzyme substrate teperature (for collision) As temperature rises, particles of matter move about more rapidly. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are the elements usually found in this. There is ~ 2 H to 1 O . There is 1 C for 1 H2O the 3 elements (and their ratios) usually found in carbs are surface tensionis a measure of the diff iculty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid synthesis reactions: When two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and larger molecules. Aka, the sum of these is anabolism the 12 most abundatnt chemicals in the body are the 3 elements (and their ratios) usually found in carbs are C,H,N,O,P,S, Ca, Na,K, Cl, Mg, Fe CHNOPS, Cankle, FeMg the 3 elements (and their ratios) usually found in lipids are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are the elements usually found in this. There is not a ~ 2 H to 1 O ratio . carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are the elements usually found in this. There is ~ 2 H to 1 O . There is 1 C for 1 H2O carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are the elements usually found in this. There is not a ~ 2 H to 1 O ratio . the 3 elements (and their ratios) usually found in lipids are the four major functions of water are solvent (polarity) chemical rxns (dehydration,hydrolysis) thermal (heat capacity, heat of vaourization) lubricant (joints, moistening, organ sliding) the most important catalysts in the body are enzymes file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html the interactions of valence electrons are the basis of all chemical reactions. the most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living systems water the simplest lipids are fatty acids there are this many different amino acid monomers 20 41/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM these types of metabolism reactions are usually enedergonic because they absorb more energy than they release anabolism (synthesis rxns) are more endergonic or exergonic? Combining simple molecules like amino acids (discussed shortly) to form large molecules such as proteins print.html anabolism (synthesis rxns) are more endergonic or exergonic? these types of metabolism reactions are usually enedergonic because they absorb more energy than they release catabolism (decompositions rxns) are more exergonic or endergonic? these types of metabolism reactions are usually exergonic because they release more energy than they absorb third electron shell can hold up to 18 electrons this type of protein is no longer functional can denatured proteins be functional? can denatured proteins be functional? this type of protein is no longer functional trace elements - how many, in what percentage? triglycerides (triacylglycerols) there are 14 of these that constitute 0.4% of the body's mass one 3-carbon glycerol molecule + three fatty acid molecules file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html these types of metabolism reactions are usually exergonic because they release more energy than they absorb catabolism (decompositions rxns) are more exergonic or endergonic? For instance, the series of reactions that break down glucose to pyruvic acid, with the net production of two molecules of ATP this is an example of permanent denaturation frying an egg (irreversible to return back to raw egg) there are 14 of these that constitute 0.4% of the body's mass trace elements - how many, in what percentage? one 3-carbon glycerol molecule + three fatty acid molecules triglycerides (triacylglycerols) 42/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html unsaturated fatty acid two classes of eicosanoids 1. prostaglandins (for hormones/organ responses) 2. leukotrienes (for allergic/inflammatory reponse) these lipids contain one or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms; the carbon atoms are not saturated with hydrogen 1. prostaglandins (for hormones/organ responses) 2. leukotrienes (for allergic/inflammatory reponse) these lipids contain one or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms; the carbon atoms are not saturated with hydrogen two classes of eicosanoids water has considerable cohesion ( and thus surface tension) because of hydrogen bonds that link neighboring water molecules are the reason water has a lot of this hydrogen bonds that link neighboring water molecules are the reason water has a lot of this water has considerable cohesion ( and thus surface tension) because of what is the % total body mass of calcium 1.5% is the % total body mass of this major element the side chains 1.5% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of calcium 18.5% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of carbon 9.5% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of carbon 18.5% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of hydrogen what is the % total body mass of hydrogen 3.2% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of nitrogen 9.5% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of nitrogen 3.2% is the % total body mass of this major element unsaturated fatty acid what gives an amino acid its distinctive chemical identity? file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 43/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html 65% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of oxygen what is the % total body mass of phosphorous what is the % total body mass of oxygen 65% is the % total body mass of this major element 1% is the % total body mass of this major element 1% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of potassium 0.35% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of phosphorous 0.35% is the % total body mass of this major element what is the % total body mass of potassium what is the significance of calcium in the body bones/teeth, bloood clots (also hormone release and muscle contractions) what is the difference between mono polysaturated fats' structure? monounsaturated fats have one C=C double bond polyunsaturated fats have two or more C=C double bonds Forms backbone of all organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). bones/teeth, bloood clots (also hormone release and muscle contractions) what is the significance of carbon in the body what is the significance of calcium in the body needed for water, organic molecules, and acidity what is the significance of carbon in the body Forms backbone of all organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). what is the significance of hydrogen in the body what is the significance of hydrogen in the body Component of all proteins and nucleic acids what is the significance of nitrogen in the body needed for water, organic molecules, and acidity what is the significance of nitrogen in the body Component of all proteins and nucleic acids file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html 44/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM part of water part of organic molecles used for ATP/ store chemical energy what is the significance of oxygen in the body nucleic acids and ATP; required for normal bone and tooth structure what is the significance of phosphorous in the body print.html what is the significance of oxygen in the body part of water part of organic molecles used for ATP/ store chemical energy what is the significance of potassium in the body most plentiful ion in intracellular fluid; used for action potentials what property of water is the reason why it's used in automobile radiators The high heat capacity of water is the reason it is used in automobile radiators; it cools the engine by absorbing heat without its own temperature rising to an unacceptably high level. why are many colloids opaque or transluscent? because the particles are large enough to scatter light why are phospolipids useful in the body they form the cell membrane which are more soluble in water: simple sugars, or polysaccharides? simple sugars why are most lipids hydrophobic these are primarily hydrophobic because the contain few electronegative oxygen atoms why do saturated triglycerides tend to be solid saturated fatty acids lack double bonds in their hydrocarbon chains, so they can closely pack together and be this state at room temp file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html what is the significance of phosphorous in the body nucleic acids and ATP; required for normal bone and tooth structure most plentiful ion in intracellular fluid; used for action potentials what is the significance of potassium in the body why are ionic bonds mostly found in teeth and bones? because ionic compounds are generally solids that give strength to these structures these are primarily hydrophobic because the contain few electronegative oxygen atoms why are most lipids hydrophobic saturated fatty acids lack double bonds in their hydrocarbon chains, so they can closely pack together and be this state at room temp why do saturated triglycerides tend to be solid 45/46 3/26/25, 10:14 AM print.html why does water have a high heat capacity why do unsaturated triglycerides tend to be liquid at room temperature unsaturated fatty acids have double bond kinks in their hydrocarbon chains, so they can not closely pack together, and will be this state at room temp why is carbon able to bond with so many things? (making it the backbone of organic chains) unsaturated fatty acids have double bond kinks in their hydrocarbon chains, so they can not closely pack together, and will be this state at room temp why do unsaturated triglycerides tend to be liquid at room temperature why is oxygen more electronegative than hydrogen in their polar covalent bond its 4 valence electrons the nucleus of the oxygen atom attracts the electrons more strongly (it has more protons) than do the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms, so the oxygen atom is said to have greater electronegativity Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group are the three components of a nucleotide Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group are the three components of a nucleotide file:///C:/Users/Femi/Desktop/print.html the large number of hydrogen bonds in water. - As water absorbs heat energy, some of the energy is used to break hydrogen bonds. - Less energy is then left over to increase the motion of water molecules, which would increase the water’s temperature Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group are the three components of a nucleotide 46/46
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