i
The Effect of Long-Distance Walking as a Positive
Punishment in Breakfast Consumption
An Experimental Study presented to the faculty of the College of Computing, Arts,
and Sciences
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course
Experimental Psychology
by:
Lazo, Izumi Roji J.
March 2025
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research would not have been possible without the guidance, support, and
encouragement of several individuals.
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my research
adviser, Ms. Edielyn Gonzalvo Gutierrez, for her invaluable insights, patience, and
support throughout this study. Expertise and constructive feedback have been
instrumental for this research.
Second, I extend my heartfelt appreciation to my subject, for the willingness to
participate and contribute to this study. Insights and experiences have been
invaluable in shaping the findings of this research.
Third, to Paul and friends who gave me the emotional support throughout this
journey. Encouragement, understanding, and motivation have provided strength,
helping me stay focused and determined.
Lastly, I acknowledge the importance of resilience, curiosity, and perseverance
in conducting this research. This work is a testament to the collective effort of
everyone who has supported me in this endeavor.
iii
DEDICATION
I wholeheartedly dedicate this research to my subject, whose participation and
insights have been invaluable in shaping this study. Without this willingness to share
experiences, this research would not have been possible.
To Paul and my friends, this work is also for you. Your unwavering emotional
support, patience, and encouragement have been my pillars of strength throughout
this journey. In moments of doubt and exhaustion, your belief in me kept me moving
forward. Your presence has made this process not only bearable but also meaningful.
Above all, I dedicate this to resilience, determination, and the lessons learned
along the way. May this research stand as a reminder that challenges can be
overcome, and that growth comes from the process as much as the outcome.
iv
ABSTRACT
This study aimed to investigate the effect of long-distance walk as a positive
punishment in breakfast consumption. Many individuals still skip breakfast for a
variety of reasons such as time constraints, lack of motivation, and poor eating
habits. In this study, long-distance walk was defined as a continuous walk of 4
kilometers. It was introduced as a form of positive punishment to the subject who
had problem in breakfast consumption. The chosen subject is a female psychology
student who consistently skipped breakfast. The study employed the A-B singlesubject experimental design, consisting if a baseline phase which lasted for one
week and an intervention phase which lasted for two weeks. During the baseline
phase, breakfast consumption was monitored with any imposed punishment while
during the intervention phase, a long-distance walk was imposed whenever
breakfast was skipped. The results indicated a significant increase in breakfast
consumption during the intervention phase, with the subject consuming breakfast
100% of the time compared to only 14.3% during the baseline phase. These findings
suggest that long-distance walk as a positive punishment affects the breakfast
consumption of the subject Thus, this study aimed to contribute to the understanding
of behavioral interventions in promoting breakfast consumption as a habit, while also
acknowledging the limitations of research design used which is single-subject design.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page………………………………………………………………………………… i
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………. ii
Dedication……………………………………………………………………………….. iii
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….. iv
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………….. v
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………….. vi
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………. vii
List of Appendices………………………………………………………………………. viii
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….………… 1
Objectives of the Study…………………………………………………………………. 2
Literature Review………………………………………………………………………... 2
Long-distance Walk …………………………………………………………….. 2
Breakfast Consumption…………………………………………………………. 4
Methods…………………………………………………………………………………… 6
Research Design…………………………………………………………………. 6
Participants………………………………………………………………………... 7
Materials…………………………………………………………………………… 8
Procedure………………………………………………………………………….. 9
Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………... 10
Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………… 11
Results and Discussions…………………………………………………………………. 12
Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………….. 14
Recommendations……………………………………………………………….………. 15
References………………………………………………………………………………… 16
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………... 21
Author’s Information……………………………………………………………………… 24
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Breakfast Consumption before the treatment
Table 2. Breakfast Consumption during the treatment
Table 3. Breakfast Consumption before and during the treatment
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. A-B single-subject experimental design (Siegle, 2024)
viii
APPENDICES
Appendix A (Materials)
I. Silverware
II. Kitchen Plate
III. Online Tracker
IV. iPad
V. Smartphone
Appendix B (Results from Jamovi)
Descriptive Analysis
Inferential Analysis
１
INTRODUCTION
Breakfast is considered as the most important meal of the day, providing all the
needed nutrition and energy to begin daily tasks. In this study, breakfast
consumption is defined as the first meal of the day which is consumed between 6:00
a.m. to 10:00 a.m. Eating breakfast improves cognitive function, concentration, and
academic or occupational performance (Zhang, Tan, & Luo, 2024). However, many
individuals, particularly students and working adults, skip breakfast for a variety of
reasons such as time constraints, lack of motivation in the morning, and poor eating
habits. Consistently skipping breakfast had been associated with low energy levels,
difficulty in focusing, and poor metabolism.
Given these concerns, this study explored the use of long-distance walk as a
positive punishment and treatment to encourage the breakfast consumption. Longdistance walking is defined as a physical activity in which a walk is associated with a
certain subjective perception of distance (Mau, Klausen, & Roessler, 2022). In this
study, long-distance walk referred as a continuous walk covering at least 4
kilometers, particularly the route from Cuta, Batangas City to Lyceum of the
Philippines University Batangas Main Campus. In the context of behavioral
psychology, reward and punishment plays a significant influence in behavior
modification. Positive punishment involves introducing an adverse input to reduce
the risk of unwanted behavior. The treatment lasted for three (3) weeks, divided into
two phases: the baseline phase or before the treatment which lasted for one (1)
week and the intervention phase or during the treatment which lasted for two (2)
weeks.
２
Ultimately, this study used long-distance walk as a type of positive punishment
to assess if it affects breakfast consumption frequency.
By examining this
relationship, the study aimed to determine whether the use of long-distance walk as
a positive punishment encouraged individuals to develop a consistent breakfast
consumption. Also, it aimed to contribute to the expanding body of work on
behavioral treatments for improving breakfast consumption and establishing longterm favorable habits. However, the study is limited by its single-case experimental
design, making the findings less generalizable to a broader population.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to determine whether the implementation of longdistance walk as a form of positive punishment affects the frequency of daily
breakfast consumption. Specifically, it measured the breakfast consumption of the
subject before the treatment and the eating consumption during the treatment;
identified if there is a significant difference in the eating consumption when
compared before and during the punishment.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Long-distance Walking
Long-distance walking is the act of going for a walk over a long distance
(Cambridge Dictionary, 2025). Exercises including long-distance walk, had been
explored in many studies as a punishment which resulted to better behavior among
individuals. One of these studies is the study conducted by Tanucan, Wider, Lobo,
Udang, Sofyan, and Jiang (2024) which found out that exercise as punishment (EAP)
in Philippine schools not only served as a punishment but also promoted physical
３
health and discipline among students. This study highlighted the effect of exercise
punishment in Philippine schools, focusing on how exercises served as a disciplinary
tool. In support to this, a study conducted by Xu (2022) revealed that taking
"appropriately increasing physical exercise" as a disciplinary action not only serves
the primary goal of education disciples, but it also adheres to the principles of legality
and compliance, among other requirements. This study highlighted that using
exercise in moderation and within legal and ethical parameters, it can serve as an
effective strategy to correct behavior without inflicting harm.
Furthermore, research suggested that long-distance walking may serve as a
type of psychotherapy, as Mau, Klausen, Aaby, and Roessler (2021) found a positive
relationship between long-distance walking and mental health. Similarly, in a study
conducted by Mau, Nielsen, Jakobsen, Klausen, and Roessler (2021) found that
long-distance walking impacted middle-aged and older people' reflective processes.
These studies highlighted how long-distance walking can support a reflective
process with transformational elements, making it potentially beneficial or even
therapeutic.
Moreover, a study conducted by Steininger, Braun, and Morgenroth (2023),
found out that participants who walked longer distances (β = .25) and experienced a
crucial life event (β = .21) showed higher levels of self-compassion. The results
suggested that long-distance walking is a promising way to boost self-compassion
that might be incorporated into compassion training programs. This study aimed to
investigate whether hiking the Camino Francés improved self-compassion and
examined covered distance, hiker motivation, and walking alone vs. with other hikers
４
as predictors of increase. Also, it concluded that existing programs promoting selfcompassion could be improved by including walking as a key component.
According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (2021), a large
group of middle-aged men and women who walked about 7,000 steps per day
reduced their risk of death by up to 70% when compared to those who walked less
frequently. Walking has been recognized by researchers as a healthy kind of
exercise that can help lower blood pressure, cholesterol, blood sugar, and body
weight. Many smartwatches and smartphones provide capabilities for keeping track
of our step count. However, the actual number of steps required to sustain optimal
health is uncertain and understudied. This study highlighted the importance of
walking more or long-distance walk for a longer life. It also highlighted the benefits of
walking to the body including lower blood pressure, cholesterol, blood sugar, and
body weight.
Breakfast Consumption
According to Timlin and Pereira (2007), as cited in Qi (2023), defined breakfast
as the first meal of the day which is usually consumed two hours after waking up and
normally before 10 a.m. It is consumed before or when daily activities are carried out,
providing the body with essential energy and nutrients after an overnight fasting
period. In support to this, a study conducted by Palomar-Cros, Srour, Andreeva,
Fezeu, Bellicha, Kesse-Guyot, Hercberg, Romaguera, Kogevinas, and Touvier (2023)
found that 963 patients had type 2 diabetes, and their dietary records differed from
those who did not develop the condition. People who usually consumed breakfast
after 9 a.m. have an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes which emphasized
５
the significance of meal timing. These studies highlighted the importance of
breakfast timing in maintaining high energy levels, cognitive function throughout the
day, and lowering the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Moreover, skipping
breakfast or having unhealthy meal timing may impact an individual's metabolism
and overall health.
According to Lakmali, Moirangthem, Mahant, Devi, Sharma, and Kumar (2022),
breakfast is the main and important meal as it gives strength to the body, increases
the strength of the body, and the ability to spend the whole day in a fresh mood.
Conversely, skipping breakfast negatively affects the body such as gastritis, migraine,
lack of concentration, low energy level. It was found out that breakfast skipping has
an impact on a variety of parameters, including concentration, grades obtained, and
attendance. In this study, the findings highlighted the importance of breakfast
consumption among teenagers to support their health and academic success.
Moreover, this study emphasized the positive effects of breakfast consumption and
the consequences of skipping breakfast.
Breakfast consumption has a number of health benefits, including increased
daily routine exercise, cognitive function, memory recall, improved children's
performance, and women's health. However, skipping breakfast increases obesity
and body mass index while decreasing activity and performance throughout the day
(Rani, Dharaiya, & Singh, 2020). The findings of this study highlighted the benefits of
breakfast consumption essentially for increased daily routine exercise, cognitive
function, and memory recall. Also, it emphasized that the daily consumption of
breakfast supports better metabolism and helps to regulate appetite.
６
Similarly, a study conducted by Pengpid and Peltzer (2020), found out that a
large university population from 28 nations, skipping breakfast was linked to 10 of 15
health risk behaviors, all nine harmful mental health indicators, and low academic
performance. Furthermore, infrequent and/or frequent breakfast skipping was linked
to depression, decreased happiness, post-traumatic stress disorder, loneliness, short
sleep, extended sleep, sleep problem, restless sleep, sleep difficulty caused by a
traumatic experience, and poor academic performance. This study aimed to evaluate
university students in 28 nations the association between skipping breakfast and
numerous health risk behaviors, as well as mental health. It highlighted that skipping
breakfast is part of an unhealthy behavior pattern, which includes poor mental health
and clusters in the form of multiple risk behaviors. In support, a study conducted by
Fanelli, Walls, and Taylor (2021) found out that 30,889 American adults that skipped
breakfast had significantly poorer overall diet quality for the day of intake than those
who consumed breakfast. This study aimed to explore the differences in calorie and
nutrient intakes and diet quality across all meals among persons who ate or skipped
breakfast. Additionally, the study hypothesized that adults who eat breakfast have a
better diet than those who skip breakfast.
METHODS
RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design used in this study is the single-subject experimental design,
particularly the A-B single-subject design. Single-subject experimental design is a
type of experimental design in which the researcher manipulates an independent
７
variable and repeatedly measures a dependent variable before (baseline) and after
(intervention phase) introducing the independent variable (Garbacz & Kratochwill,
2020). This research design was chosen because it allowed the researcher for an indepth analysis of how the intervention affects an individual rather than relying on
group comparisons. Also, it aims to examine the effects of the intervention which is
the long-distance walk while measuring the behavior of breakfast consumption.
The A-B single-subject experimental was applied in this study through a
structured process. First, the baseline phase involved observing and recording the
subject’s breakfast consumption without the punishment of long-distance walk. After
this, the intervention phase introduced the punishment of long-distance walk while
consistently monitoring the breakfast consumption of the subject. The researcher
determined whether the long-distance walk had a significant effect on breakfast
consumption by comparing the data between baseline phase and intervention.
Figure 1. A-B Single-subject Experimental Design (Siegle, 2024)
PARTICIPANTS
The study involved the participation of a female undergraduate psychology
student who was around the age of 18 to 25 years old. The subject was chosen
because of consistently skipping breakfast. Despite recognizing the importance of
breakfast, the subject struggled to include breakfast in her daily meal plan. In order
to solve this unwanted behavior, the subject had to receive a punishment of long-
８
distance walking if the subject violated the compliance of eating breakfast daily. As
this study applied single-case experimental design, there is no need for external
participants. By focusing on a single subject, the research provides an in-depth
analysis of how long-distance walking affects breakfast consumption.
Additionally, the sampling procedure used in this study is the purposive
sampling technique. According to Nikolopoulou (2022), purposive sampling is a class
of non-probability sampling procedures in which units are chosen based on specific
traits required for a study. In other words, units are chosen "on purpose" in purposive
sampling. The researcher chose this sampling technique to select a subject who
consistently skipped breakfast and was willing to undergo long-distance walk as a
positive punishment. This ensured the study effectively examined the effect of longdistance walking on breakfast consumption, which may not be precise if a
randomized sample was used.
MATERIALS
The researcher used the materials to collect, document, store, and analyze data
related to breakfast consumption. Stated below were the following materials:
Silverware.
These materials were used for the facilitation of food
consumption properly. It refers to the stainless utensils for eating, particularly a
spoon and a Fork. (See Appendix A)
９
Kitchen Plate. This material was used as a container for consuming and
serving the breakfast. It refers to a flat container that can hold food. (See Appendix
A)
Online Tracker. This material was utilized to systematically record the
frequency,date, and time of breakfast consumption. Google sheet served as a
tracking tool, allowing for a convenient data collection. (See Appendix A)
iPaD. This material was used to document and record data consumption
through online tracker and video recording. (See Appendix A)
Smartphone. This material was used to track the time for breakfast
consumption. (See Appendix A)
PROCEDURE
The researcher first identified the research problem by reviewing existing
literature on behavioral psychology, specifically on the application of long-distance
walk as a positive punishment in changing the behavior of skipping breakfast. After
defining
the
research
objectives,
the
researcher
utilized
a
single-subject
experimental approach. The experiment was divided into two phases: before
treatment (baseline phase) and during treatment (intervention phase).
During the baseline phase, which lasted for one week, breakfast consumption
was documented and tracked without any imposed punishment. Throughout this
period, the subject followed the usual morning routine without punishment, which
１０
provided a reference point for comparison. Following the baseline phase was the
implementation of the intervention phase. After the baseline phase, t was introduced
which lasted for two weeks. During this phase, breakfast consumption was recorded
to observe behavioral changes. A long-distance walk was introduced as a
punishment every time breakfast was skipped.
After the treatment period, the researcher analyzed the collected data to
determine whether the intervention led to a consistent change in behavior. Initially,
the subject showed a significant change in breakfast consumption which showed that
the punishment was effective in changing unwanted behavior. However, when the
punishment was removed, the subject struggled to maintain the habit of consuming
breakfast. This indicates that the behavioral change was not sustained in the
absence of the positive punishment.
DATA ANALYSIS
The researcher used statistical tools including frequency analysis, percentage
comparisons, and t-test to examine the impact of long-distance walk as a form of
positive punishment on the frequency of breakfast consumption. Frequency analysis
was utilized to determine the pattern in the subject’s breakfast consumption before
and during the treatment. This tool allowed the researcher to observe any changes in
the frequency of breakfast consumption overtime. Also, percentage comparisons
allowed the researcher to have clearer understanding of the extent to which the
treatment influenced behavior.
１１
Moreover, the researcher conducted a t-test to determine whether there was a
significant difference in the breakfast consumption before and during the treatment.
Particularly, the researcher used a paired sample t-test by comparing the
frequencies from the number of yeses before and during the treatment. The
researcher used statistical software JAMOVI v2.5.4 to perform all the statistical
analysis. The combination of these statistical methods provided both descriptive
insights and inferential findings.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
Since the researcher used a single-subject experiment, ethical considerations
were observed despite the absence of external participants. While informed consent
was inherently established, protocols were implemented to maintain the accuracy of
the data collection and validity of the findings. Objectivity in data collection was
upheld to avoid bias. Breakfast consumption was recorded and tracked throughout
the study to monitor the behavioral changes and assess the effectiveness of the
treatment. Transparent reporting was used, including video documentation of the
breakfast with time, which served as supplementary validation through video
recording of the breakfast consumption and including acknowledgement of
limitations were ensured to uphold research integrity.
Furthermore, confidentiality was strictly maintained, all collected data securely
store and accessible only to authorized personnel involved in the research. Personal
identifiers were omitted in documentation ensuring the anonymity of the subject. Any
recordings or sensitive information were handled with utmost care assuring that all
１２
gathered information and data during the experiment will be kept confidential
following the Data Privacy Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 101713).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1
Breakfast Consumption Before Treatment
Breakfast Consumption
Frequency
Percentage
1
14.3 %
Table 1 presents the breakfast consumption of the subject before the treatment
in a one-week duration. Based on the table above, it can be seen that the subject
consumed breakfast only one time in week one or 14.3% before the implementation
of the treatment which is long-distance walk. This means that most of the days in
week one before the treatment, the subject skipped breakfast, indicating low
frequency of breakfast consumption. The findings of this study support the
conclusions made by Kadir, Saleem, Galali, Khudr, Balaky, Hassanzadeh, and
Ghanbarzadeh (2024) which involved 2,225 undergraduate students found out that a
significant number of participants frequently skipped breakfast.
１３
Table 2
Breakfast Consumption During Treatment
Breakfast Consumption
Frequency
Percentage
14
100%
Table 2 presents the breakfast consumption of the subject during the treatment
in a two-weeks duration. Based on the table above, it can be seen that the subject
consumed breakfast everyday with no day skipped or 100% during the
implementation of the treatment which is long-distance walk. This means that every
day in week two during the treatment, the subject consistently eats breakfast,
indicating high frequency of breakfast consumption. The findings of this study
supports the conclusions made by Harris, Carins, and Rundle-Thiele (2021) which
demonstrated that behavioral interventions targeting breakfast, and in some cases
extending healthy eating increased frequency of breakfast consumption. In this study,
behavioral intervention used by the researcher was the long-distance walk.
Table 3
Difference in Breakfast Consumption Frequencies
Before and During Treatment
Breakfast Consumption
t/F value
p-value
Interpretation
6.00
<.001
Significant
Interpretation: Difference is significant at 0.05 alpha level.
１４
Table 3 shows the difference in the breakfast consumption of the subject before
and after treatment. Based on the table above, it can be seen that the obtained tvalue is 6.00 with a p-value of <.001 which can be interpreted as significant. This
means that there is a significant variation in the breakfast consumption frequencies
before and during the treatment which is the implementation of long-distance walk as
a positive punishment to the subject. This further implies that when punished, longdistance walk can affect the subject’s breakfast consumption. The findings of this
study supports the conclusions made by Indriasari, Nadjamuddin, Arsyad, Nastiti,
and Iswarawanti (2021) which showed that multi-strategy nutrition education as an
intervention is effective in improving breakfast frequency and nutrient intake of
adolescents from a low-middle socioeconomic setting. In this study, behavioral
intervention used by the researcher was the long-distance walk.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The subject only consumed breakfast once in a week before the
implementation of the treatment which is long-distance walk.
2. The subject consumed breakfast everyday with no day skipped during the
implementation of the treatment which is long-distance walk.
3. There is a significant difference between breakfast consumption before and
during the treatment. This result suggest that implementing long-distance
walk as a positive punishment may encourage behavioral changes in
breakfast consumption.
１５
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The subject may continue to implement the long-distance walk as a positive
punishment to sustain the habit of breakfast consumption.
2. The subject may be encouraged by family members and friends to
consume breakfast by continuing the treatment which is the long-distance
walk.
3. Further researchers may increase the sample size and include external
participants for the results to be generalizable.
4. Future researchers may examine whether discontinuing the long-distance
walk as a positive punishment leads to a decline in breakfast consumption.
5. Future researchers may explore whether varying the intensity or distance of
the walk affects the frequency of breakfast consumption.
6. Future researchers may examine the duration required for long-distance
walking to create a lasting behavioral change in breakfast consumption.
7. Longitudinal studies may be conducted to determine whether the effects of
long-distance walking on breakfast consumption remain stable over extended
periods.