P3
SECTION A: LANGUAGE CHANGE
Analyse how Text A exemplifies the various ways in which the English language
has changed over time. In your answer, you should refer to specific details from
Texts A, B and C, as well as to ideas and examples from your wider study of
language change. In your text A, B and C, analyze (i.e. Look for and comment on)
in a discursive style.
Cultural Transmission Theory: (Various) This theory suggests that language
change is due to the transmission of linguistic features from one generation to the
next within a speech community. Changes in lexicon, semantics, and grammar can
be attributed to cultural transmission. During the Early Modern English period
(1500-1800), the English language saw the introduction of many loanwords from
Latin and Greek, such as "philosophy," "biology," and "metaphor." These words
were adopted into English through cultural transmission as scholars and academics
began to use them in their writing and speech.
Criticism: doesn't account for learning through trial and error.
Functional Theory: (Halliday) This theory suggests that language change occurs
due to the communicative needs and goals of speakers. Linguistic changes are
motivated by functional factors such as communicative efficiency, social status, or
stylistic variation. During the Early Modern English period, changes in semantics
occurred due to the need for more precise language. For example, the word
"friend" was used to refer to both male and female friends, but the need for a
gendered distinction led to the emergence of the word "girlfriend" to refer
specifically to a female friend. The theory is that language changes according to
the needs of its users. It is an overarching theory; many other theories provided in
this document take this general concept and apply it more specifically. Functional
theory can be used to explain archaisms as many of them occur because technology
has moved on. Words such as ‘cassettes’ and ‘LPs’ are becoming archaic because
the technology/concepts they refer to is archaic! The theory also supports new
words that arise (‘MP3’, ‘Blu-Ray’ and ‘USB’ have come about because there is a
need to label this new technology). As well as new inventions, technology and
discoveries, the theory can also explain the use of slang.
Criticism: only explains changes in lexis, not grammar
Lexical Gaps: Lexical gaps refer to words or word usages that do not currently
exist but fit the existing language patterns well. For example, the words ‘pap’,
‘pip’, ‘pop’ and ‘pup’ all existed as words in the 1900s, but ‘pep’ did not. It seem
its phonological structure made it likely to become one in the future (which it did!)
Lexical gaps are often ‘filled’ when certain morphemes are present. For example,
the words impression, confession and digression all contain add the –ion suffix (a
free morpheme) to the base forms ‘impress’, ‘confess’ and ‘digress’. However, the
–ion suffix in the words ‘aggression’ & ‘compassion’ is a bound morpheme as the
words ‘aggress’ & ‘compass’ do not exist. In future they might. Lexical gaps also
occur where words have not gone through conversion. Verbing is a common type
of conversion where the noun becomes a verb (e.g. texting, Facebooking, clicking).
Many more verbs may appear through verbing.
Random Fluctuation Theory: (Hockett) The theory of random fluctuation centers
on the belief that random events and errors lead to language change. He believes
changes in language result from ever-changing contextual factors. This theory
proposes that linguistic changes are due to random fluctuations that occur within a
speech community. Changes in orthography, graphology, and phonology can be
attributed to random fluctuation. During the Early Modern English period, there
were significant changes in orthography as the English language transitioned from
Middle English to Early Modern English. For example, the use of the letter "y" to
represent the sound "i" in words such as "my" and "by" eventually gave way to the
use of the letter "i."
Criticism: assumes everyone is trying to speak in the same way. Also, change in
language seems to happen in a more organized way as this theory explains a sort of
chaos.
Substratum Theory: (Labov) This theory suggests that linguistic changes occur
when speakers of one language come into contact with speakers of another
language and adopt features from the second language due to its influence. During
the Early Modern English period, the English language was heavily influenced by
contact with other languages, particularly Latin and French. This led to the
introduction of many loanwords from these languages, such as "chaise" from
French and "status" from Latin.
Internal and External Change: (Suzanne Romaine)
She believed language change may occur in two ways:
Internal changes: The factors ‘within’ the language. For example: the
influence of dictionaries promoting new words and meanings; the omission of
certain sounds due to the economic principle of language.
External changes: Changing social contexts, ideologies, technology &
inventions. For example, political correctness has come about due to
ideological changes.
Attitudes to Language Change: (Donald Mackinnon)
Mackinnon categorised the attitudes people have to language change as:
Incorrect/correct (prescriptivism/descriptivism)
Pleasant/ugly (taboo, expletives, euphemisms/dysphemisms,
Standard/regional)
Useful/useless (jargon, vague lexis, fillers, empty adjectives)
Socially acceptable/unacceptable (e.g. taboo, expletives)
Morally acceptable/unacceptable (e.g. political correctness, xenophobia)
Appropriate in context/inappropriate
Informalisation: (Sharon Goodman)
Public texts are becoming more and more informal.
Marketing texts seem to use informalisation as a persuasive device.
Prescriptivist Attitudes to Language Change: (Jean Aitchison)
She categorised different prescriptivist attitudes towards language. The views were
not her own – she was a descriptivist. The three categories she came up with are
given below, along with her criticisms:
1. Damp spoon syndrome: The view that language use has become lazy,
like putting a damp spoon back into the sugar. Criticism: language is
arguably economical rather than lazy. Also, sometimes sounds that
are considered lazy actually require lots of energy.
2. Crumbling castle view: The belief that language is like a beautiful
stately home that should be preserved. Language was once perfect,
but it no longer is. Criticism: language is in a constant state of flux so
there has never been a period of perfect English usage.
3. Infectious disease assumption: Language use is ‘contagious’, bad
habits spread to other users. Criticism: people adopt new language
habits because they like them – it is not done to them against their will.
SECTION B: CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Introduction - context, identify the interlocutors, identify the stage the child is in
(based on the age and what you have just read)
In your essay, discuss/analyze (PEET) 1) Child Directed Speech (Caregiver) and 2)
Linguistic Features of the Child using theories.
Conclusion
Behaviourist (Skinner): Children imitate adults. Their correct utterances are
reinforced when they get what they want or are praised.
The behaviorist psychologists developed their theories while carrying out a series
of experiments on animals. They observed that rats or birds, for example, could be
taught to perform various tasks by encouraging habit-forming. Researchers
rewarded desirable behavior. This was known as positive reinforcement.
Undesirable behaviour was punished or simply not rewarded - negative
reinforcement. The behaviourist B. F. Skinner then proposed this theory as an
explanation for language acquisition in humans. In Verbal Behaviour (1957), he
stated: "The basic processes and relations which give verbal behaviour its special
characteristics are now fairly well understood. Much of the experimental work
responsible for this advance has been carried out on other species, but the results
have proved to be surprisingly free of species restrictions. Recent work has shown
that the methods can be extended to human behaviour without serious
modifications." Skinner suggests that children are blank slates - “Tabula Rasa” He
suggested that a child imitates the language of its parents or carers. Successful
attempts are rewarded because an adult who recognises a word spoken by a child
will praise the child and/or give it what it is asking for. Successful utterances are
therefore reinforced while unsuccessful ones are forgotten or result in negative
reinforcement.
Innateness LAD (Chomsky): A child's brain contains special language-learning
mechanisms at birth.
Chomsky concluded that children must have an inborn faculty for language
acquisition. According to this theory, the process is biologically determined - the
human species has evolved a brain whose neural circuits contain linguistic
information at birth. The child's natural predisposition to learn language is
triggered by hearing speech and the child's brain is able to interpret what s/he hears
according to the underlying principles or structures it already contains. This natural
faculty has become known as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Chomsky
did not suggest that an English child is born knowing anything specific about
English, of course. He stated that all human languages share common principles.
(For example, they all have words for things and actions - nouns and verbs.) It is
the child's task to establish how the specific language s/he hears expresses these
underlying principles. For example, the LAD already contains the concept of verb
tense. By listening to such forms as "worked", "played" and "patted", the child will
form the hypothesis that the past tense of verbs is formed by adding the sound /d/,
/t/ or /id/ to the base form. This, in turn, will lead to the "virtuous errors"
mentioned above. It hardly needs saying that the process is unconscious. Chomsky
does not envisage the small child lying in its cot working out grammatical rules
consciously!
Cognitive Development (Piaget): Language is just one aspect of a child's overall
intellectual development. The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget placed acquisition of
language within the context of a child's mental or cognitive development.
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years): In this stage, infants acquire language by
using their senses and motor abilities to explore the world around them. Language
at this stage is limited to simple sounds, cries, and gestures that are used to
communicate basic needs and desires.
2. Pre-operational stage (2 to 6 years): In this stage, children begin to develop more
complex language skills and can use symbols and words to represent objects and
ideas. Their vocabulary increases, they use their imagination more, and question
everything. At this stage the child is still largely egocentric. However, they still
have difficulty understanding abstract concepts and using logical reasoning.
3. Concrete operational stage (6 to 11 years): In this stage, children begin to
develop more sophisticated language skills and can use logic and reasoning to
solve problems. They develop more empathy (other’s point of view) They can also
understand more abstract concepts and use language to express complex thoughts
and ideas.
4. Formal operational stage (11 years and up): In this stage, individuals have fully
developed language skills and can use abstract reasoning and complex thought
processes. They can also use language to express complex emotions, ideas, and
beliefs
Object permanence is another phenomenon often cited in relation to the cognitive
theory. During the first year of life, children seem unaware of the existence of
objects they cannot see. An object which moves out of sight ceases to exist. By the
time they reach the age of 18 months, children have realised that objects have an
existence independently of their perception. The cognitive theory draws attention
to the large increase in children's vocabulary at around this age, suggesting a link
between object permanence and the learning of labels for objects.
Interaction LASS and Zone of Proximal Development (Bruner & Vygotsky):
This theory emphasises the interaction between children and their care-givers.
More recent theorists have stressed the importance of the language input children
receive from their care-givers. Language exists for the purpose of communication
and can only be learned in the context of interaction with people who want to
communicate with you. Interactionists such as Jerome Bruner suggest that the
language behaviour of adults when talking to children (known by several names by
most easily referred to as child-directed speech or CDS) is specially adapted to
support the acquisition process. This support is often described to as scaffolding
for the child's language learning. Lev Vygotsky also an Interactionist, stated that
learning is an active not passive process. He suggested that children move away
from solo work in the classroom and work in groups and pairs - children don’t
know what they don’t know until they talk about it! He came up with the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD), which is the gap between what a child can do by
themselves and what they can do with appropriate support. He was very into the
idea of scaffolding (support provided by a caretaker).
Functional (Halliday): The child develops language in order achieve an outcome
and participate in social interactions.
1. Instrumental: Language used to fulfill basic needs and obtain goods or services.
For example, a child saying "I want water" to get a drink.
2. Regulatory: Language used to control others or direct their behavior. For
example, a child saying "Don't touch that!" to stop someone from touching
something they shouldn't.
3. Interactional: Language used to form social relationships and interact with
others. For example, a child saying "Hi, my name is Sarah. What's your name?" to
initiate conversation.
4. Personal: Language used to express feelings, opinions, and identity. For
example, a child saying "I don't like that" to express their dislike of something.
5. Representational: Language used to convey information and knowledge. For
example, a child saying "The sun is a star" to convey a fact.
6. Heuristic: Language used to explore and learn about the environment. For
example, a child saying "What's that?" to learn the name of an object. “But….
WHY?”
7. Imaginative: Language used to create stories, role-play, and express creativity.
For example, a child saying "Once upon a time, there was a magical unicorn" to
start a story.
Infant Language Functions (John Dore): These are much simpler and more
basic to understand compared to Halliday's slightly more in-depth theory. Still
similar to Halliday in the fact that children still learn language to develop
necessary functions, they are just a lot more basic.
o Labelling - Naming or identifying a person, object or experience
o Repeating - echoing language spoken by a more accomplished speaker
o Answering - Directly responding to an interrogative or declarative (or any
utterance) by another speaker
o Requesting action - demanding something e.g. food or drink
o Calling - shouting/ loudly talking to attract attention
o Greeting - simply saying "hi" or "hello"
o Protesting - Objecting to a request
o Practicing - Repeating language that the child speaks when no adults are
assisting, trying to independently develop their language.
Elaborated Code and Restricted Code (Basil Bernstein): This theory explains
how language use differs based on social class and context. In the context of child
language development, his theory suggests that children from different social
backgrounds are exposed to distinct linguistic codes, which can influence their
cognitive and educational development.
1. Restricted Code:
• Used in informal, familiar settings (e.g., family, close friends).
• Relies heavily on shared knowledge, gestures, and context.
• Language is often shorter, grammatically simple, and repetitive.
• Meaning is implicit, requiring the listener to infer a lot.
• Common in working-class communities, where interactions are more contextbound.
2. Elaborated Code:
• Used in formal, unfamiliar, or academic settings.
• Explicit, detailed, and grammatically complex.
• Meaning is made clear through language rather than context.
• Encourages abstract thinking and critical reasoning.
• More common in middle-class families, where children are encouraged to
explain, reason, and question.
How It Relates to Child Language Development:
• Bernstein argued that children exposed primarily to restricted code might
struggle in formal education, where elaborated code is the norm.
• Schools and textbooks predominantly use elaborated code, which can
disadvantage children from working-class backgrounds.
• Middle-class children, who grow up using both codes, may have an advantage in
academic settings.
Implications:
• This theory highlights the role of language in social inequality and how
educational systems may unintentionally favor children who already have exposure
to elaborated code.
• It suggests the need for educators to bridge the gap by making academic
language more accessible to all children.
Structuralist Stages of Child Language Acquisition (Universal)
1. Before birth: Newborn babies recognize the language they have heard their
mothers speak when they were in the womb. Swedish/American study monitored
the vowel sounds of newborn babies which linked to their mother’s native
language (differentiation that had been learned in later months of pregnancy).
2. The Babbling Stage: This stage occurs from birth to around the 1st year. At this
stage, children produce sounds that are unrelated to the language spoken in their
environment. They experiment with the sounds of all languages, producing a range
of sounds including vowels, consonants, and sound combinations, such as "ba-baba" or "ma-ma-ma."
3. The Holophrastic Stage: This stage occurs from around 1 to 2 years old. At this
stage, children start to produce single words that represent a complete thought or
concept. For example, a child may say "milk" to indicate that they want a drink.
(Estimated that by 18 months children can speak 50 words but can understand 250
words).
4. The Two-Word Stage: This stage occurs from around 18 to 24 months old. At
this stage, children begin to produce two-word phrases that reflect the underlying
grammatical structure of the language they are learning. For example, a child may
say "daddy shoe" to indicate that they want their father's shoe.
5. The Telegraphic Stage: This stage occurs from around 2 to 3 years old. At this
stage, children start to produce sentences that are missing function words, such as
articles and prepositions. For example, a child may say "me want cookie" instead
of "I want a cookie."
6. The Post-Telegraphic Stage: This stage occurs from around 3 to 5 years old and
continues throughout childhood. At this stage, children develop more complex
sentence structures, using function words and grammatical rules correctly. For
example, a child may say "I saw a bird flying in the sky" to describe a past event.
Prosodic features – intonation, stress, tone, and speed involved in spoken
language
o Tone – emotion associated with utterance
o Pitch – whether voice is high or low is associated with the emotion being felt
o Volume – level of voice production, loud or soft, which may change according to
circumstance
o Speed – pace at which someone speaks related to circumstance of social
interaction. Excited/frightened = faster, uncertain = slower
Paralinguistic Features – unspoken elements of communication such as body
language, gestures and facial expressions
Verbal responses – ‘sure’, ‘absolutely’, ‘really’
Back-channeling – noises such as ‘mm’, ‘oh’
Non-verbal – facial expressions & body lang. like smiling or hand gestures
Pauses – can indicate unease/tension or just someone thinking
Vocal expressions – giggling, sighing, tutting, oohing and aahing. All linked to
the intentions of speaker and within context of the culture
Body language – Forms of verbal gestures to put across meaning.
Gestures and facial expressions – They add meaning to the speakers’ message
without the need to speak.