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~Sim (Par£#1
A. Theory:
1.
Basic Aerodynamics
Aircraft Structure and Components
3. Fundamentals of Flight
4. Effects of Control
2.
B. Practical:
1.
Intro to Flight Simulator
2.
Fundamentals of Flight
3.
Effects of Control
Basic Flight Instruments (Analog) .
4.
s. Basic Flight Instruments (Analog) .
1. Basic Aerodynamics
• Principles of Flight
- un Production Theories
• Basics about Airflow
• Factors affecting Lift
• Aerofoil
• Drag
• Factors affecting Drag.
1.1 Prlnclples of Flight - Lift Production Theories
• Heavier than air machine needs to overcome the resistance to
movement (drag) and the force of gravity.
• A wing moving through the air generates the force Lift.
• Litt generation is based on Newton"s Basic Laws of Motion.
and Bemoulll's Principle of Dlfferentlal Pressure.
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1.1.1 Newton's Basic Laws of Motion •
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Newton•• ,i,...t Law : An object at rest will stay at rest, and an ob)ecl In motion will
stay In motion unless a force acts on II ;
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1.1.2 Bernoulll's Principle of Dlfferentlal Pressure
Bemoulll'1 l'r1nclple states that H lhe velocity of a moving fluid Qlquld or gas)
Increases, lhe pressuni wllhln the Rulcl decreases;
Application of Bernoulli's Principle In the venturi lube which has an air Inlet that narrow., lo
a throat (constricted point) and an outlet aedlon that Increases In diameter tow.lrd the rear ;
TN ma• of M 1nterln9 lhe ft.IN muat nactry 9C11MI lte ma• _..1"41 lube
Newton'• S.C:ond Law : Force equals man times acceleration
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Newton'■ 'Third Law :
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air to P•H In ... Nffle amouffl of
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For every action, there Is an opposite niacilon.
This principle explains W!lat happens to air passing over the
curved top of lhe airplane wing.
1.2 Basics about Airflow
Two actions from the air mass:
A po1ltlve pressure lifting action from lhe aJr mass below the wing, and
• A negative pnissuni IIRlng ae1Jon from loWered pressure above the wing.
1.2 Basics about Airflow ...
hmoulll'• l'r1nclple: Air moving over the wing moves laster than the air below,
thus exerting less pressuni on lhe upper surface than the &lower-moving air below,
Newton"• 3rd Law : For every action, there Is an equal and opposite reaction.
The aJrflow Impacting the bottom side will push the aerofoft In Ille opposite
direction.
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1.3 Factors affecting LIFT
To keep the aircraft flying, the Ifft.producing aerofoil must keep moving,
Lift (L) Is detem,fned through the re4atlonshlp of the air density (p), the aerofoil
velocity (V), the surflce ■rH of the Wing (S) and the co.fflclent of 11ft (Cd for a
given aerofoil,
Uft ""Uatlon
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l r S • p • Vl • S
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Coefflctent or Rft (C,,) dependa upon the shape and design or the aerofoil camber, chord, thickness, and the angle-of-attack.
Air density (p) and v,loclty (V) WUI Influence the dynamic pressure of the airflow
over the aerofoil,
1.3.1 Co-efficient of Lift Factors
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An aerofoU Is oo~tructed In such a w;ry that Its shape lakes advantage of the afr'a
response lo certain physlcal law.i ;
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Curwd aurface la c..1lled CAMBER
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Wing sinac■ ...., (S) - lhe larger the surface area lor a given p=sure dlfferentlal,
the greater the force generated
1.3.1 Co-efficient of Lift Factors ...
Angle of Attack (AoAI
)"'l • .Jr'P l,W • -
1.3.1 Co-efficient of Lift Factors ...
Anal• of Attack ...
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Anything (e.g. Ice, dents) Wlllch changes the pronle or the leading portion of the
upper aurface can ser1ously disrupt airflow acceleration In that area , and affect
the magnitude of the Lift force .
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Angle of Attack (AoAl
Al high Angle of Anack pan of !ming force Is obtained Imm air deflected downward
1.3.1 Co-efficient of Lift Factors ...
Anal• of Attack ...
To maintain level flight, the pllol must adjust the AoA for any given airspeed .
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1.3.1 Co-efficient of Lift Factors ...
1.3.1 Co-efficient of Lift Factors ...
Angle of Attack ...
S!m!lli
"ztro 11ft engl• of attack" (-4°): no prenure
dlfferentJal exists thus, no un force ,
Increasing the camber can generate more Lift.
The higher lhe angle or attack, the steeper
Ille pressure graellent ,
Al AoA higher thin 10•, the extremely
sleep adverse pressure gradient prevents
air now from lotlowtng the aerofoil top
surface contour,
The previously smooth streamline now wtll
separate from the surface, causing the low
pressure a,ea on the lop or the section to
sud<lenlyCXlllapse
~STALL.
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1.3.2 Air Density (p) and Veloclty (V) ...
1.3.2 Air Density (p) and Veloclty (V)
• Lift and Drag also vary dlractty with th■ density of Iha air,
• Air Density Is affected by: pntl!lura, temperature, ■nd humidity,
e.g. Afr density at 18,000 IN! alt~uda Is onHialf the density of air at sea level,
• To maintain Its If\ at a higher ■lt~da, an all'CBft must fly at a greater trua
airspeed for any given Al:JA,
• Warm air la less dense than cool air,
• Moist air Is lass denaa than dry air,
• On a hot humid day, an aircraft must be flown at a greater true alrap99d for any
given AoA than on a cool, dry day.
• Lll'l and Drag aleo vary dlrecdy with the density of the air,
• Air Density Is affected by: pressure, temperature, and humidity,
e.g. AJr density at 18,000 feet altitude Is one-half the density of air at
sea level,
, To maintain itll lift at a higher altitude, an aircraft must fly at a greater
true airspeed for any given AoA,
• Warm air Is le11 dense than cool air,
• Molal air 111 le11 dense than dry air,
• On a hot humid day, an aircraft must be nown at • greater trua alrapead
for any given AoA than on a cool, dry day.
1.4 Aerofoll - Forces and Terminology
1.3.3 Wing Area
Lift varies directly with the wing area, provided there Is no change In
the wing's planform
If the wings have the same proportion and airfoil sections, a wing with
a planform area of 200 square feet lifts twice as much at the same AoA
ea a wing wtth an area of 100 square feet.
TI>TAI.
LIFT
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1.4.2 Aerofoil - Centre of Pressure
Both the decrease on the upper surface and the Increase on the lower
surface are greatest near the leading edge of Iha aerofoil
If all the distributed pressure were replaced by a single resultant force,
this single force would act lass than half-way back along Iha chord
1.4.3 Aerofoil - Movement of Centre of Pressure
Lift distribution changes with angle of attack ;
Increasing the AoA (up to about 16") will lncraase the pr951ure differential,
but It will also change the pattern of praseura distribution .
The position on Iha chord at which Iha resultant force act
Is called the Centre of Pressure .
Resunanl Fore@
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Cetttrl Of ~rwtlUrt
1.5 DRAG
Drag Is the resistance to Iha forward motion of Iha aircraft through Iha
air and Is dlrecUy opposite to the flight path
- broadly classified as either parasite or Induced drag
- the sum total of the various drag forcas acting on the aircraft
~ Total Drag .
1.5.1 Parasite Drag
Parasite drag is caused by any aircraft surface which deflects or
lntarfarea with the smooth airflow around Iha airplane ;
Normally divided Into three types:
• form drag,
• skin friction drag, and
• Interference drag
Each type of parasite drag varies with the speed of the airplane,
The combined effect of all parasite drag varies proportionately to
the square of the airspeed.
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1.5.1 Parasite Drag ...
1.5.1.1 Form Drag
Parasite Drag Increases es airspeed 11 Increased ,
I& of greatest significance at high speeds and is particularly Insignificant
at low speed ,
At a epeed Just above the stall an aircraft may have only 25% of It• total
drag due lo Parasite Iha rest being Induced ,
At very high speed total drag due almost entirely to Parasite Drag (with
practically no Induced Dreg) .
1.5.1.2 Skin Friction
- Caused by the shape of the object moving through the air
Form Dreg results when the airflow actually separated from the eurfece,
Eddies ere formed end the streamline flow Is disturbed,
The turbulent wake so formed increases drag,
The amount of dreg Is related to the cro&S-sectlon, size and shape of
the structure which protrudes Into the relative wind.
1.5.1.2 Skin Friction ..
Skin Friction Is the friction force existing between an object and
the air through which II ls moving
- caused by the roughness of the airplane's surfaces,
A thin layer of air clings to these rough surfaces end creates smell
eddies which contribute to dreg ,
The layers of air near the surface retard the layers further away.
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There Is a gradual Increase In velocity as the distance from the
surface Increases,
The maximum velocity that of the free airflow is reached sooner over
a smooth surface than a rough surface,
Skin Friction depends on:
• Surface area of an aircraft
• Boundary layer
• Roughness of the surface
• Airspeed
• Airfoil ThickneS&
• Angle of Attack .
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1.6.1.2 Skin Friction ..
Boundary L■x,r
The layer or layers of air In which the slowing down action takes place,
that Is to say between the surface and the full velocity of airflow is
called the Boundary Layer,
Thickness of the boundary layer depends on the
boundary layer airflaw near the surface is
Laminar or Turbulent .
1.6.2 Induced Drag
Induced Drag Is a by-product of the production of lift
At the wingtips, the spill Ing of air from the high pressure bottom surface
to the low pressure upper surface Is greatest
The strongest vortlces called Wingtip
Vortices are formed rotating clockwise
from Iha lift wing and antl-clockwisa from
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the right wing (viewed from the rear) .
1.6.1.3 Interference Drag
Drag of all those parts of the airplane which do not contribute lift
such es whe11l1, fuselage, struts, etc,
Caused by the mixing of airflow at the Junction of various surfaces
such as at the wing/fuselage Junction, the tall sectlon/fu111lage
Junctions and wing/engine nacelle Junctions,
Interference dreg Is minimised by lilletlng, fairing and streamllnlng
of shapes to control the local pressure gradients.
1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
These Vortices exert a retarding force on the wing known as
Induced Drag.
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1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
Induced Drag Is cauHd by:
The upward flow In the vortex 11 outside Iha
&pan of the win but Iha downward flow is
behind the trailing edge of the wing within
the wing span:
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1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
Induced Drag Is caused by:
The deflection of the airflow downwards causes the wing to
experience a local airflow (an average relative airflow)
There i1 an overall downffow of the air behind the trailing edge
and within the span or Iha wing .
1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
The lift force produced by the local airflow will have a component
parallel to the remote relative airflow In Iha drag direction ;
This Is Iha undesirable but unavoidable consequence of the production
or lift known as Induced Drag ;
Since this local or average relative wind experienced by the wing is
Inclined downwards, the lift forca produced by the wing (perpendicular to
the local relative airflow) Is Inclined backwards by the same amount .
1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
Induced Drag can be reduced by:
• Use of high aspect ratio wing
• Tapering the wing
• An inbuilt twist in the wing called 'Washout"
• Wingtip modification .
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1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
Induced Drag reduction ....
• Aspect Ratio
• Induced Drag could be reduced by having a long, narrow wing (High aspect ratio)
• Compared With a short, stubby wing (low aspect ratio) of a same area, a long, narrow
wing of high aspect ratio (therefore, smaller wingtips) has Weaker WlngUp Vortices,
Less lneluced Downwash and therefore, Less Induced Drag .
1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
• Tapprad Wings
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A lepered wing Increases the aspect ratio ,
The average chord In e tapered wing will be lower compared to a
straight wing ,
A tapered wing with Its small wingtip will have weaker vortices and so
the Induced Drag Is less .
1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
1.6.2 Induced Drag ...
• "Washout~
• uw11b 0YI" ...
--
With washout, the wing la designed
where the angle of attack at the wingtip
Is less than the angle of attack at the
wing root near the fuselage ,
Most of the lift force Is generated on
the Inner pert of the wing whHe less lift
will be generated near the wingtips,
The higher the angle of attack, the greeter the pressure differences
between the upper and lower wing surfaces .
The lower preasure differences between the upper and lower
surface, near Iha wingtip reduces lilt production ,
Therefore, less spilling of the airflow around the wingtip reduced
formation of wingtip vortices and a Lower Induced Drag .
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1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
1.5.2 Induced Drag ...
• Wlngtlp Mod1Qc1t1on
Modified Wingtips can reduce formation of vortlcea
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Induced Drag increases at low airspeed and high angles of attack
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1.6.2 Induced Drag ...
Induced Drag increases at low airspeed and high angles of attack
1.6.3 Total Drag
Total Drag has THREE components·
• Form Drag
• Induced Drag
• Parasite Drag
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1.5.3 Total Drag ...
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Drag Curve
Factol'9 alfectlng Drag
•Wing Area (S)
- Increase wing area will Increase liff
• Dan1ity or Air (p)
- Increase density of air will Increase llff
• Angla or Attack (a)
- Increase AoA will Increase drag
• Speed (V1)
- When ,peed Increased by TWO limes, lifl will lncreaae by FOUR limes
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2. Aircraft Structure & Components
Lift/Drag Batto
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2. Aircraft Structure & Components ...
2. Aircraft Structure & Components ...
2 1 The FUMl1ge
- houses the cockpit and/or the cabin which contains seats for
the occupants and the controls for the airplane.
- provide room for cargo and attachment points for the other
major airplane components.
2.2 The Wing
- AJr now, around the wings. generates un lhat helP9 the airplane ny
- Wings are contoured. and may be attached at the top, middle. or
lower portion of the fuselage
- Attached to the rear edges of the wtngs are two types of control
surfaces - aileron• and Rapa
- use a form or etreHed akin
structure known as monocoque
or semlmonocoque construction .
--
2.2.1 Aileron• - from midpoint of each wtng outward to the lip, move In
opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the
airplane to tum:
2.2.2 Flaps - from the fuselage to the midpoint of each wing. When
extended, the naps move simultaneously downward to Increase
the lining force or the wing for takeorrs and landings
2. Aircraft Structure & Components ...
2. Aircraft Structure & Components ...
2.2.3 Depending upon the purpose and design of the alrctaft there are
various configurations or .....
2.3 Th• Empennage
- Consists of the vertical atablllzer, or fin. and
the hortzontal atablll.zer .
- These two surfaces help ID steady the airplane
to maintain a straight path through the air ,
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- The rudder Is attached to the back or the vertlcal stabilizer
and Is used to move the nose of the airplane left or rlght .
- The 1l1v1tor Is attached to the back of the horizontal stabtlizer. and
Is used durtng flight to move the nose up and down, directing lhe
alrplane to the deslr9d altitude. or height
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2. Aircraft Structure & Components ...
2.4 Undercarriage/Landing Gear
- absorbs landing loads and supports the airplane on the
ground;
- Most common type of !anding gear consists of wheels
(tricycle),
- Can also be equipped with floats for water operations
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2. Aircraft Structure & Components ...
2. Aircraft Structure & Components ...
2.5 Powerplant
Two main types of engine used In aviation, and the aircraft can
have one or more engines ...
2.5.1 Reciprocating piston engine with propeller
- power average light-weight general aviation aircraft;
2.5.2 Turbojet engine
2.6 Fllght Controls - Control Mechanisms
_ tor la,ge "."'m'"""' transports aOO mllllary ~,aaft •
ljff
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The Elevator, Ailerons and Rudder are known a■ Iha Primary Flight Controls;
The movement of Iha nying control surfaces may be achieved:
Mechanlcally - a system of cablas, rods, laV11ra and chains;
Hydraullcally - control 1urfaca1 are moved by hydraulic power, when Iha
control valve Is operated mechanlcally;
MECHANICAi,, FLIGHT CONTROLS
Electrically - electrical signal to Iha actuator
and the movement of the control ls achieved
hydraulically. ~
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2. Aircraft Structure & Components ...
2. 7 Flight Controls - Secondary Controls
3. Fundamentals of Flight
When an aeroplane Is moving there are four main forces acting upon It
s
Depending upon Iha design, purpose and alze of aircraft, there are other
moll8able surfaces which affect the flight and control of that aircraft;
The uauel Secondary Flight Control& are:
Flaps, Slats, Spoilers, Speedbrakas,
Trim-tabs.
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The fOIWBrd force produced
by !he powerplanV propeller.
It opposes or overcomes ltle
force of dreg
A force prodUud by !he dynamic effect of air
acting on the alrfoft. IICt1 perpendicular to the
night path and perpendicular to the laler.1I axis
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A rearward. retarding force
causoo by dl9fllptton ol
airflow by !he wing, flm!lage,
and Olher proUudlng objects
A force that pull!I the combined IOad of the
aircraft d~ward because of the force of
gravity
Ttie lour fore':!', ar:l on lh1; a rpl,-mP 1n fl1nh' dnrJ ,1l~o ,.-,or, c1 1d1n .;I,,: H.h other
3.1 The Four Forces of Fllaht - Weight
An aeroplane hea men. When stationary on the ground, it hes only the force
due lo the acceleration of gravity ectlng upon It;
This force, It■ WEIGHT, acts 118rllcelly downward al all time&;
3.2 The four forctt of fllaht - Thrust
Before an aeroplane can leave the ground and Oy, the force or
WEIGHT must be balanced by a force which acts upwards - LIFT;
To generate a lltt force, the aeroplane must be propelled forward
through the air by a force called THRUST, provided by the engine(s)":
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W.lght
The Centre of Gravity (CO) may be conaldered ea a point
at which all the weight of Iha aircraft la concenln1ted.
"Aeroplane engines range from piston-powered (typically installed
on light aircran) to gas turbine engines used by larger aircraft.
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3.2 The Four Forces of Flight - Thru1t ...
If in level flight. the engine power Is reduced, the thrust Is
lessened. and the aircraft slows down.
Al the aircraft slows down, the drag force will also decrease:
The a1rcran will continue to slow down unlll thrust again equals
drag at Which point the air5peed will Slablllze:
Likewise, If the engine power Is Increased, thrust becomes greater
than drag and the alBpeed Increases;
As long as lhe thrust continues lo be greater than the drag, the
aircraft continues to accelerate;
When drag equals thrust the aircraft flies at a constant airspeed.
3.3 The Four Forcn of Fllaht - Uft
To keep the aircraft llytng, the lift-producing aerofoil must keep
moving,
Lift (L) is determined through the relationship of the air dan1lty (p),
the aerofoil velocity (V). the ■urf•~ area of the wing (S) and the
cotfflclent of 11ft (CL) for a given aerofoil.
un equation L ~ c;, • P v: • s
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Coefficient of 11ft (Cd depend• upon the 1h1pe end dHlgn of the urofoa
- camber, chord, thlckneH, and the angle-of-attack,
Air den■lty (p) and velocity (V) wiH lnnuence the dynamic pl"naure of the
airflow over the urofo,t,
Wing ■urtace arH (I) - Iha 11,ver the &urface aru for a given
prn■ure differential, Iha gr1■ ter the force gena,..ted.
:u The Four Forcea of Fllaht- Drag
Dnlg Is the fora, that resists movement of an alra-an through the air,
Two major contributors:
Para11te drag - not associated with the production of 11ft:
- The displacement of the air by the aircraft,
- Turbulence generated In the alrstream, or
- Hindrance of air moving over the surface of the aircraft,
Induced drag • an undesirable by-product of lift, caused by the
now of air from the high-pressure area below the wing tip upward
to the low-pressure area on the upper surface.
3.4 Ib• four forcn oJ Enaht - Drag ..
Total Drag Is the sum of Parasite drag and Induced drag,
Drag equation o ~ St, 0 v .,
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Parasite Drag varies directly as the square of the IAS, so at low IAS
Induced drag Is dominant.
Induced Drag varies Inversely as the
square of the IAS, so at high IAS
Parasite drag dominates;
Total drag Is a minimum when
Parasite drag and Induced drag
are equal.
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U
El!ab\ Control•
The fflglll conlrola •r• Ille clft-■ •nd 1y1tltl'l'l1 lllal ~ " ttwl •tt~ude of '"
■ln:nift ■nd, conaequenlly, 1t1 flight path,
In many conwnlionllt ■m ■n. the l)flmery lligllt oonttOle ulllile hlnged, tr■ i5ng•
edge aurf-- Th- lurf■cM .,. oper ■led by the pilot In the oooliplt, Uling
th■ )'Oil• or 00n11ot column, or by ■n ■ulom■tio pilot
• E....,,tor, lor pKctl,
• Alleroml tor roll, ■nd
• Rudder for y■w
U.1 fl!Abl Cpntrolf • Elevator•
~orm• the re., pM1 of !fle l'IOfa!Jfflal t e l l ~
• H,~ to " had IU(fec;e - !fl■ "<l(aontM
1tab<hnr. end
• Ale rtN to awing up end ~ Ellv■tora control the ■ngt■ of ilMdc cl lhl ~
When IOIW8rd pr. .aure • 1ppll«f on
the )'Olle, lhe lilft re,eH ■nd ttwl noM
~ I I , cle<lrMll<IQ lflfl 8nglfl of IIIIAlci<,
Converoety, when b■Gk prHMH• i.
epplie<I, the !Mil ,.,_,. and Ille nOM
r■t.ff, lncrHlllng the Ingle of •tt■cll
ft •
4.2.2 Fllatrt Controt, • All«one
Mounled on th■ lteillng edg■ of udl wing , _ !hi wlnglJpl Ind mow in
oppoell9 dlf•ec:tlon■.
When th■ pllol rn011N !hi you left. lhe 1111 ■ill<'OII g.- up end !ti■ right delt>n
goMdown;
A r■ IMd ■-on reduca lift on Ille!
w,ng•nd•~-·-1111. 90 movtng th■ yoi(I l■fl CMMN
the 1■11 wing to drop ■nd the right
wing lo riff.
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3.5 The Four Form of Fllaht - Balanced Fllght ...
3.5 Th• Four Fore•• of FHaht - Balanced Fllght
Aircraft moves forward when thruat Is greater than drag,
N It continues to move and gain speed, drag wlll also Increase
correspondingly,
Speed stabilizes when thruat equals drag.
r-/
U
~
The Four Forgs of Fllaht - Balanced Fllght ...
The rour rorcn acting upon the movtng aircraft are closely related. I.e.
• The greater the weight • the greater the nn requirement.
• The greater the lift • the greater the drag.
• The great.er the drag• the greater the lhruat required, and so on ...
The aircraft Is In a straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight when the opposing forces balance out each other,
~
,,._,"'
+. . "
I
t-
-
TIINII • Drag, and Lift • Welghl
•
I
N the aircraft moves fOfW3rd, the wings generate 11ft.
The aircraft starts to ascend as long as 11ft exceeds weight.
It stops ascending when 11ft equals weight.
i'l!mllo..lCII
Alla llfl l\cclllof1111'1
4. Effects of Control
4.1 Ibrn Ax,. of Moy,rnent
Since an alrcmn operatas In • throe dimensional environment, aircraft
movement takH place around one or m0f11 of thrH iues or rotatton
25/2[2025
4.3 Primary Effects of the Ptlro•rv FIYIDA controls
MOVEMENT
AXIS
CONTROL
SURFACE
Pitching
Lateral
Rolling
Yawing
4.4 Se!ioodary ~tf!!i!! of ttie P[lmary EIYIDA Cont[ol!
SECONDARY
EFFECT
CONTROL
CONTROL
SURFACE
PRIMARY
EFFECT
Elevator
Control Column
Elevator
Pitch
Longltudlnal
AIierons
Control Column
Ailerons
Roll
Yaw
Vertical
Rudder
Rudder Pedals
Rudder
Yaw
Roll
~l
p·
/,..,W
WE~HT
•
Bank Leading to SlldHllp
D•CA.lH Angle Of AtUck
L,nun
Effect of y ■W • Roll
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4.2.2 Flight Controls - AIierons ...
When pressure is applied lo Iha right on Iha yoke. Iha left aileron goes
down and the right aileron goes up, rolling Iha airplane lo the right;
ft
Centering the yoke returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining
the bank angle. The eircreft will continue to tum until opposite
aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight.
.
4.2.3 Fllght Controls - Rudder
Mounted on the tralllng edge of the vertical stabilizer, pert of the empennege;
When the pilot pushes the left pedal, Iha
rudder denects left;
Pushing the right pedal caui;ea the rudder to
deffect right;
Deflecting the rudder left pushes the tall right
and cause, the no111 to yaw to the left;
Centering the rudder pedals returns the
rudder to neutral and stops Iha yaw.
_,._
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.
.
~-~:•.:..
"-~
- .,.
~~-- ' . • ~
_,_
•- -
f
~
~
:'.:.'.:-T.::-
14
..::___) S...
~ --·-··
:.
- : ·•
25/2~025
Rolling
• The rolOng motion Is being
caund by the deflection of the
aileron, of thia elrcran.
• Toa ailerons wo111 in opposition:
when the right aileron goes up,
the left aileron goes down.
5. Aircraft Instruments Systems
5.1 Purpose of Aircraft ln ■truments Sy■tem■
To advise pilots of the many different environmental condition, existing within
end outside of the aircraft; (e.g. : Cabin temperature, altltuda, attitude, speed,
preMnt poaltlon)
A 1tandardlzed 1ystem of colour coding for operetlng rang&1 la widely used.
Normal operating range
Green:
or Amber: Cautionary range
Warning, or unsafe operating range
Red:
5.2 Claaalflcatlon of Aircraft ln■truments System■
• In1trumant 1ystem1 which provide Information onlv
• Instrument 1ystam1 which flora, Information onlv
• Instrument 1yatem1 which provtde automatic function and control •
Yawing
♦
The yawing motion Is being
caused by the deflection of Iha
rudder of 1h11 aircraft.
5.2.1 tnatrumenta svmrn• which provide Jnformauon only
a. Flight ln1lrumenl1 - aid In oontrolllng tho attitude of Iha aircraft
e.g. : altimeter, airspeed Indicator & artlnclal horizon
b. Navigation Instrument- provide lnlonnatlon that enables tho pilot to guide the
aircraft along definite courae
a.g. : Comp1111, clock end Horizontal Situation Indicator
c. Engine ln1trumenl1 - provide Information concerning the operation of Iha
angina
a.r,. ; Enr,ln• P,wuu,w Ratlo(EPR), Enr,ln• SpHd Indicators, OIi parwmalars
and Fua/ parama/ar,
d. Syatam■ ln■trumanll- provide lnlonnalion concerning aircraft 1y1tarns .
a.r,. : Hydrwullc quantity, flap, position, pneumatic p,wuu,w and a/aclrica/
power aupp/y vollar,a .
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4.5 Effect11 of Alrspeed
• Increased airspeed -
4.6 Effect, of snp1tream
Increased control feel, response rate, smaller control
movements needed
• Decreased airspeed - decrea&ed control feel, respon1e rate, larger control
movements needed
• Increased power ➔ Increased slipstream
• Increased flow over elevator ➔ more effective control (not applicable
to T-tall aeroplanes)
• Strikes rudder ➔ yaw
• Mu1t balance with rudder
HlgllAlnpeed
INCBUH IUPIJBYN
Elrf-1
Rudder
Controll H•"')' •n<l
Firm More E ~
Pl'iBMH &PITllUN
(JfYIIIDr ) Controll l,vnt N
Elff11Dr}
All-Rudd•
Controls Hoevy 1111d
Fwm Motl Effective
}
R-
Controls Light and Sloppy
Less Enoct1v9
4. 7 Effects of Power
• Decrease In power ➔ nose pitch down and yew right
• Increase In power ➔ nose pitch up end yew left
• Must balance with rudder
-ooc..... , ....., • ,11eh Down Ind Yrrw fllglll
JnCrtlll ftowwr - l'ttch Up and YIW Ltn'
AflerDnS
LnsENot -
Pitching
♦
The pitching motion is being
cauaed by the denectlon of the
elevator of this aircraft.
♦ The elevators work in pairs;
when the right elevator goes up,
the lelt elevator also goes up.
S'°l'l>I'
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5.2.2 Instruments System• which store lnformauon
Examples: Flight Recorder and Aircraft Integrated Data System• (AIDS)
5.2.3 Instruments System• which provide Automatic Function and
Control
Ex■ mplH: Stall warning, Autopilot, Mach Trim, Yaw Damper, Auto Throttle
end Auto pressurization .
6.1 Artlflclal Horizon
• Displays the alrcran orientation relallve to Earth's horizon.
1--•-• l-1 -......, 1
1 - ' 0 , T f l. . 1
I
M)unMnl · -
I
6. Basic Fllght Instruments (Analog Dlsplav)
25/2/~025
~
11.2.1 soro• P•no1t1001
6.2 Altimeter
• Display the aircraft altitude above sea level. It Is adjustable for
local barometric pressure.
....-j 10.too II,._.J
-11-"_!"I""~
wtndow
-1I""''"]
Helghl
The "9rtlall distance ol e llMII, pomt 01' olJjecl
considered IIS e pomt, m M ~ from •
specilled datum
EwwtJon
The wrtia,t dislllf1C8 or e roxed (nonmavtnaJ point 01' olJjecl tnellSU'od from
MSL
A/llturll
The vortical d1slence of • moveeble
olJject tnellSU'ed from MSl
Pru1urw A/r/Wde
Thie Is the altitude of the aircraft with
reference to th• pressure level of
~-mlDle
""'" 11o-10.ooo 11
1013.25 hPa
.!!!!!!:
Altimeter reading : 920 ft .
Pressurw lll'MIYS decreases as elt1tude ,ncr_ The llllmeter
lndialtus hetghl ebovo Ille datum set on lhe subscale
6.4 Dlrectlonal Gyro Indicator
6.3 Airspeed Indicator
• Displays the speed of aircraft relative to the air mass. It Is NOT
ground speed .
Vso
• Provides a stable dlrectlonal reference In azimuth for maintaining
accurate headings and for executing precise turns
• To display the aircraft heading relative to
magnetic north, the DGI must Initially be
synchronized wtth the magnetic compass .
I tiNin' •PNd "'" down
Vs1
:. "j'''
40
"
Stalli'I.IIIPNdfl•PI up
'-. 700
60
,::-100
120 100 '
I \ \
IAl,.pHd Limitation■ I
Aircraft heading :
258° M .
,..,
.
25/2/2025
6.6 Tum Coordinator
6.5 Vertical Airspeed Indicator
• Display the rate of climb or descent ,
• Senses rate of change of static by comparing the present static
prnaure with the static pressure measured 4-6 aeconds earlier.
/
10
I
0
1a
/
20.
,7,0
20\
VII 1howtng:
Aircraft de1C41nding
II nite of 700 ft per
minu!AI.
• Me11ure1 the englee of elope (angle of bank) of aircraft wtth respect to gravity.
- A turn 11 normaRy Initialed by banking the aircraft,
- The pilot control, the tum at the required rate by
alignment of the aircraft with the greduations on the
Instrument dial,
• Thi• fn1trument 11 deelgned for a rate one tum, 3 degreee
perncond,
- The bell h11 to remain central for a balanced rate or turn:
lllp Indicator• a very llmple pendulous device.
• u■ad mainly to 1haw whether or not a tum Is balanced,
(whether the angle or bank ii correct for the TAS and
rate of tum),
• and If not, to Indicate the extent of 1Hp or 1kid.