Lecture 1 – 11.02.2025
ETYMOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN ENGLISH VOCABULARY
1.1. The Etymological background of MnE Vocabulary
The important task of lexicology is the study of the origin of words making up the vocabulary of a
language. The branch of lexicology which studies the origin of words and their genetic ties with words
in the same and other languages is called etymology.
The vocabulary of MnE is extremely heterogeneous from the etymological point of view. It can be
subdivided into two main parts – the native stock of words, which is the historical basis of the English
vocabulary, and the borrowed stock of words consisting of various etymological strata borrowed
from different languages.
Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral linguistic intercourse (by immediate
contact between two peoples) and through written speech (by indirect contact through books, etc.).
Oral borrowing took place chiefly in the early periods of history, whereas in recent times written
borrowing gained importance. Words borrowed orally are usually short (e.g. inch, mill, street) and
they undergo more changes in the act of adoption. Written borrowings (e.g. communiqué, belleslettres, naïveté) preserve some peculiarities of the original language: they are often rather long and
their assimilation is a long and laborious process.
It has been estimated that up to 70 per cent of the words making up the MnE vocabulary came
from nearly all the languages of the world.
1.2. The Native Word-Stock in English
Despite the great number of borrowed words native words are still at the core of the language. The
native word-stock in MnE incorporates words which were brought to Britain in the 5th century by
the German tribes (Anglo-Saxons tribes). The original Anglo-Saxon stock of words itself was not quite
homogenous etymologically. It consisted of words Common Indo-European (e.g. father, mother, tree,
moon, star, wind, I, who, one, two, etc.) and Common Germanic (e.g. summer, winter, life, ice, house,
room, etc.).
The native word-stock includes also the words which were formed from English words after
English patters of word-building. So the native element in the vocabulary of MnE is much bigger than
the original stock of words inherited by English from Old Germanic.
The bulk of the native element has survived the centuries of language development. The reason of
such stability lies in the fact that native words stand for fundamental things, they express the most
vital concepts:
 everyday objects: food, meat, milk, water;
 natural phenomena: land, sun, moon, summer, wind;
 common actions: see, go, come, sit, stand, love, hunt:
 common qualities: long, short, warm, hard, quick, red, white;
 terms of kinship: father, son, daughter, brother;
 names of common animals and birds: bull, cat, goose, wolf;
 parts of the human body: arm, ear, foot, heart.
The native stock of words include functional words: modal and auxiliary verbs, pronouns,
prepositions, conjunctions, numerals and most notional words which denote common things,
relations, qualities and actions of everyday life (already mentioned above).
The other important peculiarities of the words belonging to the native elements are (besides great
stability and vital importance):
(1) Plurality of meaning
For example, the word 'head' has the following meanings recorded in a dictionary (to mention the
first 10):
1)
the upper part of the body that contains the brain, the chief sense organs, and the mouth;
2)
the seat of the intellect;
3)
the obverse of a coin (usually used in plural);
4)
a person, individual;
5)
the end that is upper or higher or opposite the foot;
6)
one in charge of a division or department in an office or institution;
7)
the leading element of a military column or a procession;
8)
the uppermost part of an object;
9)
the place of leadership, honour, or command;
10) a turning point, crisis.
(2) Great word-building power
For example, we find the stem 'head' in the following derived-and compound words: headache,
headed, header, heading, headless, headline, headquarters, headmaster, headstrong. level-headed.
(3) Great combinative power in phraseology
There are a lot of phraseological units with the word 'head': above someone's head, an old head on
young shoulders, to talk one's head off, have one's head in the clouds, bury one's head in the sand, head
over heels.
(4) Words of the native stock are stylistically neutral
Most native words are short, often monosyllabic. Those which are not, for the most part have stress
on the first syllable.
 e.g. father, brother, winter
In spite of the fact that native words make up only 30 per cent of the English vocabulary the
importance and frequency value of native words in speech by far exceeds that of words of foreign
languages. In actual speech the proportion of native words amount to 70 per cent or even 80.
1.3. Lexical Borrowings in MnE Vocabulary and Their Assimilation
For the most part borrowed words serve to satisfy genuine needs for expressing new ideas,
especially abstract and special scientific concepts. Borrowings also enrich the English language with
a wealth of synonyms permitting to express shades of meaning, to vary the style and emotional
colouring of speech.
Sometimes a borrowed word replaces a native one. (e.g. 'take' for 'niman'). In that case no actual
enrichment of the vocabulary took place.
Borrowed words also brought into English new patterns of morphological structure of words.
But lexical borrowings, however numerous, do not radically change the structure of the borrowing
language. Rather, the borrowed words themselves change in accordance with the structural
peculiarities of the language they are brought into.
English sounds and stress are substituted for the sounds and stress of the original language.
 e.g. gardin (Fr.) – garden
Borrowed words also get subordinated to the rules of English grammar. They usually lose or
change their original endings and assume English grammar forms.
 e.g. portus (Lat.) – port
 exaggerare (Fr.) – exaggerate
Borrowed words change their semantic structure when they get into the receiving language.
Thus through phonetic, spelling and morphological changes borrowed words become similar to
native words, in other words are assimilated.
The degree of assimilation depends on the length of period during which the word has been used
in the receiving language, upon its importance for communication purposes and its frequency. Oral
borrowings are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings.
The classification of loan words according to the degree of assimilation can be only very general
as no rigorous procedures for measuring it have been developed. The following three groups may be
suggested: completely assimilated loan words, partially assimilated loan words, and non-assimilated
loan words, or barbarisms.
(1) Completely assimilated loan words are found in all layers of old borrowings.
 e.g. cheese, street, wall, wine
Among Scandinavian loan words are found such frequent nouns as ‘husband, fellow, gate, root, win’;
such verbs as ‘call, die, take, want’ and such adjectives as 'happy, ill, odd, wrong.'
Completely assimilated French words are extremely numerous and frequent. Suffice is to mention
such everyday words as 'table, chair, face, figure, finish.'
Latin words borrowed during the revival of learning are at present almost indistinguishable from
the rest of the vocabulary.
 e.g. animal, article, sport, act
The number of completely assimilated loan words is many times greater than the number of partly
assimilated ones.
They follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards. Being very frequent and
stylistically neutral, they may occur as dominant words in synonymic groups. They are active in wordformation. Moreover, their morphological structure and motivation remain transparent, so that they
are morphologically analysable and supply the English vocabulary not only with free forms but also
with bound forms, as suffixes and prefixes are easily perceived and separated in loan words that
contain them. Such are, for instance, the French suffixes '-age', '-ance'.
(2) The second group containing partially assimilated loan words can be subdivided into three
subgroups depending on the aspect that remains unaltered, i.e. according to whether the word retains
features of spelling, pronunciation, grammar or denotation that are not English.
a) Loan words, which are partially assimilated semantically, denote objects and notions peculiar
to the country from which they come. These words may be grouped semantically. They may denote
foreign clothing.
 e.g. mantilla, sombrero, kimono
They may also denote foreign titles and professions.
 e.g. snah. radjah. sheik, bei, toreador
Here we have words denoting foreign vehicles.
 e.g. rickshaw
They may denote foreign food and drink.
 e.g. sherbet, kvas, vodka
Words partially assimilated semantically may denote units of foreign currency.
 e.g. krone, shekel, hryvna
b) Loan words, which are partially assimilated grammatically, usually borrowed from Latin or
Greek, keep their original plural form.
 e.g. bacillus – bacilli, datum – data, criterion – criteria
c) Loan words, which are partially assimilated phonetically or graphically, preserve some
phonetical or graphical peculiarities of the language from which they are borrowed.
(3) The third group of borrowings comprises the so-called ‘barbarisms’ (Lat. 'barbarus’ – ‘strange,
foreign’), i.e. words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but
not assimilated in any way. Very often they have corresponding English equivalents.
 e.g. amour propre (self-esteem), chic (stylish), bon mot (witticism), entre nous (confidentially),
belles letters (fiction)
Etymologically, most barbarisms are borrowed from Greek, Latin of French.
Examples of barbarisms from Latin are quite numerous.
 e.g. homo sapience – the human race
 mea culpa – through my fault a formal acknowledgement of personal fault or error)
 post mortem – occurring or done after death; autopsy
 terra incognita – unknown territory: an unexplored country or field of knowledge
 vox populi – voice of people: popular opinion or sentiment
Examples of barbarisms from French are as numerous.
 carte blanche – unrestricted power to act
 vis-à-vis – (literally. face to face) face to face with; in relation to
 bon vivant – (literally, a good liver) a person having cultivated refined and sociable tastes,
especially in respect to food and drink
Very often barbarisms represent the words of famous people (real and fictional) that are taken
without any changes from the language of the original.
 e.g. Et tu Brute. (Latin). – Thou, too, Brutus. (an exclamation attributed to Julius Caesar on seeing
his friend Brutus among his assassins).
 Eureka (Greek) – I have found (an exclamation attributed to Archimedes on discovering a method
for determining the purity of gold).
 L'etat c'est moi! (French) – The state is me! (the words of Louis XIV)
 Veni, vidi, vici. (Latin) – I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar's report of his victory in 47 B.C.)
 Eisen und Blut (German) – iron and blood (the words of Otto von Bismarck, the 1st chancellor of
the German Empire)
 Eppur si muove! (Italian) – But it turns! (the words attributed to Galileo Galilei after recanting his
assertion of the earth's movement)
The stylistical function of barbarisms is to add atmosphere and character a peculiar flavour.
1.4. Criteria of Borrowings
Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language, they preserve some of their
former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria
to determine whether the word belongs to the borrowed elements.
a) Phonetic or graphic criterion. In some cases the pronunciation of the word (strange sound,
sound combination, position of the stress, etc.), its spelling and the correlation between sound and
letters are an indication of the foreign origin of the word.
 e.g. waltz (German), psychology (Greek), soufflé (French)
Sometimes the graphic and sound form of the word in Modern English enables us to determine the
immediate source of borrowing. Thus, if the digraph 'ch' is pronounced as [S], the word is a late
French borrowing (e.g. echelon, chauffeur, chef), if it stands for [k], it came from Greek (e.g. archaic,
architect, chronology), if it is pronounced as [C], it is either an early borrowing (e.g. cherry - Latin;
chase - French; chime - Latin), or a word of Anglo-Saxon origin (e.g. choose, child, chin).
When the consonant combinations 'pn', 'ps' and 'pt', in the -initial position, are read as [n], [s] and
[t], the words are of Greek origin.
 e.g. pneumatic, psychology, pterodactyl.
The diacritic signs are also an indication of words borrowed from French.
 e.g. communique, chateau, cafe, décolleté, tête-a-tête.
b) Grammatical or morphological criterion. The words that have preserved the original plural
inflexion are, generally, borrowings from Latin or Greek.
 e.g. phenomenon - phenomena (Latin)
 stratum - strata (Latin)
 parenthesis - parentheses (Greek)
Some borrowings have two plural forms - the native and the foreign.
 e.g. vacuum - vacua/vacuums (Latin)
 virtuoso - virtuosi/virtuosos (Italian)
c) Semantic criterion. The meaning of the word shows that the referents denoted by the word
refer to an object of a foreign culture.
 e.g. gondola, n. - a long narrow boat used in the canals of Venice (Italian)
 hara-kiri, n. - ritual suicide practised by the Japanese samurai (Japanese)
 imam, n. - the prayer leader in the mosque (Arabic)
1.5. Translation Loans
The term borrowing is sometimes extended to the so-called translation loans, or calques.
Calques are words and expressions formed from the material available in the language after the
patterns characteristic of the given language but under the influence of some foreign words and
expressions.
 e.g. the fair sex – la beau sexe (French)
 after me the deluge – apres mois le deluge (words attributed to Louis XV)
 mother tongue – lingua materna (Latin)
 divide and rule – divide et impera (Latin)
 eternal feminine – Ewig Weibliche (German)
 gallows humour – Golgenhumor (German)
As to their etymology, translation loans may be traced to different languages. A lot of them were
borrowed from French.
Lecture 2 – 18.02.2025
1.6. Etymological Strata of Borrowings in Modern English Vocabulary
a) Celtic Borrowings
When in the 5th century the Anglo-Saxon tribes came to Britain they got contact with the native
Celtic population (which for about 4 centuries had been under the Roman rule). The language of the
Celts did not influence Angio-Saxon to any serious extent. Though some etymological dictionaries
register about 160 words borrowed directly and indirectly from the Celts only some 10-12 words are
really direct Celtic borrowings (apart from numerous place names). To these words belong the
following: bin – a chest for com, brat – a child, down – a hill, dun – grayish-brown colour, badger – a
burrowing mammal related to the weasel, hog – a domestic swine, to curse – to use profane language
against somebody. Some of Celtic words became international.

e.g. whisky, plaid, clan
Celtic geographical names are common in all parts of Britain, especially in Scotland and ireland.
The Celtic avon (river) appears in the names of streams not only in England, but also in France and
Italy, preserving the memory of the earlier Celtic occupation of Central Europe.
In Great Britain Avon is the name of several rivers (in Central Engiand, Scotland and Wales). Other
Celtic words can be found in place names such as:

hurst (grove) in Billingshurt, Penchurst

strath (a broad valley) in Strathclyde

tre (a village) in Tredegar

weald (a forest) in Cotswold
b) Greek Borrowings
Borrowing from Greek go back to an early period. A great many Greek words introduced into
English came in chiefly through the medium of Latin. Early Greek borrowings were more or less
latinized in form. They were spelt and pronounced not as in Greek but as the Romans spelt and
pronounced them. They were further assimilated in English.
But an influx of Greek words on a large scale did not begin until the time of Renaissance. These are
mostly bookish borrowings which came as terms for various fields of science. It is interesting to note
that modern scientific and technical terms of Greek origin are nearly all of international currency.
Greek terms added much to the precision of scientific technology.
Here are some borrowings, which linguistics owes to Greek: antonym, dialect, etymology,
euphemism, homonym, hyperbole, synecdoche, synonym.
Terms of literature and art are also numerous.

e.g. poet, rhythm, tragedy, comedy, drama
Terms of philosophy.

e.g. basis, category
Mathematical terms.

e.g. hypotenuse
Physical terminology.

e.g. dynamo, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermostat.
The medical vocabulary is for the most part Greek and the Latin medical terms are in the main
translation from Greek.

e.g. adenoids, pediatrics, psychiatry, psychoanalysis.
Quite a number of proper names are also Greck in origin. For example, Alexander (alexein defender + aner – man: defender of people), Pamela (pan – everything, + meli – honey), Philip (philos
– loving + hippos – horse), Peter (petra – rock), Sophia (sophos – wisdom).
Greek is peculiarly well fitted to supply needs for precise terms. It possesses an unlimited power
of forming compound words and it has a complete and regular system of combining forms by means
of which derivatives can be produced from any verb or noun.

e.g. autos (self) in autograph, autobiography, autocracy

ge/geo (earth) in geography, geopolitics, geology, geomagnetic

homo (the same) in homograph, homogeneous, homosexual

tele (at a distance) in telegraph, telephone, television, telemarketing, telecommunication
c) Latin Borrowings
The Germanic people, of which the Angles and Saxons formed part, had been in contact with
Roman civilization and had adopted many Latin words denoting objects of this civilization long before
the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Jutes into Britain.
The loan words of this period are distinguished by their concrete character. These early words
were borrowed in an oral manner, were easy to pronounce and remember. This is a distinctive feature
of the oldest Latin loans as opposed to later strata of loan words. They were also short words, mostly
of one or two syllables.
Many loan words of this period are connected with trade. Ancient Germans soid amber, silk, slaves
and they bought everyday things, jewelry, wine and foodstuffs.

e.g. pound (Lat. pondo), wine (Lat. vinum), inch, ounce (Lat. uncia), sack (Lat. accus), candle
(Lat. candela), cheese (Lat. caseus)
Quite a number of words borrowed from Latin denote different containers.

e.g. cup (Lat. cuppa), dish (Lat. discus), kettle (lat. catellus)
The names of fruit-trees, plants, agricultural terms were also borrowed from Latin (total 136
words).

e.g. mint (Lat. mini), pea (Lat. pisum), pine (Lat. pinus), pepper (Lat. pipere), poppy (Lat.
papaver), radish (Lat. radicem).
These oral loan words, which were adopted in the early period of the history of English, underwent
changes in the act of adoption. Most of them were fully assimilated, functioning according to the laws
of English, and without an etymological dictionary it is difficult to trace their origin.
The second great stratum of Latin borrowings came into English in the 6th ー 7th centuries when
the people of England were converted to Christianity.
Latin borrowings of this period may be divided into two groups, which are different in character.
1) To the first group belong early borrowings, which refer to different (Frequently used). Here we
find words denoting things of everyday use.

e.g. cap (Lat. cappa), chest (Lat. cista), mat (lat. matta).
We also find here names of many vegetables and plants introduced into culinary and medical
practice by Roman monks.

e.g. beet (Lat. bete), lily (Lat. lilum), parsley (Lat. petrocelium), cucumber (Lat. cucumer)
Names of animals:

e.g. camel (Lat. camelus), cancer (Lat. cancer), lion (Lat. leo), lobster (Lat. locuster), leopard
(Lat. pardus).
To the first group also belong borrowings in the spheres of education, science and literature, music
and art.

e.g. verse (Lat. versus), grammar (Lat. grammaticka), note (Lat. notare), term (Lat. terminus),
fiddle (Lat. vitula).
The second group of Latin borrowings includes mainly religious terms.

e.g. abbot (Lat. abbadem), altar (Lat. altare), apostle (Lat. apostolus), cross (Lat, crucem),
martyr (Lat. martyr).
2) The borrowings of the second group were not so frequently used as the words of the first group,
as they expressed more abstract notions. A lot of words of the second group lost their religious
meaning and acquired general meaning.

e.g. to offer - to sacrifice, rule - a set of rules for a monastery
Another great influx of Latin words came through French after the 3) Norman Conquest. It is the
third stratum of Latin borrowings. This period continued/to the Renaissance. The loan words of this
period are mainly of scientific character and were borrowed through writing. Among them there are
terms of philosophy, mathematics and physics.

e.g. diameter, fundamental, momentum, radtus, vacuum.
We also find here words referring to law and government.

e.g. alibi, affidavit, habeas corpus, veto.
We also find here terms of medicine.

e.g. anesthetic, diagnosis.
Many geograpbical or topographical terms are also of Latin origin.

e.g. equator, continental, meridian, latitude, peninsula.
Also Latin abbreviations were borrowed during the third period. A great many of them usually
suggest English equivalents. For example, 'i.e.' stands for "id est,' which means, simply, 'that is' or
"which is to say.'" The abbreviation introduces a definition or a clarification.

e.g. Larry was still dressed in his work clothes, i.e., a clown suit.
'E.g.' is an abbreviation of 'exempli gratia,'" which means 'for example' or 'for instance.'

e.g. Larry found that his job had certain disadvantages, e.g., back Problems from cramming
himself into tiny ears.
‘Sic’ is the Latin word for ‘thus’ and is used by writers quoting someone to alert the reader to the
fact that an error or other weirdness in the quoted material is in the original, and not an error of
transcription. 'Sic' is almost always enclosed in parentheses.
A lot of adjectives were borrowed during this period.

e.g. appropriate, conspicuous, dexterous, external, hereditary.
A large number of adjectives from Latin came into English, while the verbs and nouns from which
they were derived did not.

e.g. man - human, hear - audible, god - divine, lung - pulmonary, moon - lunar, star - stellar, sun –
solar.
Some English nouns have only Latin adjectives.

e.g. letter - epistolary, mind - mental, mouth- oral. ox – bovine.
The words of this period are usually partially assimilated graphically and phonetically. The
presence of prefixes ending in consonant (ad-, ab-, com-, dis-, ex-, ob-) shows that the words are of
Latin origin.

e.g. abnormal, compare, expurgate, obstruct.
In the 15th century English scholars introduced many silent letters in Latin words borrowed
through French proceeding from the idea that the spelling of a word should reflect its origin. The
English word debt originates from the Latin word debitum but in French it lost the letter 'b' which
was introduced by the English scholars. In the word doubt the letter 'b' was also introduced. In the
words heir and honour the letter 'h' was introduced, in receipt- 'P', in island -'s', and in scissors - 'c.'
So the presence of silent letters in the word indicates its Latin origin.
Some of these late Latin borrowings were partially assimilated grammatically. They have
preserved their original plural inflexion.

e.g. phenomenon - phenomena, alumnus - alumni, bacterium – bacteria.
Other borrowings of this period have two plural forms - the native and Latin.

e.g. antenna - antennae/antennas; aquarium - aquaria/aquariums, crematorium crematoria/crematoriums.
Some Latin borrowings were not assimilated and function as barbarisms.

e.g. alma mater - a school or university from which one has graduated, alter ego - a second selfla
trusted friend, terra incognita - unknown territory.
4) The latest stratum of loans from Latin began in the 16th century and continues up till now. The
borrowings of this period include abstract and scientific words.
Whenever there is a need to coin a new word Latin or Greek elements are combined.
Latin borrowings considerably enriched the English vocabulary and brought about some changes
in English synonymic groups, in the distribution of the English vocabulary through spheres of
application.
There are a lot of Latin borrowings which have their synonymic native word, but the sphere of
their application is different. Such pairs of words are called stylistic synonyms. Native words are
usually stylistically neutral and Latin loans are bookish.

e.g. fatherly - paternal, brotherly - fraternal, bodily - corporai, begin - initiate, rise - ascend.
d) Scandinavian Borrowings
The Scandinavian (Danish) invasion of England began in the 8th century when the Danes occupied
the northem regions. In 878 the English King Alfred the Great, by the Treaty of. Wedmore, was obliged
to recognize Danish rule over a territory covering two-thirds of modern England. In 1017 the whole
of England was conquered and the Danes reigned over it up to 1042.
The effect of the Danish conquest was a contribution of many Scandinavian words to the English
vocabulary.
As both languages were Germanic the two peoples could understand each other. Most of
Scandinavian loans are everyday words such as:

nouns: crop, cake, egg, law, sky, skirt, window

adjectives: ill, low, meek, old, wrong, loose, ugly

verbs: call, die, drown, guess, give, take, scream, want
It is supposed that the Scandinavian element in MnE amounts to 650 words, most of which came
into English orally. The similarity between English and Scandinavian words was so great that many
of them differed from one another only in endings.
Besides lexical borrowings there are some grammatical elements. Pronouns they, them, both, same
and the preposition till belong here.
In distinguishing Scandinavian borrowings we may sometimes apply the criterion of sound, such
as [sk) sound in Scandinavian words (e.g. skull, bask, scare, scream) regularly changed to (S) in native
English words (e.g. shape, share, shout, shriek).
e) French Borrowings
The French language has influenced English vocabulary greatly. French words have penetrated into
the English vocabulary at different time and due to various circumstances.
Most lexicologists distinguish two periods of French influence, according to which all French loans
may be divided into two groups:
a) early loans (borrowed before 1250),
b) later loans (borrowed after this date).
The battle of Hastings fought on the 14th of October 1066 resulted in the defeat of the Anglo-Saxon
Army and the victory of the Normans. The immediate result of the Conquest was that all the
important places in the government, at court and in the church were filled by French-speaking
Normans.
The new conditions brought about by the Norman Conquest opened the door for an abundant
influx of French words. For nearly 150 years the two languages - Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French -
coexisted without mingling; French was the language of the government and the aristocracy while
English was reduced almost to the condition of a peasant's dialect.
The early borrowings from French were simple words (usually rather short). They were
thoroughly naturalized in English and made to conform to the rules of English pronunciation.
The Normans formed the upper classes of the English society; consequently, many words referring
to goverment and administration are French.

e.g. authority, crown, exchequer, govern, minister, sovereign, state
Many French words were introduced along with the development of feudalism in England.

e.g. feudal, liege, vassal
The names of ranks were also borrowed from French.

e.g. duke, duchess, marquis, prince, peer, viscount, baron
The management of military matters was in the hands of the conquerors, so many military terms
were adopted from French.

e.g. army, battle, combat, defence, guard, peace, retreat, siege
Words that denote military ranks are among them. e.g. captain, lieutenant, sergeant
Some words, which are now used very extensively outside the military domain, were at first purely
military terms.
e.g. danger, escape, espy (and its doublet spy)
The French dominance is particularly felt in the vocabulary of law. Most of the terms pertaining to
law are of French origin.

e.g. accuse, attorney, court, crime, judge, jury, plead, plaintiff
Some words which originally used to be juridical terms gained a more general use and now belong
to the vocabulary of everyday life.

e.g. case, cuipable, culprit, false, innocent, prove
Just like justice, ecclesiastical matters were also chiefly under the control of the higher classes,
consequently, we find many words of French origin connected with the church.

e.g. abbey, altar, clergy. friar, parish, pray, preach, religion, sermon
Many purely ecclesiastical words now belong to the common language. e.g. blame, order, rule,
tempt
As the clergy were teachers of morality as well as religion they introduced the whole gamut of
words pertaining to moral ideas.

e.g. charity, chaste, conscience, discipline, mercy
French loans define different notions in the spheres of fashion and adornment.

e.g. coat, embroidery, frock, lace, kerchief, petticoat, pleat, plume
A very large number of words that make life enjoyable are of French origin.

e.g. comfort, joy, leisure, luxury, pleasure
French loans denote notions connected with life and activity of knights.

e.g. conduct, courtesy, honest, honour, pavilion, tournament
Numerous words connected with cookery are French borrowings.

e.g. appetite, feast, pastry, sauce, sausage, sugar, supper, toast, menu
Here we also find the names of fish (oyster, porpoise, salmon, sardine), names of meat (bacon, beef,
loin, mutton, pork, sausage, veal, venison), words denoting deserts and fruits (almonds, cherry,
confection, fig, grape, oranges, pastry, tart).
f) German borrowings
Most German borrowings are terms. The oldest and constant influence of German language is in
the sphere of mineralogy and geology. We find German loans among the names of metals and
minerals.

e.g. bismuth, cobalt, nickel, quartz, shale, zink
Among German borrowings we also find words of everyday use.

e.g. kindergarten, poodie, piunder, rucksack, swindler, schnapps, schnitzel, sauerkraut, waltz
Many German borrowings denote concepts of philosophy, political economy, medicine and
psychoanalysis,

e.g. determinism, intuition, transcendental, dialectics, homeopathy, inferiority complex
The loan words, which entered English vocabulary in World War Il, usually denote political and
military notions characterizing the bloody aggressive regime of Hitler.

e.g. Wehrmachi, blitzkrieg, Siegfried line, Third Reich, Gestapo, nazi, SS-man, hitlerite, blackshirt,
fürer, gas chamber
There are quite a number of translation loans from German in the domain of philosophy and
scientific socialism.

e.g. surplus value, thing-in-itself, chain-smoker, masterpiece, swan song, bolt from the blue, place
in the sun
Modern German borrowings are usually non-assimilated words which preserve morphological,
phonetical and graphic peculiarities of the original language.

e.g. Gelandersprung - a jump over an obstacle in skiing. Langlauf- cross-country running or
racing on skis, schadenfreude - enjoyment attained from the troubles of others, wisenheimer obnoxiously self-assertive person, wanderlust - a very strong or irresistible impulse to travel,
wunderkind - a prodigy child.
g) Italian borrowings
Cultural and commercial relations between England and Italy in the epoch of the Renaissance,
especially in the 16" century, brought in many Italian words. The English travelled frequently to Italy,
observed Italian life and culture and brought back not only Italian manners and styles of dress, but
Italian words.

e.g. balcony, bust, cornice, colonnade, niche, cameo, granite, stanza, stucco, studio, volcano
In the 17° century many Italians words pertaining to fashion and high way style were borrowed
by English, many of them through French.

e.g. balloon, gazette, intrigue
Some geological terms are of Italian origin.

e.g. bronza, granite, lava, volcano
Political and diplomatic terms.

e.g. bulletin, manifesto
In the 18th century Italian music was introduced into England and with this came many musical
terms. Here we find names of various musical instruments.

e.g. basso, celio (violoncello), contrabass, harmorica, harpsichord, mandolin/mandoline, oboe,
trombone, timpani, tuba, trombone, violin
Here we also find names for different voices.

e.g. baritone, basso, basso profundo, contralto, falsetto, mezzo-soprano,
The names of various musical pieces.

e.g. oratorio, recitative, rondo, pastorale, sonata, toccata; opera
Among Italian borrowings there are many art terms which have acquired international currency.

e.g. arch, caricature, colonnade, palette, portico, studio
As for business terms some of them were also borrowed from Italian.

e.g. bank, bankrupt, lombard, traffic
Many Italian military words have been borrowed through French.

e.g. battalion, brigade. cartridge, cavalry, infantry, pisto!
There are some words of everyday use which are also of Italian origin.

e.g. soda, umbrella
In the 19th century in English came some words which reflected the political struggle in Italy.

e.g. carbonari, comorra
Most of Italian borrowings are not assimilated in English and keep their Italian form and meaning.

e.g. casino, doge, condotiere, piazza
This is especially true about words referring to music. Many of them have preserved the original
plural form of the noun.

e.g. divertimento – divertimenti/divertimentos, intermezzo – intermezzi/intermezzos, libretto –
libretti/librettos, maestro – maestri/maestros
There are numerous barbarisms mostly referring to directions in musical performance.

e.g. da capo (from the beginning), mezza voce (with medium or half volume), mezzo forte
(moderately loud), mezzo piano (moderately soft), non tropo (in moderation), presto (at a rapid
tempo)
We find non-assimilated Italian loans in everyday use.

e.g. salto mortale (a deadly jump)

dolce stil novo (sweet new style)

tutti-frutti (a confection or ice-cream containing candied fruits)

Eppur si muove. (And yet it does move. - attributed to Gallileo)
h) Borrowings from Other languages
The English vocabulary borrowed words from almost all the languages of the world.
Spanish: embargo, bravado, hammock, hurricane, bolero, armada.
Portuguese: banana, verandah, cobra, auto-da-fe.
Dutch: reef, deck, skipper, yacht.
Iran: bazaar.
Arabic: algebra, albatross elexir, zero.
Turkey: tulip.
Indian: bungalow, jungle, shampoo.
Chinese: tea, bonze, kaolin.
Japanese: geisha, kimono, mikado, samurai, bushido.
1.7. Etymological Doublets
Etymological doublets are two or more words of the same language which were derived from the
same basic word. They differ in form, meaning and current usage.
Thus, the Latin word 'discus' was borrowed in the Old English period to form the Modern English
word 'dish'. It was thoroughly assimilated both morphologically, phonetically and lexically.
Later on the word was borrowed again to form the Modern English word 'disk'. This time the
assimilation was less complete. The word lost the ending '-us' and developed plurality of meaning.
'Disk' may have the following meanings: a) thin circular plate (e.g. coin), b) round flat surface, c) round
flattened part in body, plant, etc. It may be a component of the following word combinations: disk
flower, floppy disk, hard disk, magnetic disc, sun disk, etc.
Finally, still later on, the word was borrowed again to form the word 'discus' – a special term in
sport (a disk that is hurled for distance as a track-and-field event). This time it attained the lowest
degree of assimilation; it has a rather limited sphere of usage (a sports term).
Etymological doublets have some semantic common component due to their common etymology.

e.g. legal – loyal (from Lat 'lex' - law)

codex – code (from Lat 'codex' - trunk of a tree (document formed originally from wooden
tablet)

decimal – dime (from Lat. "decem' - ten)

thesaurus – treasure (from Gr. 'the sauros' - treasure, collection)
There are three, four and even five doublet variants.
The examples of triplets are quite common.

e.g. cattle – chattel – capital

fancy – fantasy – phantasy

momentum – moment – movement
Four variants may also occur.

e.g. root – radish – radix – race (people belonging to the same stock)

ward – wary – ware – aware (from Old English 'weard' – act of watching)
Five variants are rather rare.

e.g. hospital – hostel – hotel – spital (an institution for those with contagious diseases) – hospice
(hospital supplying the physical and emotional needs of the terminally ill)
The main groups of etymological doublets are: Scandinavian-English, Latin-French, and native.
Scandinavian-English doublets are words which developed from a common Germanic root.

e.g. skirt – shirt

screech – shriek

scabby – shabby

scatter – shatter
Very often these doublets are characterized by a regular variations of "sk/sc" and 'sh'.
Latin - French doublets have several categories.
a) words borrowed twice: gentle - genteel, dragon - dragoon;
b) words borrowed straight from Latin and borrowed through French: abbreviate – abridge,
compute – count, blaspheme – blame, memory – memoir, separate – sever, secure – sure;
c) words borrowed through different dialects of French (usually through Norman French and the
Parisian dialect). For example, the Latin word caballus (horse) has given cavalry through Norman
French and chivalry through the Parisian dialect.
Other examples:

canal – channel (from Lat. 'canalis' - pipe, channel)

castle – chateau from Lat. 'castellum' - fortress, cast

captain – chieftain (from Lat. capitaneus – chief)

cattle – chattel (from Lat. 'capitalis' - head)
Some etymological doublets developed from different dialects of English.

e.g. shade – shadow

dike – ditch

lake – loch
Etymological doublets may be a result of shortening.

e.g. defence – fence

history – story

whole – hale

fantasy – fancy
The last group includes miscellaneous doublets. Coming from varied sources these doublets
sometimes offer some curious phenomena.
For example, banjo and mandolin are names for related musical instruments. Both come from the
Greek pandoura, one through Italian and French in the form mandoline (Fr. mandoline; It. mandolino,
diminutive of mandola, which is a corruption of bandora); the word banjo is a Negro corruption of
bandore.
The following are the pairs of synonymous doublets: balm – balsam; gaol – jail; renew – renovate;
screech – scream.
1.8. International Words
International words are words of identical origin occurring in several languages, which denote
identical concepts and are similar in sound complex.
International words may refer to different fields of life and human activities but they mostly
express scientific, cultural, technical and political concepts.

e.g. physics, formula, dynamo, tuberculosis, logarithm, class, constitution
The bulk of international words in English are borrowed from Latin and Greek or made up from
Greek and Latin elements.
There are also internationalisms of English origin which have penetrated into most European
languages, especially in the vocabulary of politics and sports.

e.g. leader, meeting, football, tennis
Lecture 3 – 25.02.2025
AFFIXATION AS A WAY OF WORD-FORMATION
5.1. Definition, Prefixal and Suffixal Derivation
Affixation, is, generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems.
Derived words may have different degree of derivation. Words are said to have a zero degree of
derivation if their stem is homonymous with a root morpheme, i.e. in simple words.

e.g. atom, haste, devote.
Derived words that are formed by adding one derivational affix are described as having the first
degree of derivation.

e.g. atomic, hasty, devotion.
Derived words formed by adding two derivational affixes are said to haven the second degree of
derivation.

e.g. atomical, hastily, devotional.
Prefixes and suffixes differ in their linguistic status.
Prefixes have a distinct meaning of their own, while suffixes as a rule only serve to modify the
meaning of the word and to convert it into another or speech. Due to this fact, prefixes may be
confined (limited) to one part of speech (to enslave, to encage), or may function in more than one
part of speech.

e.g. overkind, to overdo, overestimation
Unlike prefixes, suffixes, as a rule, function in one part of speech, often forming a derived stem of
a different part of speech as compared with that of the bases.

e.g. careful – care;

suitable – suit.
5.2. Suffixation
a) Definition
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of derivational suffixes. Suffixes usually modify
(change) the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech. There are
suffixes, however, which do not shift words from one part of speech into another. Suffixes of this kind
usually transfer (turn) a word into a different semantic group. For example, the suffixes '-ship', '-hood'
make a concrete noun an abstract one.

e.g. child – childhood, brotherhood, manhood, motherhood;

friend – friendship, relationship.
Distinction should be made between terminal and non-terminal suffixes. Terminal suffixes take
only the final position in the words: such as the nominal suffixes ‘-al’ (refusal, survival), ‘-hood’
(brotherhood, neighbourhood), ‘-ness’ (kindness, brightness), ‘-ship’ (kinship).
Non-terminal suffixes can be followed by other suffixes. In such cases a derivative is capable of
further derivation.

e.g. lead – leader – leadership;

care – careless – carelessness;

beautifully, carefully, doubtfully, purposefulness.
There are some graphic and phonetic changes in suffixation.
For example, when the suffix '-ness' or '-ly' is added to the adjective ending in '-y', the final '-y'
changes into '-i'.

e.g. merry – merrily;

dizzy – dizziness;

happy – happiness.
The final '-e' in the stem is dropped before a suffix that begins with a vowel.

e.g. desire – desirable;

dare – daring.
The only exception is when the final '-e' must be retained to maintain a soft [c] or [g] sounds in the
word.

e.g. notice – noticeable;

knowledge – knowledgeable;

courage – courageous.
In words ending in '-c' (pronounced as hard [k] sound), the letter k is added before the suffixes 'ing', '-er' and '-y'.

e.g. panic – panicky;

traffic – trafficker;

mimic – mimicking.
b) Classification of Suffixes
There are different classifications of suffixes in linguistic literature. Suffixes have been classified
according to parts of speech they serve to form, according to their origin, their frequency,
productivity, and other characteristics.
(1) The first principle of classification is the part of speech which is formed. Suffixes are usually
classified into:
– noun-forming suffixes: -er/-or, -dom, -hood, -ment, -ism, -ist.
– adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible, -ful, -ish, -less, -ous, -ly, -y, -like.
– verb-forming suffixes: -en, -ize/ise, -fy.
– adverb-forming suffixes: -ly, -wards.
(2) Suffixes may be also classified into various groups according to the part of speech of the base
to which the suffix is added. Proceeding from this principle we may divide suffixes into:
– deverbal suffixes (those added to the verb base): -er, -ing, -ment, -able.
– denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base): -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some.
– de-adjectival suffixes (those added to the adjective base): -en, -ly, -ish, -ness.
(3) According to their origin suffixes may be classified into native and foreign suffixes.
Native suffixes: -dom, -hood, -ly, -ness, -ship, -ward, -ful.
Romanic suffixes: -able, -age, -ation, -ment.
Greek suffixes: -ism, -ist.
(4) Suffixes are also classified as to the degree of their productivity. Affixes that are no longer used
in the formation of new words are called unproductive; others still active are called productive.
For example, the Germanic suffix '-er' denoting an agent or a doer of the action is highly productive.

e.g. speaker, driver, reporter, old-timer, baby-sitter, fortune-teller, honeymooner.
The Latin suffix '-eer', which denotes one concerned with, is not very productive.

e.g. engineer, mountaineer, cannoneer, profiteer.
5.3. Prefixation
a) Definition
Prefixation is the formation of words by adding prefixes to the stem. Prefixes only modify the
lexical meaning of words without changing the part of speech.

e.g. wife – ex-wife, favourable – unfavourable, inform – misinform.
There are prefixes, however, that can change the part of speech but they are few in number.

e.g. head – behead, slave – enslave.
The prefix ‘out-' makes intransitive verbs transitive.

e.g. live – outlive, shine – outshine.
Two types of prefixes are distinguished:
(1) those not correlated with any independent word (un-, re-, mis-, dis-).
(2) those correlated with functional words (over-, out-, under-, up-, down-).
Prefixes of the second type are called semi-bound morphemes, which means that they occur in
various utterances both as independent words and as derivational affixes.
b) Classification of Prefixes
The classification of prefixes in any language offers more difficulties than we have in classifying
suffixes. The semantic motivation of many prefixes is not quite apparent. A large number of prefixes
are polysemantic. There are also homonymic prefixes that originated from different etymological
sources.
(1) From the point of view of etymology prefixes are subdivided into native and foreign.
Native prefixes: a-, be-, over, un-, fore-.
French or Latin prefixes: in- (il-, im-, ir-), post-, pre-, en- (em-), dis- (dys-).
Most living English prefixes are foreign, but they may be combined with native stems.

e.g. enwrap, post-war.
(2) Prefixes differ in valency. Some of them can combine with the stems of only one part of speech,
others are more productive. The prefix 'ex-', for instance, is combined only with nouns.

e.g. ex-president, ex-husband.
The prefix ‘arch- (archi-)' can be combined with the stems of nouns and adjectives.

e.g. archfiend, archenemy, archconservative, archiepiscopal.
Such prefixes as 'co-, 'contra-', 'post-', 'sub-, 'trans-', 'over-' are used with the stems of verbs, nouns
and adjectives.

e.g. transformation – transatlantic – transfix; subcommittee – subarctic – sublet.
(3) When viewed from the angle of their stylistic reference, English prefixes fall into stylistically
neutral and bookish.
Stylistically neutral: un-, re-, out-, en-, be-, under-.
Bookish: pseudo-, super-, ultra-.
Sometimes one comes across a pair of synonymic prefixes one of which is stylistically neutral, the
other stylistically coloured. For example, the prefix 'over-' occurs in all functional styles, the prefix
'super-' is peculiar to the style of scientific prose.

e.g. superalloy, superbomber, supercomputer, supercontinent, superfluid, supersaturated,
supersonic.
(4) It is possible to group prefixes semantically according to their meaning.
priority: ex-, fore-, pre-.
negation: in-, un-, non-, dis-, a-.
counteraction, opposition: counter-, contra-, anti-.
locality: a-, en-, sub-, supra-, sur-, trans-, hypo-, circum-, under-.
reversion: de-, dis-, un-.
incompleteness: demi-, hemi-, semi-, half-.
5.4. The Valency of Stems and Affixes. Word Building Patterns and Their Meanings
Valency may be defined as the combining power of affixes and stems. We have already seen that
not all combinations of existing morphemes are actually used. Thus, 'unhappy', 'untrue' and
'unattractive' are quite regular combinations, while seemingly analogous 'unsad', 'unfalse' and
'unpretty' do not exist. The possibility of a particular stem taking a particular affix depends on phonomorphological, morphological and semantic factors.
For example, adjective-forming suffixes are mostly attached to noun stems: -en (golden), -ful
(careful), -less (careless), -ly (soldiery), -jike (childlike), -y (hearry).
The term 'derivation pattern' is used to denote a meaningful combination of stems and affixes that
occur regularly in the speech. It indicates the part of speech, the lexico-semantic category and
semantic peculiarities common to the most words with this particular arrangement of morphemes.
For example, the suffix '-er' may be added to verb stems or noun stems and form the following
derivational patterns:
1 profession or permanent occupation: e.g. builder, trader, writer, lawyer.
2 temporary occupation: e.g. dancer, reader.
3 inherent characteristic of a person: e.g. worrier, envier, talker.
4 inanimate agent, tool or instrument: e.g. heater, paper-cutter, screw-driver, bottle-opener.
5 persons living in some locality: e.g. islander, Londoner, New Yorker, cottager.
Lecture 4 – 27.02.2025
COMPOSITION IN MODERN ENGLISH
6.1. Definition
Composition, or compounding, is a way of forming a new word by joining two or more stems
together. The components (or ICs) of the compound word occur in the language as free forms.

e.g. raincoat, key-hole, bluebell, dark-green, heart-breaking, weekend, well-wisher.
Compound words are inseparable vocabulary units. The integrity of a compound may depend on
the unity of the stress, solid or hyphenated spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and
semantic functioning, or upon the combining effect of several of these factors.
6.2. Structure of Compounds
Structurally compound words are characterized by the specific order and aarrangement in which
bases follow one another. The order in which two bases are placed within a compound is rigidly fixed
in Modem English and it is the second IC that makes the head-member of the word, i.e. its structural
and semantic centre.

e.g. doghouse (house for a dog), sunlight, state-financed (financed by the state), dancing-hall (hall
for dancing).
The types that do not conform to this principle are represented by compounds with prepositions
or conjunctions or loan-compounds.

e.g. passer-by, daughter-in-law, stick-in-the-mud, flash-in-the pan; court martial, governor
general, lords spiritual.
Phonetically compounds are also marked by a specific structure of their own. No phonemic
changes of bases occur in composition but the compound word acquires a new stress pattern
different from the stress in the separate words. For example, 'key' and 'hole' possess their own stress,
but when the stems of these words are brought together to make up a new compound 'keyhole', the
latter is given a different stress pattern – a unity stress on the first component in our case.
Compound words have three stress patterns:
a) a high or unity stress on the first component;

e.g. honeymoon, doorway, door key, keyhole.
b) a double stress, with a primary stress on the first component and a weaker, secondary stress on
the second component.

e.g. ‘blood-“vessel, ‘washing-ma”chine, ‘snow “bail.
c) It is not infrequent, however, for both ICs to have level stress, especially in compound adjectives.

e.g. 'arm-'chair, 'icy-'cold, 'grass-'green, 'Afro-'American.
Graphically most compounds have two types of spelling – they are spelt either solidly or with a
hyphen.

e.g. bedroom, hair clipper, milkman, shortlist, bookcase, dress-maker, baby-sitter, kind-hearted,
all-destroying.
The two types of spelling typical of compounds, however, are not rigidly observed and there are
numerous fluctuations between solid and hyphenated spelling, on the one hand, and spelling with a
break between the components, on the other, especially in the nominal compounds of the n. + n. type.
The spelling of these compounds varies from author to author and from dictionary to dictionary.
6.3. The Meaning of Compounds. Motivation
The meaning of the compound is made up of the combined lexical meaning of the bases and the
structural meaning of the patter. The semantic centre of the compound is the lexical meaning of the
second component modified and restricted by the meaning of the first one. They are called
"determinatum' and 'determinant.' In the compound 'sunlight', the second stem 'light' is the basic
part, determinatum. The first element 'sun' is determinant, it serves to differentiate it from other
"lights" (moonlight, candlelight, lamplight, limelight). The determinatum is the grammatically most
important part which undergoes infections.
A mere change of the order of bases brings about the change in the meaning.

e.g. life-boat – boat life, fruit-market – market-fruit.
We distinguish non-idiomatic and idiomatic compounds. Non-idiomatic compounds have a
perfectly clear motivation. The meaning is quite transparent and can be deduced from the meanings
of its ICs. The non-idiomatic compounds can be easily transformed into free phrases.

e.g. airmail – mail delivered by air; latecomer – a person who comes late.
Idiomatic compounds lack motivation altogether, i.e. there is no connection between the lexical
meanings of the bases, the structural meaning of the pattern and the meaning of the compound.

e.g. eyewash – something said or done to deceive a person; fiddlesticks – rubbish; night-cap – a
drink taken before going to bed at night; sweet-tooth – a person who likes sweet food and drink.
6.4. Classification of Compounds
Compound words may be classified according to different principles. There are four main
principles of classification: 1) from the point of view of the way the components are linked in a
compound; 2) from the functional point of view, 3) from the point of view of means by which the
components are joined together; 4) according to the nature of the bases.
6.4.1. Relations between ICs of Compounds
There are two types of relationship between the ICs of compound words: the relations of
coordination and subordination. Accordingly, compound words fall into two classes: coordinative
compounds and subordinative.
In coordinative compounds the two ICs are semantically equally important. The constituent bases
belong to the same class and most often to the same semantic group. Coordinative compounds make
up a comparatively small semantic group. They fall into three subgroups:
a) Reduplicative compounds which are made up by the repetition of the same bases. (onomatopea)

e.g. dum-dum, fifty-fifty, goody-goody, hush-hush, pom-pom, pooh-pooh, ta-ta.
b) Compounds formed by joining phonetically varied rhythmic twin forms, which may vary the
vowel or the consonant.
The variation of the consonant brings about the so-called ‘rhyme-motivated compounds' in which
the thyme between the two elements is the major motivating factor in the formation. Very often the
constituent members of this subgroup are in most cases unique and do not function as independent
words. They carry very vague or no lexical meaning of their own. Some English linguists refer to them
as 'pseudo-compounds'.

e.g. brain-drain, gang-bang, hobnob, hokey-pokey, hoity-toity, nitty-gritty, stun-gun, teeny-weeny,
rat-tat.
The variation of the vowel brings about the so-called 'ablaut-motivated compounds.' It is not as
productive as thyme motivation, but it is most productive in nonce formation.

e.g. chit-chat, flip-flop, riff-raff, shilly-shally, sing-song, wishy-washy.
Coordinative compounds of both subgroups (a, b) are mostly restricted to the colloquial layer, they
are marked by a heavy emotive charge and possess a very small degree of productivity.
c) Additive compounds are made up of stems of the independently functioning words of the same
part of speech. They denote a person or a thing performing two functions at the same time.
For example, secretary-stenographer is a person who is both a stenographer and a secretary; bedsitter is a room that serves as a bedroom and sitting room.
This pattern is becoming rather productive.

e.g. jazz-rock, owner-occupier, bitter-sweet, deaf-mute.
Among additive compounds there is a specific group of compound adjectives in which one of ICs
is a bound root-morpheme. This group is limited to the names of nationalities.

e.g. Anglo-Saxon tribes, Austro-Italian border, Euro-American relations, Greco-Roman art, SinoJapanese trade.
Additive compounds of this group are mostly fully motivated but have a very limited degree of
productivity.
In subordinative compounds the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in
importance but are. based on the domination of the head-member, which is, as a rule, the second IC.
It is semantically and grammatically dominant part of the word, which preconditions the part-ofspeech meaning of the whole compound.

e.g. stone-deaf (adjective), baby-sitter (noun).
Subordinative compounds make the bulk of Modern English compounds; they are also most
productive.
There is no rigid borderline between coordinative and subordinative compounds. Sometimes the
borderline is rather vague. It often happens that the same compound may with equal right be
interpreted either way – as a coordinative or a subordinative compound.
For example, woman-doctor may be understood as a woman who is at the same time a doctor, or it
may be regarded as an appositional compound the first element of which marks the sex of a person.
Other examples of this kind are as follows.

e.g. boy-friend, manservant.
Note that for animal we use pronouns.

e.g. she-goat, he-cheetah.
6.4.2. Parts of Speech
Functionally compounds are viewed as words of different part of speech. It is the head-member of
the compound, i.e. its second IC that is indicative of the lexical and grammatical category the
compound word belongs to.
Compound words are found in all parts of speech, but the bulk of compounds are nouns and
adjectives. Compound adverbs, pronouns and connectives are represented by an insignificant
number of words.

e.g. somewhere, otherwise, inside, whatever, moreover.
No new compounds are coined on this pattern.
Verbs are of special interest. Derivationally they are all words of secondary derivation. They are
very often called pseudo-compounds.
They are represented by two groups:
a) verbs formed by means of conversion from compound nouns or attributive phrases.

e.g. to spotlight, to handcuff, to blacklist, to side-track; to daydream, to night nurse.
b) verbs formed by back derivation from compound nouns by dropping the suffix '-er' or '-ing'.

e.g. to baby-sit - baby-sitter; to play-act - play-acting; to house-keep - house-keeper.
6.4.3. Means of Composition
From the point of view of the means by which the components are joined together compound
words may be classified into three groups:
a) Words are formed by merely placing one constituent after another in a definite order. This
means of linking the components into a compound is typical of the majority of Modern English
compounds. It is called juxtaposition.

e.g. door-handle, wind-driven, gooseflesh.
b) In compound words ICs are joined together with a special linking element - the linking vowel
[ou] and occasionally [I] and the linking consonant [s]. This is a morphological way of forming
compounds.

e.g. speedometer, tragicomic, statesman.
Compounds of this type can be both nouns and adjectives, subordinative and coordinative but they
are rather few in number. The additive compound adjectives linked with the help of the vowel [ou]
are limited to the names of nationalities and represent a specific group with a bound root for the first
component.

e.g. Anglo-American, Afro-Asian.
The linking element [ou] occurs in compound words (nouns and adjectives) in scientific terms.
The main peculiarity of compounds of this type is that their constituents are non-assimilated bound
roots borrowed mainly from classical languages.

e.g. electrodynamics, video-phone, sociolinguistic, filmography.
A small group of compound nouns may be also formed with the help of the linking consonant [s/z].
The second element is, as a rule, one of the three bases: man, woman, people.

e.g. sportsman, saleswoman, bridesmaid, townspeople.
c) Compound words are formed syntactically with the help of prepositions and conjunctions.

e.g. lady-in-waiting, editor-in chief, officer-in-charge, out-of-work, good-for-nothing, up-andcoming.
6.4.4. Types of Bases
Compounds may be also classified according to the nature of the bases. We distinguish two groups:,
compounds proper and derivational compounds.
Compounds proper are formed by joining together bases o dependently functioning words with or
without the help of special linking elements.

e.g. doorstep, age-long, handiwork, looking-glass.
Compounds proper constitute the bulk of English compounds in al arts of speech; they include
both subordinative and coordinative classes, productive and non-productive patterns.
Compounds proper may be subdivided into 4 groups:
a) compounds consisting of simple stems: e.g. film-star, apple-cart, oil-rich, hotbed, blood-red.
b) compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem: e.g. chain-smoker, tinopener, baby-sitter; speechwriter.
c) compounds where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem: e.g. con-man, L-driver, VDay, H-film.
d ) compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound: e.g. wastepaper-basket
Derivational compounds (or compound derivatives) differ from compounds proper in the nature
of bases, one of their ICs (usually the second) is not a free stem.

e.g. long-legged, three-cornered, feather-brained, front-bencher.
The structural integrity of such compounds is ensured by the suffixes ed' or "-er' which refer not
to the last component but to the combination as the whole.
Professor A.I. Smiritsky called them 'grammatical compounds" because they are formed in Modem
English with a regularity of grammatical forms.
In this group we find derivational compound nouns and derivational compound adjectives.
The derivational compound nouns are formed with the help of the suffix '-er' which is usually used
in the patterns n. stem + n. stem + -er.

e.g. honey-mooner, frontbencher, brain-truster.
The first element may be a numeral, adjective, participle or verb stem.

e.g. first-nighter, go-getter.
The derivational adjectives are formed with the help of the highly productive suffix '-ed' based on
the following patterns; adj. (numeral) + n. stem + -ed.

e.g. long-legged, three-cornered.
The derivational compounds may often become the basis of further derivation.

e.g. left-handedness, absent-mindedness.
Words of this type are treated as pseudo-compounds or a special group of derivatives.
There exists a semantic subgroup of derivational compound nouns denoting agents. They are built
on an attributive and verb/nominal type of phrases. Semantically they are only partially motivated
and are marked by a heavy emotive charge.

e.g. a kill-joy – one who kills enjoyment; a turnkey – one who keeps the key in prison; a sweettooth – one who likes sweet food.
The meaning of the compound cannot be deduced for their second IC cannot be understood as
their structural and semantic center. These compounds belong to grammatical and lexical groups
different from those their components do. These compounds are al animate nouns while their second
ICs belong to inanimate nouns. The meaning of the active agent is not found in either of its
components.
These types of compound nouns are often termed "bahuvrihi' (the Sanskrit terminology) or
exocentric compounds, i.e. words whose semantic center is outside the combination, in contrast to
endocentric compounds in which the second element is its semantic center.

e.g. redskin is not a type of skin (exocentric compound); armchair is a type of chair (endocentric
compound).
This small group of derivational nouns is of restricted productivity but they are emotionally and
stylistically colored.
6.5. Criteria of Compounds
Separating compounds from word groups is no easy task, and scholars do not agree on the
question of relevant criteria.
The first criterion is graphic. Solid and hyphenated spelling is indicative of a compound noun. It
may be argued, however, that there is no consistency in English spelling in this respect. With different
dictionaries and different authors and sometimes even with the same author the spelling varies, so
that the same vocabulary unit may exist in a solid spelling (headmaster, loudspeaker), with a hyphen
(head-master, loud-speaker) and with a break within the components (head master, loud speaker).
The lack of the uniformity in spelling is the chief reason why many authors consider this criterion
insufficient and combine it with the phonic criterion of stress.
There is a marked tendency in English to give compounds a heavy stress on the first component,
or a heavy stress on the first component and a secondary stress on the second component.

e.g. sunrise, 'goldfish, teenager, 'prison-breaker, 'fine-"' looking.
This rule, as we know, does not hold with compound adjectives which have double stress.

e.g. 'Afro-'American, 'Afro-'Asiatic, 'Anglo-'Catholic, 'Turko-'Russian.
However, stress can be of no help in solving this problem because word-stress may depend on
phrasal stress or on the position of the compound in the sentence.
Besides, the stress may be phonological and help differentiate the meaning of compounds,

e.g. 'overwork – extra work; 'over work – hard work injuring one's health.
As we see, phonological criterion holds for certain types of words only.
Professor Smiritsky introduces morphological criterion of compounds. It may be applied when
there are connective elements which ensure the integrity of compounds. The presence of such
elements [I], [ou], [s/z] leaves no doubt that the combination is a compound but the number of
compounds containing connective elements is relatively insignificant. So the criterion of structural
integrity is also insufficient.
Some scholars advocate the semantic criterion and define a compound as a combination forming
a unit expressing a single idea which is not identical in meaning to the sum of the meanings of its
components in a free word group. From this point of view 'dirty work' with its figurative meaning
'dishounorable proceedings' is a compound, while 'clean work' is a phrase.
6.6. Semi-Affixes
The problem of distinguishing a compound from a derivative is actually equivalent to
distinguishing a stem from an affix. In most cases the task is simple enough: the immediate
constituents of a compound are free forms, whereas a derivative contains bound forms as its ICs.
There are, however, some borderline cases which present difficulties. Some elements of the English
vocabulary occurring as independent units (‘man, berry, land, proof, wise’) have been very frequent
as second elements of words. They seem to have acquired valency similar to that of affixes. They are
unstressed, and the vowel sounds have been reduced, and their lexical meaning is weakened. As these
elements seem to come somewhere in between the stems and affixes, the term 'semi-affixes' has
been offered to designate them. Semi-affixes received this name because semantically, functionally,
structurally and statistically they became more like affixes than roots. Their meaning is as general
and that of affixes. They determine the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Compare, for
example, 'sailor' and 'seaman' where '-man' is a semi-suffix.
'Man' is most frequent of semi-affixes. Its combining activity is very great.

e.g. countryman, seaman, spaceman, clergyman, fireman, postman.
The second element '-man' is considerably generised semantically and approaches in meaning a
suffix of a doer '-er' or '-ist'.
The fading of the lexical meaning is especially evident when the words containing this element are
applied to women.
The great combining capacity characterizes the elements '-like', '-proof, and '-worthy' so that they
may be also referred to as semi-affixes.

e.g. godlike, unladylike, unbusinesslike.
The element '-proof is extremely productive so it seems right to include it among semi-affixes.

e.g. damp-proof, fire-proof, bomb-proof, water-proof, shockproof, age-proof.
Sometimes occasional words, or nonce words, are formed in this way.

e.g. kiss proof (about lipstick); foolproof (about mechanisms simple to handle); rabbit-proof
(about a fence).
The semi-suffix 'worthy' combines with nouns to form adjectives describing people or things that
observe or merit whatever the nouns refer to.

e.g. trustworthy – worthy of confidence; creditworthy – financially sound enough to justify the
extension of credit; newsworthy – sufficiently interesting to the general public to be; reported (as
in a newspaper); award worthy – deserving an award.
The semi-suffix also combines with nouns to form adjectives that describe vehicles which are in a
good condition and are safe for travelling.

e.g. seaworthy – fit or safe to travel on the sea; airworthy - fit for operation in the air; roadworthy
– fit for use on the road.
Marchant chooses to include among the semi-affixes also the elements '-wise' and '-way'.
The semi-suffix '-wise' combines with nouns to form words which describe actions or states that
are similar to those of the people or things referred to by the nouns. For example, if something moves
'clockwise', it moves in a circle and in the same direction as the hands of a clock.
Other examples with the semi-suffix '-wise' in this meaning: crab-wise, hammer-wise, monkey-wise,
sailor-wise, and sleepwalker-wise.
The semi-suffix '-wise' also combines with nouns, and occasionally with adjectives and adverbs.

e.g. vote-wise; calorie-wise; time-wise; menu-wise; dollarwise.
Among the newest semi-suffixes we may count -free, -monger, -oholic/-aholic, -friendly, -burger,
which can form new words freely.
The suffix -aholic (-oholic), meaning a person obsessed with or addicted to, is becoming very
productive. The earliest formation based on this suffix was probably workaholic, which seemed to
have been coined around 1968. The medial vowel of its model was rather arbitrarily changed from
'o' to 'a', and to this day "a' remains rather commoner. A fairly high proportion of these formation
refer to particular sort of food and drink obsessions, but compulsive collectors or buyers feature
prominently too: clothesaholic, shopaholic, creamaholic, milkaholic, chocoholic, jadeaholic,
tinfoilaholic.
Semi-affixes may be also used in preposition like prefixes: info-, eco-, narco-, Euro- techno-, mini-,
maxi-, self-.
Possibly the best-known example of a word that shows signs of being turned into a prefix iscyber; it would take a few pages just to list all the new words that have been formed with it.
The factors conducing to transition of free forms into semi-affixes are high semantic productivity,
adaptability, combinatorial capacity (high valency) and brevity.