WHAT IS SOCIAL DEVIATION?
Social deviance is a phenomenon that has existed in
all societies where there have been norms. There are
two possibilities for how an individual will act in the
face of social norms: conform or violate.
There are implicit social norms and explicit social
norms.
▪ Explicit social norms are not necessarily
laws.
▪ Implicit social norms are followed through
the use of common sense.
▪ In reality, there is often a blend of conformity
and deviance in the ways people behave.
▪ Rarely, if ever, does a person deviate from or
conform to all norms.
▪ Some behaviors reflect conformity and
deviance at once. That is a critical feature of
deviance, conformity, and norms.
Relativity abounds. That is, norms can change over
time.
▪ Depends on situational context.
▪ Depends on statuses.
▪ And any number of other factors. But it’s not
all relative.
These are about as universal as anything in the social
sciences can be, such as when one maliciously
harms a child.
PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
DEVIANCY
In light of the way we think about norms, deviance,
and conformity, many thinkers throughout history
have tried to explain the causes behind deviance.
▪ When most of us think of deviant behavior, we
think of someone who is breaking the law or
acting out in a negative manner.
▪ ‘Different’ or ‘unexpected’ are words often
used to describe from a sociological
perspective.
For our purposes, deviant means departing from the
norm, and to a sociologist, that can be biased
towards the positive or negative.
While there are crimes that are certainly deviant
because they are outside the norm (such as murder,
rape, etc.), there are also crimes that are not deviant.
▪ Take speeding for example: It isn’t all
unexpected to see someone speeding. From
a sociological perspective, speeding would
not be considered deviant in most cities in the
United States.
When an individual or a minority group’s behavior,
belief, or appearance deviates from the normative
standards, the individual or the group members risk
becoming the targets of social disapproval and
other forms of punishment.
Examples of social deviance range from minor
breaches of social etiquette to major violations of the
law.
Social Deviance, broadly defined, applies to any
behavior, belief, or appearance that violates
prevailing social norms.
Norms are social standards concerning what
members of a group expect and believe is acceptable
in a given situation.
▪ The power of norms to govern individual
behavior derives from the perception that
others endorse and will enforce the
normative standards.
Deviance, in a sociological context, describes
actions or behaviors that violate informal social
norms or formally enacted rules.
Among those who study social norms and their
relation to deviance, all of whom investigate how
norms change and are enforced over time:
1. Sociologists
2. Psychologists
3. Psychiatrists
4. Criminologists
Deviance is often divided into two types of activities:
▪ The first, crime, is the violation of formally
enacted laws and is referred to as formal
deviance. (e.g., robbery, theft, rape, murder,
assault, etc.)
▪ The second type of deviant behavior involves
violation of informal social norms (norms
that have not been codified into laws) and is
referred to as informal deviance (e.g., picking
one’s nose, belching loudly, standing
unnecessarily close to a person, etc.)
Deviance can vary differently across cultures.
Cultural norms are relative, which makes deviant
behavior relative as well.
For example, in the United States, Americans
do not generally impose time-based
restrictions on speech. However, in the Christ
Desert Monastery, specific rules govern
determine when residents can and cannot
speak, and speech is banned between 7:30
pm and 4:00 am.
These rules are one example of how norms vary
across cultures.
PARADIGMS
AND
APPROACHES
UNDERSTANDING AND RESPONDING
SOCIAL DEVIATION
ON
TO
Paradigm /ˈperəˌdīm/
▪ A worldview, general perspective, a way of
breaking down the complexity of the real
world (Lincoln and Guba, 1985:15).
▪ Constitute cultural patterns of group life
(Schutz, 1944). An entire constellation of
beliefs, values, techniques, and so on, shared
by the members of the given community
(Kuhn, 1970).
Paradigms shape and are shaped by values,
knowledge, and beliefs about the nature of our
worlds.
For social workers, the notion of paradigm is
particularly important, because if we can become
conscious of the elements that result in different
world views, this awareness can provide us with the
tools to use to think about and to understand
ourselves, others, and the environments we all
inhabit.
Approach - A way of dealing with something.
The notion of paradigm can help us understand ▪ more completely the past perspectives,
current realities, and future possibilities
about what it means to be human.
▪
our own and others’ roles in creating and recreating the very meaning of humanness.
The concept of paradigm ▪ can provide us with new ways of
understanding human behavior in individual,
family, group, organizational, community, and
global contexts.
▪ can serve us very well to order and to increase
our awareness of multiple theories, models,
and perspectives about human behavior and
the social environment.
▪ can help us to understand the way things are,
and, equally important for social workers, it
can help us understand the way things might
be.
TWO TYPES OF PARADIGMS
1. TRADITIONAL OR DOMINANT PARADIGMS Simply means the paradigm or worldviews that have
most influenced the environment that makes up our
world.
▪ According to the traditional or dominant
approach, we assume that we can best
understand the needs of the people in the
community through structured data gathering
(i.e., use of a survey or questionnaire).
2. ALTERNATIVE OR POSSIBLE PARADIGMS - Mean
worldviews that have had less influence and have
been less prominent in shaping our own others’
views about humans and their environments.
▪ The belief that we can learn as much or more
about the world around us from qualitative
and subjective, as from quantitative and
objective, approaches to understanding
reflects an alternative and nondominant view
of the world.
SOCIAL DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL WORK
Deviance is a violation of established contextual,
cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or
codified law.
▪ It is a social creation in which “social groups
create deviance by making the rules whose
infraction constitutes deviance, and by
applying those rules to particular people and
labelling them as outsiders” (Howard Becker,
1963).
▪
Any behavior that differs significantly from
what is considered appropriate or typical for
a social group.
Norms are social standards concerning what
members of a group expect and believe is acceptable
conduct in a given situation.
▪ The power of norms to govern individual
behavior derives from the perception that
others endorse and will enforce the
normative standards.
▪ Defined as something that is considered
normal and refers to something that is the
usual, customary or accepted standard.
▪ The rules or expectations that determine
and regulate appropriate behavior within
a culture, group, or society.
TYPES OF NORMS
1. Folkways - These are norms based on
everyday cultural customs concerning
practical matters like how to hold a fork,
what type of clothes are appropriate for
different situations, or how to greet someone
politely.
2. Mores - Are more serious moral injunctions
or taboos that are broadly recognized in a
society.
3. Codified Laws - Are norms that are specified
in explicit codes and enforced by government
bodies.
Social Deviance, broadly defined, applies to any
behavior, belief, or appearance that violates
prevailing social norms.
TYPES OF DEVIANCE
1. Admired Behavior - Sometimes
good
behavior (not within the social norm) can
also be considered deviant.
Ex. putting yourself in danger to save
someone.
2. Bad Behavior - Law-breaking and other
criminal behavior would fit into this category.
3. Odd Behavior - This behavior, while not illegal,
is not normally accepted or practiced.
Ex. pet owners dying their dog’s hair.
OBJECTIVIST CONCEPTION OF DEVIANCE IN
TERMS OF THREE ASPECTS OF SOCIAL
INTERACTION
Objectivist Perspective revers to a theoretical
perspective that views deviance as a behavior or
characteristic that violates specific, objective
societal norms and values, regardless of an
individual’s intentions.
In this perspective, deviance is seen as an objective
fact. The Objectivist Perspective focuses on the acts
itself rather than the intentions.
1. Behavior - Acts that violate norms are
instances of deviance.
2. Norms - Rules of conduct; objective
measuring rods for evaluating acts.
3. Societal Reactions - Audience reactions not
central to objectivist definition of deviance.
Deviance lies in the characteristics/qualities
of an act or a person.
▪ There is something about a
person or their behavior that makes
them deviant.
▪ For people who believe this, it is often
treated as common sense (ex. It is
common sense that homicide is a
deviant behavior)
CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE SOMETHING
DEVIANT
1. Harm - it inflicts harm to someone or
something.
2. Rarity - it rarely happens.
3. Reactions - how the society reacts to it.
4. Norms - it violates social norms.
SUBJECTIVIST CONCEPT OF DEVIANCE
Deviance as an act (real or imagined) that has been
labelled as deviant by the asocial audience.
Behavior are norm-violating acts that is not deviance
unless discovered and labeled as deviance.
Norms are not the ultimate measuring rod for
identifying deviance; norms may guide societal
reactions in response to actual or perceived rule
breaking.
POSITIVIST PERSPECTIVE ON DEVIANCE
Positivist - Those that attempt to explain the causes
and consequences of normative violations.
THREE ASSUMPTIONS OF WHAT DEVIANT IS:
1. Absolutism - Deviance is absolutely
or
intrinsically real. Deviant individuals have
certain characteristics that make them
different from conventional people.
2. Objectivism - Deviant people can be studied
objectively like observable objects.
3. Determinism - Deviance is caused by factors
beyond an individual’s control.
In Positivist Perspective, deviance is determined or
caused by factors beyond the individual’s control.
Theories developed within the positivist perspective
focus on variables which are quantifiable or
measurable and constitutes acceptable and
unacceptable behavior.
HUMANIST PERSPECTIVE ON DEVIANCE
The Humanist Perspective tends to accept different
kinds of proof than only that which is quantifiable and
objective.
▪ Recognizes social conflict and the unequal
distribution of power in society.
▪ We are using the term humanistic
perspective
which
emphasizes
the
individual’s freedom of action and search for
meaning.
Humanists believe that:
1. Each person is unique and has value.
2. Each person is responsible for the choices
they make within the limits of freedom.
3. People always have the capacity to change
themselves, even make radical change.
4. Human behavior can be understood only from
the vantage point of the phenomenal self -from the internal frame of reference of the
individual.
5. Behaving in ways that are not consistent with
the true self causes anxiety.
6. Human behavior is driven by a desire for
growth, personal meaning, and competence,
and by a need to experience a bond with
others.
Social Psychological perspectives on deviance refer
to discussions of the nature of deviance and
explanations of the definition, antecedents, or
consequences of deviance that implicate both
personal (behavioral or intrapsychic) and social
(interpersonal, group, macrosocial) structures and
processes.
NATURE OF DEVIANCE
The very definition of deviant behavior as it is
generally understood in contemporary social science
is essentially social-psychological.
Although definitions vary widely, most social
psychologists would agree that deviance refers to
behaviors or attributes manifested by specified kinds
of people in specified circumstances that are judged
to violate the normative expectations of a specified
group.
Shared normative expectations refer to group
evaluations regarding the appropriateness or
inappropriateness of certain attributes or behaviors
when manifested by certain kinds of people in certain
circumstances.
The de facto deviation from the expectations of
specified normative systems may be motivated or
unmotivated.
MOTIVATED DEVIATION
Arises from either of two sets of circumstances. In
the first set, the person is a member of a group that
defines the attributes or behaviors in question as
deviant. However, because of a variety of
circumstances, the person loses motivation to
conform to the normative expectations of the group
and becomes motivated to adopt deviant patterns
that are expected to satisfy the person's needs better
than conventional patterns.
In the second set of circumstances, the person is a
member of a group in which the attributes or
behaviors under consideration are normative
though other groups may define the attributes or
behaviors as deviant. The person is motivated to
conform to the normative prescriptions or
proscriptions as one who has been socialized in the
group. The person is either unaware or considers it to
be irrelevant that another group judges the attributes
or behaviors.
The person's motivation stems from the need to
conform to group standards and to evoke approving
responses from group members who share these
standards for conforming to the group's normative
expectations.
UNMOTIVATED DEVIATION
Refers to instances of failure to conform to the
normative expectations of the person's membership
or reference groups, where the failure to conform is
contrary to the person's volition.
I. STRAIN THEORY
Robert K. Merton (born July 4, 1910, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, U.S.—died February 23, 2003, New
York, New York) was an American sociologist whose
diverse interests included the sociology of science
and the professions, sociological theory, and mass
communication.
▪ Considered a founding father of modern
sociology, and a major contributor to the
subfield of criminology. He served as the 47th
president of the American Sociological
Association.
▪ In 1994 Merton became the first sociologist
to receive a National Medal of Science.
Emile Durkheim first coined the term "anomie" in
1893 when he published his book "The Division of
Labor in Society". Durkheim used the term to
describe a state of social disorder where societal
norms and values are weakened, leading to feelings
of aimlessness and disorientation among
individuals; in societies or individuals, a condition of
instability resulting from a breakdown of standards
and values or from a lack of purpose or ideals.
Robert Merton, in 1938, developed what later would
become known as Anomie Theory, attributing
deviance to anomie, the breakdown of social norms
that results from society’s urging people to be
ambitious but failing to provide them with legitimate
opportunities to succeed.
▪ Since the early 1990s, other attempts have
been made to extend the theory by
emphasizing how the strain generated in
people by anomie or other social conditions
causes them to commit deviant acts (Agnew,
1992; Messner and Rosenfeld, 2001).
The theory may thus be called Anomie-Strain Theory
or simply, Strain Theory.
THE AMERICAN DREAM
Ideal that the United States is a land of opportunity
that allows the possibility of upward mobility,
freedom, and equality for people of all classes who
work hard and have the will to succeed.
The roots of the American Dream lie in the goals and
aspirations of the first European settlers and
colonizers. Most of these people came to the North
American continent to escape tyranny, religious and
political persecution, or poverty.
▪ The dominant cultural message was if you
are ambitious, talented and work hard, then
income and wealth should be your rewards.
▪ Merton developed the concept of ‘anomie’ to
describe this imbalance between cultural
goals and institutionalized means.
Merton argued that such an imbalanced society
produces anomie – there is a strain or tension
between the goals and means which produce
unsatisfied aspirations.
Essentially, the American Dream is a key concept
within strain theory, highlighting the societal pressure
to achieve success that can drive criminal activity
when legitimate pathways are blocked.
FIVE ADAPTATIONS TO STRAIN
Merton argued that when individuals are faced with a
gap between their goals and their current status,
strain occurs. When faced with strain, people have
five ways to adapt:
1. Conformity is the most popular form of
response. It involves accepting both the
cultural goal of success and the use of
legitimate means of working toward that
goal.
2. Innovation is largely found among lowerclass people, who reject the use of legal
means in favor of illegal ones in their
attempts to achieve the high success goal
that they have learned to accept.
3. Ritualism is common among lower-middleclass people who lower their aspirations or
abandon high success goals so that they can
more easily realize their aspirations. But in
their attempts to realize these modest
aspirations,
they
compulsively—hence,
ritualistically—abide by the institutional norm
of toiling as conscientious, loyal workers.
4. Retreatism is a withdrawal from society into
the shell of one’s self. The retreatist does not
care about success, nor does he or she care
to work.
5. Rebellion involves rejecting the prevailing
social expectation that we work hard in the
so-called rat race to reach the goal of great
success. The rebel also attempts to
overthrow the existing system and put in its
place a new one with new goals and new
means of reaching those goals.
SOCIAL CLASS AND CRIME
Merton developed his theory from a well-established
observation from official statistics – that a higher
proportion of acquisitive crime is committed by
those from unskilled manual backgrounds (or ‘lower
social classes’).
He argued that for those from lower social classes,
the ‘American dream’ had become an ideology,
masking the fact that the legitimate opportunities are
not available to all, and worse, those who failed to
achieve success via legitimate means were
condemned for their apparent lack of effort. This
situation puts great pressure on people to achieve
material success by illegitimate means to avoid
being branded a failure.
Thus, it is not so much the individual’s flaws that
lead them to crime, but rather ‘anomie’ in society –
the combination of the pressure to be materially
successful and the lack of legitimate opportunities to
achieve that success.
II. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY
Edwin Sutherland (born August 13, 1883, Gibbon,
Nebraska, U.S.—died October 11, 1950, Bloomington,
Indiana) was an American criminologist, best known
for his development of the differential association
theory of crime.
▪ In recognition of his influence, the most
important annual award of the American
Society of Criminology is given in his name.
According to this theory, an individual learns
delinquent behavior, accepts it from others, and
learning flows through the communication process.
An individual becomes delinquent if he accepts
values that support the violation of law, and not the
values of conventional culture.
Individuals have a greater tendency to deviate from
societal norm when they frequently association with
persons who are more favorable toward deviance
than conformity.
The term “association”, however, refines this idea by
recognizing that it is not enough to simply be
exposed to criminal individuals, but that these
contacts must also successfully convey criminal
definitions and attitudes.
The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior
occurs within intimate personal groups.
NINE PROPOSITIONS
ASSOCIATION
OF
DIFFERENTIAL
1. All criminal behavior is learned.
2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction
with other persons in a process of
communication.
3. The principal part of the learning of criminal
behavior occurs within intimate personal
groups.
4. The learning of criminal behavior includes the
learning of techniques to commit a crime as
well as specific motives, rationalizations and
attitudes that favor criminal behavior.
5. The specific direction of motives and drives is
learned by defining laws positively or
negatively.
6. A person becomes delinquent as a result of
the predominance of attitudes that favor the
violation over those that take a negative view
of the violation.
7. Differential associations may vary in
frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
8. The process of learning criminal behavior
includes all the mechanisms involved in any
other learning process.
9. While criminal behavior is an expression of
general needs and values, it is not explained
by those general needs and values since noncriminal behavior is an expression of the
same needs and values.
IMPLICATIONS TO CRIMINAL POLICY
Sutherland’s theory of differential association
represents a rehabilitative ideal. Since criminal
attitudes and activities can be learned, they can be
logically deduced and unlearned, or compliant
behavior, attitudes, and rationalizations can be
achieved in the first place.
III. SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY
Travis Hirschi (born April 15, 1935, Rockville, Utah,
U.S.—died January 2, 2017, Tucson, Arizona) was an
American criminologist known for his social-control
perspective on juvenile delinquency and his selfcontrol perspective on crime.
▪ In Causes of Delinquency (1969)—a
groundbreaking work that had a profound
influence on criminology during the next three
decades—Hirschi argued that delinquency
can be explained by the absence of social
bonds.
▪ Hirschi received a number of awards for his
work, including the C. Wright Mills Award
from the Society for the Study of Social
Problems and the Edwin H. Sutherland Award
from the American Society of Criminology.
Social Control Theory assumes that people can see
the advantages of crime and are capable of inventing
and executing all sorts of criminal acts on the spot
without special motivation or prior training. It
assumes that the impulse to commit crime is
resisted because of the costs associated with such
behavior.
Control theorists approach the problem in a
roundabout way: what causes conformity?
Social control theory has intellectual origins dating to
Thomas Hobbes. In his most famous book,
Leviathan, Hobbes (2020) describes the life of early
humans as “nasty, poor, brutish and short,” and as a
“war of all against all”.
Hobbes proposes an alternative to this violent life: a
system of laws and a government with enough power
to punish those who result to force and fraud in
pursuing their private interests.
People with weak self-control are said to be highly
impulsive, reckless, and insensitive. They are a
product of inadequate socialization. Such people
then are likely to commit deviant acts (Hirschi and
Gottfredson, 1994; Langton, Piquero, and Hollinger,
2006; Love, 2006).
According to Charles Tittle (1995, 2004), however, it
is the lack of control balance that causes deviance.
Individuals with a lack of control balance are said to
have either a control surplus or a control deficit.
▪ Control Surplus - such as the control we have
over others being greater than the control
others have over us.
▪ Control Deficit - the control others have over
us being greater than the control we have
over them.
HIRSCHI’S BONDS OF ATTACHMENT
1. Attachment - Refers to the level of psychological
affection one has for prosocial others and
institutions (Hirschi, 1969). Attachment is prosocial
in its role in stopping people from committing a
crime. The impulse to commit a crime can be
resisted because of the costs of crime associated
with delinquent behaviors.
▪ One major cost is the disapproval of people
whom the potential offender cares about.
▪ This brings in the concept of sensitivity.
Psychologists argue that some people are
more sensitive to the opinion of others, and
the extent to which one is sensitive to others’
views will predict rates of criminal activity.
▪ Attachment is used to capture the emotions
associated with committing a crime.
2. Commitment - Hirschi noted that people are less
likely to commit crimes when they know that they
have something to lose. A potential offender would
calculate the benefits and costs of crime. The more
he or she has to lose, the greater the potential costs
of the crime, the less likely it is to be committed.
3. Involvement - People simply keep themselves so
busy doing conventional things that they do not have
time for partaking in deviant activities or even
thinking about deviant acts. They hesitate to engage
in criminal activity.
4. Belief - Individuals have a strong moral belief that
they should obey the rules of conventional society.
The assumption being that the more important such
values are to a person, the less likely he or she is to
engage in criminal/deviant behavior.
FORMS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
Formal - Exercised by secondary groups; man is
forced to accept these forms.
Means of Formal Social Control
1. Education
2. Law
3. Coercion
Informal - Exercised by primary groups; Man is grown
according to the needs of society.
Means of Informal Social Control
1. Norms
2. Values
3. Folkways
4. Mores
5. Customs
6. Belief System
7. Ideology
8. Social Suggestion
9. Religion
10. Art
AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL
▪ Family - Very important instrument and
agency in social control.
▪ State - Chief agency of social control.
▪ Educational Institutions - Powerful agencies
of social control; committed to molding the
minds of the citizens.
▪
▪
▪
▪
Neighborhood - Reinforce the individual
family as an agency of social control.
Public Opinion - Most important method of
social control in a democratic set up.
Propaganda and Press - The deliberate effort
to control the behavior and relationships of
social groups.
Economic Organization - The fear of losing a
job compels an individual to follow the rules
and regulations of the industry.
IV. DETERRENCE THEORY OF PUNISHMENT
Thomas
Hobbes
(1588-1678),
an
English
philosopher, originated the concept of the social
contract, which posits that citizens will adhere to the
rule of law in exchange for protection from the
government via the criminal justice system.
In his book “Leviathan”, published in 1651, Hobbes
wrote that men are neither good nor bad. He believed
that humans are rational enough to realize that their
self-interests may lead to conflict and crime.
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) developed deterrence
theory and theorized that criminal punishment
would only be an effective deterrent if the
punishment were certain and implemented swiftly,
and the severity of the punishment was proportional
to the crime.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), along with Hobbes
and Beccaria, relied on the individual components of
severity, certainty, and celerity in the theory of
deterrence. The more severe a punishment, the
more likely that a rationally calculating human being
will desist from criminal acts.
Deterrence Theory, a foundation of criminological
thought, posits that the threat of punishment can
effectively discourage criminal behavior. It assumes
individuals are rational actors who weigh the
potential costs and benefits of their actions.
▪ The theory hinges on the idea that if the
perceived consequences of committing a
crime outweigh the potential rewards,
individuals will be less likely to engage in
illegal activities.
Deterrence can be either specific or general:
▪
▪
Specific Deterrence aims to prevent a
particular offender from re-offending.
General Deterrence seeks to discourage
others in society from committing similar
crimes by showcasing the consequences
faced by those who break the law.
THREE KEY ELEMENTS
1. Certainty - Refers to the likelihood of being
caught and punished.
2. Severity - Refers to the degree of punishment
imposed.
3. Swiftness - Emphasizes the time elapsed
between the commission of a crime and the
administration of punishment.
V. INTERACTIONALIST LABELING THEORY
Howard Becker (1928-2023) was a highly influential
sociologist known for his work on deviance. His main
contribution is labeling theory, which argues that
deviance is not about individual actions but about
how society labels those actions. By making rules
and applying them, society creates "outsiders."
Interactionist Labeling Theory, emerging from
symbolic interactionism shifts the focus from
individual deviance to how society defines and reacts
to it. It argues that deviance isn't inherent in an act
but is created by societal rules and the application
of labels to those who break them, turning them into
"outsiders".
CORE CONCEPTS OF LABELING THEORY
1. Labeled/Labeling - Refers to the process by
which society identifies an individual as
deviant, often due to an initial act of deviance
as a primary deviance.
2. The Social Construction - Is a sociological
theory that posits that deviant behavior is not
inherently "bad" or "wrong," but rather defined
and labeled as such by society.
3. Primary Deviance - Initial acts of rulebreaking that have little impact on a person's
self-concept.
4. Secondary Deviance - Deviance that results
from being labeled and accepting that label,
leading to a changed self-concept and further
deviance.
5. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy - The process where
a label leads a person to act in ways that
confirm the label.
look at one another, nod, murmur, take turns
in speaking, and in asking and responding to
questions.
VI. ETHNOMETHODOLOGY THEORY
VII. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
Harold Garfinkel (1917-2011) born in Newark, New
Jersey, he initially studied accounting before
transitioning to sociology. Garfinkel earned his PhD
from Harvard, influenced by Talcott Parsons and
Alfred Schutz.
▪ He pioneered, explores how individuals
create and understand social order in
everyday life. including his Garfinkel's work,
book
Studies
in
Ethnomethodology,
challenged traditional sociological analyses
by focusing on the micro-level processes of
social interaction.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a philosopher, author,
social theorist, and an economist. He is famous for
his theories about capitalism and communism.
Ethnomethodology Theory is a sociological
approach that explores how people make sense of
their everyday world and create social order. it
examines the "ethno-methods," or common-sense
practices, individuals use to navigate social
interactions.
▪ Rather
than
imposing
assumptions,
ethnomethodology seeks to understand how
individuals, as rational actors, employ
practical
reasoning
to
make
their
environment accountable.
KEY CONCEPTS
1. Indexicality - Meaning is derived from
context. There is no clear definition of any
word because the meaning depends on the
context and other words used.
2. Accountability - Actions are performed with
an understanding that they will be assessed
by others.
3. Breaching Experiments - Disrupting social
norms to reveal the underlying methods
people use to create social order. Garfinkel
had his students ask 'What do you mean?'
relentlessly
during
conversations
to
undermine the taken-for-granted rules.
4. Reflexivity - Our sense of order is created in
talk, as to describe a situation is at the same
time to create it.
5. Conversation
Analysis
Studying
conversations to understand how social
order is produced through interaction. People
Conflict Perspective is a sociological theory that
views society as a competition for limited resources,
where dominant groups exploit and oppress others
to maintain power and inequality.
This perspective was heavily influenced by Karl Marx,
who argued that society is divided into the
bourgeoisie (owners of production) and the
proletariat (workers). According to Marx, the ruling
class uses laws, media, and institutions to maintain
power and keep the working class oppressed.
Alienation - is the systemic result of living in a
socially stratified society, because being a
mechanistic part of a social class alienates a person
from his or her humanity.
▪ In a capitalist society, the worker's alienation
from his and her humanity occurs because
the worker can only express labor, a
fundamental social aspect of personal
individuality, through privately owned system
of industrial production in which each worker
is an instrument, a thing, not a person.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
The criminal justice system is the set of agencies and
processes established by governments to control
crime and impose penalties on those who violate.
GOALS OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
1. To protect individuals and society.
2. To reduce crime by bringing offenders to
justice.
3. To increase the security of the people.
PARTICIPANTS OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
1. Police
2. Prosecution
3. Court
4. Correction
5. Community
issues of
resistance.
GOALS OF PUNISHMENT
▪ General Deterrence
▪ Specific Deterrence
▪ Incapacitation
▪ Redistribution/Just Desert
▪ Restitution
▪ Rehabilitation
▪ Diversion
▪ Restorative Justice
COMPONENTS
SYSTEM
OF
CRIMINAL
inequality,
oppression,
and
Critical Perspective regards deviance as conflict,
generally as a rational adjustment to the
contradictions of the capitalist social and economic
system. It focuses attention on how political,
economic, and social structures shape legal
definitions of crime, and deviance.
JUSTICE
Law Enforcement - Police patrol communities to help
prevent crimes, to investigate incidences of crime,
and to arrest people suspected of committing
crimes.
The Court System - The court system consists of
attorneys, judges, and juries as well as ancillary staff,
the guilt or innocence of a suspect is to determine in
court.
Correction System - The corrections system
incorporates all forms of sentencing and
punishment; it includes incarceration and probation.
WHITE COLLAR AND ORGANIZED CRIME
White Collar Crime - Conflict theorist also looks at
the types of crimes committed by members of the
two classes, the Street and Elite Crimes.
Organized Crime - There is also organized crime,
which refer to illegal goods or services being
provided by a business or group of people.
VIII. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
The critical perspective stems from the Marxist
tradition. A critical perspective is an approach to
analyzing texts, ideas, or social issues that questions
assumptions, examines power structures, and
considers alternative viewpoints. It often challenges
dominant narratives and seeks deeper meaning
beyond surface-level interpretations.
▪ It examines how norms and definitions of
deviance are socially constructed, often
shaped by those in power to maintain control.
This approach questions who decides what
is considered deviant and why, highlighting
ECONOMIC INSTITUTION
▪ Exerts more influence on human life than any
other institution.
▪ Sociologists see the economy generating a
two-class system, being the cause of most of
the society's social problems.
▪ Johnson describes a number of these
problems, and shows how capitalism feeds
into racial and gender inequalities in the
differential distribution of wealth, power and
respect.
CAPITALISM, DIFFERENCE, AND PRIVILEGE:
RACE
It connects to white racism in ways that are both
direct and indirect.
Cheap Labor - Following the Civil War, the capitalist
appetite for cheap agricultural labor was no less than
before, and freed blacks were held in a new form of
bondage by an oppressive system of tenant farming
that kept them perpetually in debt.
▪ Whites developed the idea of whiteness to
define a privileged social category elevated
above everyone who wasn't included in it.
Program - The controversy and conflict over
affirmative action programs, for example, as well as
the influx of immigrant workers from Mexico and
Asia reflect an underlying belief that the greatest
challenge facing white workers is unfair competition
from people of color.
CAPITALISM, DIFFERENCE, AND PRIVILEGE:
GENDER
Capitalism also shapes and makes use of gender
inequality. Cultural devaluing of women, for example,
has long been used as an excuse to pay them less
and exploit them as a source of cheap labor.
IX. GENDER PERSPECTIVE
Gender Perspective focuses particularly on genderbased differences in status and power, and
considers how much discrimination shapes
immediate needs, as well as the long-term interests
of women and men.
▪ Sex - Permanent and immutable biological
characteristics common to individuals in all
societies and cultures.
▪ Gender It is a sociocultural expression of
particular characteristics and roles that are
associated with certain groups of people with
reference to their sex and sexuality.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
Gender as a Social Construct argues that gender is
shaped by cultural, historical, and societal influences
rather than being strictly determined by biology.
Gender as Biological Determinism is the idea that
gender differences are primarily or entirely the result
of biological factors, such as chromosomes,
hormones, and reproductive anatomy.
Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold
primary power in political, economic, and social
spheres, often leading to the systematic oppression
of women and marginalized genders. It is upheld
through power structures, including laws,
institutions, cultural norms, and social expectations
that reinforce male dominance.
GENDER PERSPECTIVE IN DIFFERENT FIELDS
1. Gender in Education examines how gender
influences experiences, opportunities, and
outcomes in learning environments. This
perspective advocates for gender-inclusive
education, ensuring that both boys and girls,
as well as non-binary individuals, have equal
access to resources, encouragement, and
representation
2. Gender in Healthcare examines how gender
influences access to medical services, health
outcomes, and treatment experiences. It
highlights disparities in healthcare access,
with women, non-binary individuals, and
marginalized genders often facing barriers
such as biased diagnoses, inadequate
research on female-specific health issues,
and discrimination in medical settings.
3. Gender in the Economy and Labor Market
refers to how gender influences economic
participation, job opportunities, wages, and
workplace experiences. Gender disparities
are evident in wage gaps, occupational
segregation overrepresented in (women
lower-paying
jobs
being
and
underrepresented in leadership roles), and
the unequal burden of unpaid labor (e.g.,
caregiving and household work).
X. FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE
The feminist perspective is a way of looking that
focuses on addressing the inequality and power
imbalances women face, aiming for gender equality
by challenging systems that oppress them. It
emphasizes women's experiences and advocates for
change, distinguishing it from a broader gender
perspective.
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ON DEVIANCE
The feminist perspective on deviance highlights how
social structures and inequalities make women
more vulnerable to victimization and shape society’s
response to their experiences.
▪ Gender Inequality makes women more
vulnerable to deviance as victims by
normalizing violence, limiting their access to
justice, and blaming them for their own
victimization. Societal norms often excuse
male perpetrators while silencing or shaming
female victims, reinforcing cycles of abuse
and discrimination.
EXAMPLES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR
AFFECTING WOMEN/VICTIMS
1. Sexual Harassment - This refers to unwanted
advances, comments, or actions that
degrade or intimidate women, often in
workplaces or public spaces. Gender
inequality enables this by normalizing male
dominance and discouraging women from
speaking out due to fear of retaliation.
2. Domestic Violence - This includes physical,
emotional, or psychological abuse within
intimate relationships. Societal norms and
legal systems often fail to protect women,
blaming victims or pressuring them to stay in
abusive relationships due to economic
dependence or social stigma.
3. Rape - In the context of deviance, rape is a
serious violation of social and moral norms,
driven by a disregard for consent and
personal boundaries. Gender inequality
contributes to the normalization of such
violence by excusing male behavior and
blaming female victims, making it harder for
survivors to receive justice and support.
4. Prostitution
Prostitution
involves
exchanging services for financial or material
gain and is often linked to economic
struggles and social vulnerabilities. Many
women in this situation face risks such as
exploitation, discrimination, and safety
concerns, making it a complex social issue.
EFFECTS OF DEVIANCE ON WOMEN/VICTIMS
1. Psychological Effects - Trauma, anxiety, low
self-esteem, depression, and Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD)
2. Social
Effects
Stigma,
strained
relationships, and isolation.
3. Economic Effects - Job discrimination,
limited education, and financial dependence.
4. Physical Effects - Injuries, chronic illness, and
reproductive health risks.
XI. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Psychological perspectives on social deviance
focus on how a person’s thoughts, emotions,
personality, and experiences influence their
behavior. These perspectives explain deviance as a
result of mental disorders, personality traits,
childhood experiences, or social learning.
They are important in understanding deviant
behavior as they explore how different factors
influence a person’s actions. They help explain why
individuals behave in certain ways by considering
personal, social, and environmental influences. By
looking at these perspectives, we gain deeper insight
into the causes of deviance and how it can be
addressed effectively.
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON DEVIANCE
The biological perspective explains that a person’s
behavior, including deviant actions, may be
influenced by genetics, brain structure, or other
biological factors. It suggests that some people may
be more likely to engage in deviant behavior due to
things like hormonal imbalances, neurological
conditions, or inherited traits. This perspective looks
at how the body and brain affect actions.
Example: Chester has a condition that affects his
brain’s ability to control anger. He often gets into
fights, even when he doesn’t want to. Doctors
found that he has a brain injury from an accident
when he was younger, which may explain his
aggressive behavior.
PSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE ON DEVIANCE
It explores how a person’s thoughts, emotions, and
social experiences shape their actions. It considers
the influence of life experiences, relationships, and
surroundings on behavior. This perspective helps
explain why individuals respond differently to
situations and how certain experiences may lead to
behaviors that go against social norms.
Example: Promise grew up feeling neglected and
unloved by her family. She never felt important, so
as a teenager, she started shoplifting and breaking
rules to get attention. She believed that causing
trouble was the only way people would notice her.
SOCIO-CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON DEVIANCE
Socio-cultural influences on deviance refer to how
society, culture, and environment shape what is
considered acceptable or deviant behavior. Norms,
values, traditions, and social expectations influence
how people act and how deviance is defined. Factors
like peer influence, media, and economic conditions
can also affect behavior and contribute to deviant
actions.
Example: Jovan lives in a neighborhood where
many young people drop out of school and get
involved in crime. Since he has no role models who
encourage education or legal work, he starts selling
illegal substances, thinking it’s a normal way to
earn money.
BIPOLAR DISORDER
Bipolar disorder, formerly known as manicdepressive illness, is a brain and behavior disorder
characterized by severe shifts in a person's mood
and energy, making it difficult for the person to
function.
The condition typically starts in late adolescence or
early adulthood, although it can show up in children
and in older adults. People often live with the disorder
without having it properly diagnosed and treated.
Bipolar disorder causes repeated mood swings, or
episodes, that can make someone feel very high
(mania) or very low (depressive). The cyclic episodes
are punctuated by normal moods.
BIPOLAR DISORDER DIAGNOSIS
Bipolar disorder cannot yet be diagnosed
physiologically by blood tests or brain scans.
Currently, diagnosis is based on symptoms, course
of illness, and family history. The different types of
bipolar disorder are diagnosed based on the pattern
and severity of manic and depressive episodes.
Doctors usually diagnose brain and behavior
disorders using guidelines from the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or DSM.
According to the DSM, there are three basic types of
bipolar disorder:
1. Bipolar Disorder I
2. Bipolar Disorder II
3. Cyclothymic
BIPOLAR I
Bipolar I disorder is diagnosed when a person
experiences a manic episode. During a manic
episode, people with bipolar I disorder experience an
extreme increase in energy and mood changes,
including feeling extremely happy or uncomfortably
irritable.
Some people with bipolar I disorder also experience
depressive or hypomanic episodes, and most people
with bipolar I disorder also have periods of neutral
mood.
Symptoms of Bipolar I
1. Manic Episode - A manic episode is a period
of at least one week when a person is
extremely high-spirited or irritable most of the
day for most days, possesses more energy
than usual, and experiences at least three of
the following changes in behavior:
o Decreased need for sleep.
o Increased or faster speech.
o Uncontrollable racing thoughts or
quickly changing ideas or topics when
speaking.
o Distractibility.
Increased activity (e.g., restlessness,
working on several projects at once).
2. Hypomanic Episode - A hypomanic episode,
or hypomania, is characterized by less severe
manic symptoms that need to last only four
days in a row rather than a week. Hypomanic
symptoms do not lead to the major problems
in daily functioning that manic symptoms
commonly cause.
3. Major Depressive Episode - A major
depressive episode is a period of at least two
weeks in which a person experiences intense
sadness or despair or a loss of interest in
activities the person once enjoyed.
o
BIPOLAR II
To diagnose bipolar II disorder in an individual, they
must have at least one major depressive episode and
at least one hypomanic episode (see above). With
bipolar II, it is common that people return to their
usual functioning between episodes. People with
bipolar II disorder often first seek treatment as a
result of their depressive episodes, since hypomanic
episodes often feel pleasurable and can even
increase performance at work or school.
People with bipolar II disorder frequently have other
mental illnesses such as an anxiety disorder or
substance use disorder, the latter of which can
exacerbate symptoms of depression or hypomania.
CYCLOTHYMIA
Cyclothymic disorder is a milder form of bipolar
disorder involving many "mood swings," with
hypomania and depressive symptoms that occur
frequently. People with cyclothymia experience
emotional ups and downs but with less severe
symptoms than bipolar I or II disorder.
Cyclothymic disorder symptoms include the
following:
▪ For at least two years, many periods of
hypomanic and depressive symptoms, but
the symptoms do not meet the criteria for
hypomanic or depressive episodes.
▪ During the two-year period, the symptoms
(mood swings) have lasted for at least half
the time and have never stopped for more
than two months.
TREATMENT OF BIPOLAR DISORDER
While no cure exists for bipolar disorder, it is
treatable and manageable with psychotherapy and
medications. Mood stabilizing medications are
usually the first choice in medication. Lithium is the
most commonly prescribed mood stabilizer.
Anticonvulsant medications are usually used to treat
seizure disorders, and sometimes offer similar
mood-stabilizing effects as antipsychotics and
antidepressants. Bipolar disorder is much better
controlled when treatment is continuous.
In addition to medication, psychotherapy provides
support, guidance and education to people with
bipolar
disorder
and
their
families.
Psychotherapeutic interventions increase mood
stability, decrease hospitalizations and improve
overall functioning.
ANXIETY DISORDERS
Anxiety disorders include disorders that share
features of excessive fear and anxiety and related
behavioral disturbances.
▪ Fear - the emotional response to real or
perceived imminent threat.
▪ Anxiety - is anticipation of future threats.
Obviously, these two states overlap, but they also
differ, with fear more often associated with surges of
autonomic arousal necessary for fight or flight,
thoughts of immediate danger, and escape
behaviors, and anxiety more often associated with
muscle tension and vigilance in preparation for future
danger and cautious or avoidant behaviors.
Sometimes the level of fear or anxiety is reduced by
pervasive avoidance behaviors.
Panic attacks feature prominently within the anxiety
disorders as a particular type of fear response. Panic
attacks are not limited to anxiety disorders but rather
can be seen in other mental disorders as well.
The anxiety disorders differ from one another in the
types of objects or situations that induce fear,
anxiety, or avoidance behavior, and the associated
cognition. Thus, while the anxiety disorders tend to
be highly comorbid with each other, they can be
differentiated by close examination of the types of
situations that are feared or avoided and the content
of the associated thoughts or beliefs.
Anxiety disorders differ from developmentally
normative fear or anxiety by being excessive or
persisting beyond developmentally appropriate
periods.
Anxiety disorders go beyond the regular
nervousness and slight fear you may feel from time
to time. An anxiety disorder happens when:
▪ Anxiety interferes with your ability to function.
▪ Your reactions are often out of proportion to
situations (overreactions).
▪ You can’t control your responses to
situations.
Children, adolescents and adults can experience
anxiety disorders. Women are about twice as likely as
men to have one. Anxiety disorders can make it
difficult to get through the day. Fortunately, there are
several effective treatments for these conditions.
TYPES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS
1. Selective Mutism - characterized by a
consistent failure to speak in social
situations in which there is an expectation to
speak (e.g., school) even though the
individual speaks in other situations.
2. Specific Phobias - A phobia is when
something causes you to feel fear or anxiety
that’s so severe it consistently and
overwhelmingly disrupts your life. There are
hundreds of different types of phobias, and
there’s one diagnosis for almost all of them:
specific
phobia.
Only
one
phobia,
agoraphobia, is a distinct diagnosis.
3. Social Anxiety Disorder - In social anxiety
disorder, the individual is fearful or anxious
about or avoidant of social interactions and
situations that involve the possibility of
being scrutinized. These include social
interactions such as meeting unfamiliar
people, situations in which the individual may
be observed eating or drinking, and situations
in which the individual performs in front of
others.
4. Panic Disorder - This condition involves
multiple unexpected panic attacks. A main
feature of the condition is that the attacks
usually happen without warning and aren’t
due to another mental health or physical
5.
6.
7.
8.
condition. Some people with panic disorder
also have agoraphobia.
Agoraphobia - This condition causes an
intense fear of becoming overwhelmed or
unable to escape or get help. People with
agoraphobia often avoid new places and
unfamiliar situations, like large, open areas or
enclosed spaces, crowds and places outside
of their homes.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder - This condition
causes fear, worry and a constant feeling of
being overwhelmed. It’s characterized by
excessive, frequent and unrealistic worry
about everyday things, such as job
responsibilities, health or chores.
Substance/Medication-Induced
Anxiety
Disorders - involves anxiety due to substance
intoxication or withdrawal or to a medication
treatment. In anxiety disorder due to another
medical condition, anxiety symptoms are the
physiological consequence of another
medical condition.
Separation Disorder - This condition happens
when you feel excessive anxiety when you’re
separated from a loved one, like a primary
caregiver. While separation anxiety in babies
and toddlers is a normal “stage of
development”, separation anxiety disorder
can affect children and adults.
SYMPTOMS
DISORDER
AND
CAUSES
OF
ANXIETY
Symptoms of anxiety disorders vary depending on
the type.
Psychological Symptoms
▪ Feeling panic, fear, dread and uneasiness.
▪ Feeling on edge or irritable.
▪ Uncontrollable, obsessive thoughts.
▪ Difficulty concentrating.
Physical Symptoms
▪ Restlessness
▪ Heart palpitations
▪ Shortness of breath
▪ Muscle tension
▪ Cold or sweaty hands
▪ Dry mouth
▪ Nausea
▪ Numbness or tingling in your hands or feet.
▪
Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
(insomnia).
WHAT CAUSES ANXIETY DISORDERS
Like other types of mental health conditions,
researchers don’t know exactly what causes anxiety
disorders. But they think a combination of factors
plays a role:
▪ Chemical
imbalances:
Several
neurotransmitters and hormones play a role
in
anxiety,
including
norepinephrine,
serotonin,
dopamine
and
gammaaminobutryic acid (GABA). Imbalances in
these chemicals can contribute to an anxiety
disorder.
▪ Brain changes: A part of your brain called the
“amygdala” plays an important role in
managing fear and anxiety. Studies show that
people with anxiety disorders show increased
amygdala activity in response to anxiety
cues.
▪ Genetics: Anxiety disorders tend to run in
biological families. This suggests that
genetics may play a role. You may be at an
increased risk of developing one if you have a
first-degree relative (biological parent or
sibling) with an anxiety disorder.
▪ Environmental Factors: Severe or longlasting stress can change the balance of
neurotransmitters that control your mood.
Experiencing a lot of stress over a long period
can contribute to an anxiety disorder.
Experiencing a traumatic event can also
trigger anxiety disorders.
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTS
If you or your child are experiencing symptoms of an
anxiety disorder, see a healthcare provider. They’ll
start with a medical evaluation. They’ll do a physical
exam and ask about your medical history, any
medications you’re taking and if any of your family
members have been diagnosed with an anxiety
disorder.
There aren’t any blood tests or imaging scans that
can diagnose anxiety disorders. But your provider
may run some of these tests to rule out physical
conditions that may be causing your symptoms, like
“hyperthyroidism”, for example. If there isn’t an
underlying physical cause, your provider may refer
you to a mental health professional.
A mental health professional, such as a psychologist
or psychiatrist will do an interview or survey, asking
questions about your symptoms, sleeping habits and
other behaviors. They use criteria in the American
Psychiatric Association’s DSM-5 to make diagnoses
of anxiety disorders.
MEDICATION FOR ANXIETY DISORDER
Medications can’t cure an anxiety disorder. But they
can improve the symptoms and help you function
better. Medications for anxiety disorders often
include:
▪ Antidepressants
▪ Benzodiazepines
▪ Beta-Blockers
PSYCHOTHERAPY FOR ANXIETY DISORDERS
“Psychotherapy,” also called talk therapy, is a term for
a variety of treatment techniques that aim to help you
identify and change unhealthy emotions, thoughts
and behaviors.
▪ Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
▪ Exposure Therapy
EATING DISORDERS
Feeding and eating disorders are characterized by a
persistent disturbance of eating or eating related
behavior that results in the altered consumption or
absorption of food and that significantly impairs
physical health or psychosocial functioning.
Diagnostic criteria are provided for pica, rumination
disorder, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder,
anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating
disorder.
However, obesity is not included in DSM-5 as a
mental disorder. Obesity (excess body fat) results
from the long-term excess of energy intake relative
to energy expenditure. A range of genetic,
physiological, behavioral, and environmental factors
that vary across individuals contributes to the
development of obesity; thus, obesity is not
considered a mental disorder.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF EATING DISORDERS
Signs and symptoms of eating disorders vary based
on the type but could include:
▪ Mood Swings
▪ Fatigue
▪ Fainting or dizziness
▪
▪
▪
Thinning hair or hair Loss
Unexplained weight changes or drastic
weight loss
Unusual sweating or hot flashes
Behavioral Symptoms of Eating Disorders may
include:
▪ Restrictive eating
▪ Eating a lot in a short amount of time
▪ Avoiding food or certain foods
▪ Forced vomiting after meals or laxative
misuse
▪ Compulsive exercising after meals
▪ Frequent bathroom breaks after eating
▪ Withdrawing from friends or social activities
▪ Hiding food or throwing it away
▪ Food rituals (chewing food longer than
necessary, eating in secret)
TYPES OF EATING DISORDERS
ANOREXIA NERVOSA
Anorexia nervosa is characterized by self-starvation
and weight loss resulting in low weight for height and
age. Dieting behavior in anorexia nervosa is driven by
an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat.
Although some individuals with anorexia will say they
want and are trying to gain weight, their behavior is
not consistent with this intent. For example, they may
only eat small amounts of low-calorie foods and
exercise excessively.
Some persons with anorexia nervosa also
intermittently binge eat and or purge by vomiting or
laxative misuse.
There are two subtypes of Anorexia Nervosa
▪ Restricting Type, in which individuals lose
weight primarily by dieting, fasting or
excessively exercising.
▪ Binge-Eating/Purging Type, in which persons
also engage in intermittent binge eating
and/or purging behaviors.
LIMIA NERVOSA
Individuals with bulimia nervosa typically alternate
dieting, or eating only low calorie “safe foods” with
binge eating on “forbidden” high calorie foods. Binge
Eating is defined as eating a large amount of food in
a short period of time associated with a sense of loss
of control over what, or how much one is eating.
Binge eating behavior is usually secretive and
associated
with
feelings
of
shame
or
embarrassment. Binges may be very large and food
is often consumed rapidly, beyond fullness to the
point of nausea and discomfort.
Binges occur at least weekly and are typically
followed by what are called "compensatory
behaviors" to prevent weight gain. These can include
fasting, vomiting, laxative misuse or compulsive
exercise. As in anorexia nervosa, persons with
bulimia nervosa are excessively preoccupied with
thoughts of food, weight or shape which negatively
affect, and disproportionately impact, their selfworth.
BINGE EATING DISORDER
As with bulimia nervosa, people with binge eating
disorder have episodes of binge eating in which they
consume large quantities of food in a brief period,
experience a sense of loss of control over their eating
and are distressed by the binge behavior.
Unlike people with bulimia nervosa however, they do
not regularly use compensatory behaviors to get rid
of the food by inducing vomiting, fasting, exercising
or laxative misuse. Binge eating disorder can lead to
serious health complications, including obesity,
diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.
SPECIFIED FEEDING AND EATING DISORDER
This diagnostic category includes eating disorders or
disturbances of eating behavior that cause distress
and impair family, social or work function but do not
fit the other categories listed here. In some cases,
this is because the frequency of the behavior does
not meet the diagnostic threshold (e.g., the
frequency of binges in bulimia or binge eating
disorder) or the weight criteria for the diagnosis of
anorexia nervosa are not met.
AVOIDANT RESTRICTIVE FOOD INTAKE DISORDER
(ARFID)
ARFID is a recently defined eating disorder that
involves a disturbance in eating resulting in
persistent failure to meet nutritional needs and
extreme picky eating. In ARFID, food avoidance or a
limited food repertoire can be due to one or more of
the following:
▪ Low appetite and lack of interest in eating or
food.
▪
▪
Extreme food avoidance based on sensory
characteristics of foods e.g., texture,
appearance, color, smell.
Anxiety or concern about consequences of
eating, such as fear of choking, nausea,
vomiting, constipation, an allergic reaction,
etc.
ARFID does not include food restriction related to
lack of availability of food; normal dieting; cultural
practices,
such
as
religious
fasting;
or
developmentally normal behaviors, such as toddlers
who are picky eaters.
PICA
Pica is an eating disorder in which a person
repeatedly eats things that are not food with no
nutritional value. The behavior persists over at least
one month and is severe enough to warrant clinical
attention.
Typical substances ingested vary with age and
availability and might include paper, paint chips,
soap, cloth, hair, string, chalk, metal, pebbles,
charcoal or coal, or clay. Individuals with pica do not
typically have an aversion to food in general.
RUMINATION DISORDER
Rumination disorder involves the repeated
regurgitation and re-chewing of food after eating
whereby swallowed food is brought back up into the
mouth voluntarily and is re-chewed and re swallowed
or spat out. Rumination disorder can occur in infancy,
childhood and adolescence or in adulthood.
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTS
A healthcare provider will make an eating disorder
diagnosis by:
▪ Performing a physical exam.
▪ Reviewing your symptoms.
▪ Learning more about your eating and
exercising habits.
▪ Ordering imaging, blood or urine tests (kidney
function test, electrocardiogram) to rule out
other possible causes of your symptoms or to
determine if you have any complications.
MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT
Treatments for eating disorders vary by type but
could include:
▪ Psychotherapy
▪
▪
Medications
Nutritional Counseling
The best approach is often a combination of
treatment options. Your care team will work together
to create a comprehensive treatment plan to address
the physical, mental and behavioral aspects of the
condition.
PSYCHOTIC DISORDER
A psychotic disorder is a severe mental condition in
which an individual experiences a disconnection
from reality. This is typically marked by symptoms
such as delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations
(perceiving things that aren't present), disorganized
thinking,
and
abnormal
behavior.
These
disturbances can significantly impair daily
functioning and social relationships (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013).
OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD)
is a mental health condition characterized by
persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and
repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions)
performed to reduce distress or prevent a feared
event, even though these actions may not be logically
connected to the feared outcome (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Obsessions - Unwanted, distressing thoughts or
urges (e.g., fear of contamination).
Compulsions - Repetitive behaviors or rituals (e.g.,
excessive handwashing) meant to ease anxiety.
TYPES OF PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS
1. Schizophrenia:
A
chronic
condition
characterized by persistent delusions,
hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.
2. Schizoaffective Disorder: Features of
schizophrenia accompanied by mood
disorder symptoms, such as depression or
mania.
3. Brief Psychotic Disorder: A short-term
condition often triggered by a stressful event,
lasting less than a month.
4. Delusional Disorder: Involves persistent
delusions without the full spectrum of
psychotic symptoms seen in schizophrenia.
SYMPTOMS OF OCD
COMMON OBSESSIONS
▪ Fear of contamination (e.g., germs, dirt).
▪ Unwanted aggressive or taboo thoughts.
▪ Need for symmetry or exactness.
COMMON COMPULSIONS
▪ Excessive cleaning or handwashing.
▪ Repeated checking (e.g., locks, appliances).
▪ Counting or repeating words silently.
CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS
▪
▪
▪
Biological Factors: Brain structure and
function
differences
(basal
ganglia,
prefrontal cortex); Imbalance of serotonin
and dopamine.
Genetic Factors: Family history of OCD
increases risk.
Environmental Factors: Trauma, stress, or
infections like Pediatric Autoimmune
Neuropsychiatric Disorders (PANDAS).
SYMPTOMS OF PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS
POSITIVE SYMPTOMS
▪ Delusions: Fixed false beliefs that remain
despite evidence to the contrary.
▪ Hallucinations: Sensory experiences (e.g.,
hearing voices, seeing things) that occur
without external stimuli.
▪ Disorganized
Speech:
Incoherent
or
tangential communication.
NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS
▪ Affective Flattening: Reduced emotional
expression.
▪ Alogia: Poverty of speech.
▪ Avolition: Lack of motivation or inability to
initiate activities.
▪ Cognitive Symptoms: Difficulties with
attention, memory, and executive functioning.
CAUSES AND RISKS
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
▪ Genetic predisposition plays a role, as
individuals with a family history of psychotic
disorders have an increased risk
▪
Neurotransmitter imbalances, particularly in
dopamine pathways, are strongly linked with
the development of these disorders.
▪
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
▪ Stressful life events, trauma, and substance
abuse (especially during adolescence) may
trigger or exacerbate symptoms
▪
IMPACT OF ONLINE SEXUAL ABUSE AND
EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN: VICTIM AND
SURVIVOR
RA 11930 (ANTI-OSAEC AND ANTI-CSAEM ACT)
An Act punishing Online Sexual Abuse or
Exploitation of Children, penalizing the
production, distribution, possession and
access of Child Sexual Abuse or Exploitation
Materials, amending Republic Act No. 9160,
otherwise known as the “Anti-Money
Laundering Act of 2001”, as amended and
repealing Republic Act No. 9775, otherwise
known as the “Anti child Pornography Act of
2009”. This Act shall be known as the “AntiOnline Sexual Abuse or Exploitation of
Children (OSAEC) and Anti-Child Sexual Abuse
or Exploitation Materials (CSAEM) Act”.
OSAEC - refers to the use of ICT as a means to abuse
and/or exploit children sexually, which includes
cases in which offline child abuse and/or exploitation
is combined with an online component.
ICT - or information and communications technology
(ICT) refers to the totality of electronic means to
access, create, collect, store, process, receive,
transmit, present and disseminate information.
OSAEC can also include, but is not limited to: the
production, dissemination and possession of
CSAEM; online grooming of children for sexual
purposes; sexual extortion of children, sharing
image-based sexual abuse; commercial sexual
exploitation of children; exploitation of children
through online prostitution; and live streaming of
sexual abuse, with or without the consent of the
victim.
▪ In 2016 alone, before the pandemic even
began, UNICEF already called the Philippines
the “global epicenter of live-stream sexual
abuse trade” and many of the victims are
children.
The country emerged as the “center of child
sex abuse materials production in the world,
with 80% of Filipino children vulnerable to
online sexual abuse, some facilitated even by
their own parents.”
Unfortunately, there has been a 264%
increase in OSAEC cases in the Philippines
since the pandemic in 2020 (United Nations
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs, 2021).
REASONS WHY ONLINE SEXUAL ABUSE AND
EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN THRIVED IN THE
PHILIPPINES:
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
Poverty
Lack of Parental Supervision
Easy Access to Internet
English-speaking population
Easy Money Transfer
UNDERSTANDING
TRAUMA
VICTIMS AND SURVIVORS
IN
OSAEC
Trauma - is a strong emotional and psychological
response to a distressing or harmful event. In the
case of OSAEC, trauma is invisible, unlike physical
wounds, but it deeply affects a person's emotions,
thoughts, and behavior.
Impacts of OSAEC on Victims and Survivors
1. Emotional Impact: Fear, guilt, shame,
depression, anxiety; Some survivors may
have suicidal thoughts due to extreme
distress.
2. Cognitive (Thinking) Impact: Difficulty
concentrating, loss of self-esteem, selfblame; Flashbacks or nightmares about the
abuse.
3. Physical Impact: Headaches, stomach
problems, sleep disturbances; Extreme stress
that affects overall health.
4. Behavioral Impact: Social withdrawal
(avoiding
people,
especially
adults);
Aggressive or self-destructive behaviors;
Some survivors may struggle with
relationships and trust.
PERCEPTIONS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO LESS
VICTIMIZATION
1. OSAEC IS A SERIOUS CRIME
OSAEC is not just "online activity" but a serious form
of child abuse. Awareness helps people take action
against it.
2. ANYONE CAN BE A VICTIM
OSAEC can happen to any child, regardless of
background or social status. Understanding this
prevents people from ignoring or downplaying cases.
3. VICTIMS SHOULD BE SUPPORTED, NOT BLAMED
Survivors need help and protection, not judgment.
Blaming victims discourages them from seeking help
and reporting abuse.
4. SPEAKING UP CAN SAVE LIVES
Reporting suspicious activities can stop further
abuse and protect other children. Silence allows
abuse to continue, but taking action leads to justice.
FACTORS
THAT
OUTCOMES
FACILITATE
HEALTH
1. Supportive Family and Community: Survivors
recover better when they are believed,
accepted, and provided with emotional
support.
2. Access to Counseling and Therapy:
Professional mental health support helps
survivors cope with trauma.
3. Legal Action Against Abusers: Holding
perpetrators accountable ensures justice and
helps survivors feel safer.
FACTORS
THAT
OUTCOMES
HINDER
HEALTHIER
1. Victim-Blaming and Stigma: When survivors
are judged or shamed, they may struggle with
self-worth and isolation.
2. Lack of Safe Spaces: Without shelters or
protection, survivors remain vulnerable to
further harm.
3. Lack of Mental Health Services: Without
therapy, survivors may suffer from PTSD,
depression, or anxiety.