PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION - ENGLISH 1 (1ST YEAR SUBJECT)
UNIT 1: LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
LESSON ONE: LANGUAGE AND ITS NATURE
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
1. Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols (Sapir, 1921).
2. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
cooperates (Boch & Trager, 1942).
3. Language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out
of a finite set of elements (Chomsky, 1957).
4. Language is the process whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by
means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols (Hall, 1969).
5. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
(Wardaugh, 1972).
6. Language is a symbol system based on purely arbitrary conventions, infinitely extendable
and modifiable according to the changing needs and conditions of the speakers (Robins,
1985).
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
1. Language is arbitrary. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no inherent relation
between the words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them.
2. Language is social. Language in this sense is a possession of a social group, comprising an
indispensable set of rules which permits its members to relate to each other, to interact
with each other, to cooperate with each other; it is a social institution.
3. Language is symbolic - Language consists of various sound symbols and their
graphological counterparts that are employed to denote some objects, occurrences or
meaning.
4. Language is systematic. All languages have their system of arrangements. All languages
have phonological and grammatical systems, and within a system there are several subsystems. For example, within the grammatical system we have morphological and syntactic
systems, and within these two sub-systems we have systems such as those of plural, of
mood, of aspect, of tense, etc.
5. Language is vocal. Language is primarily made up of vocal sounds only produced by a
physiological articulatory mechanism in the human body.
6. Language is non-instinctive, conventional. Language is the outcome of evolution and
convention. Like all human institutions languages also change and die, grow and expand.
Every language then is a convention in a community. It is non-instinctive because it is
acquired by human beings. Nobody gets a language in heritage; he acquires it because he
an innate ability.
7. Language is productive and creative. The structural elements of human language can be
combined to produce new utterances, which neither the speaker nor his hearers may ever
have made or heard before any, listener, yet which both sides understand without difficulty.
Language changes according to the needs of society.
8. Language is a means of communication. Language is strong, convenient and the best
form of communication. It is the best ways to express everything. It is through language
that we human express our thoughts, desires, emotions and feelings
LESSON TWO: COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION: WHAT IS IT?
1. The word Communication describes the process of conveying messages (facts, ideas,
attitudes and opinions) from one person to another, so that they are understood.
2. Communication is the process whereby speech, signs or actions transmit information
from one person to another.
3. Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and nonverbal messages
that produce a response.
4. In order for communication to be successful, the sender and receiver must have some
signs, words or signals in common with each other so the sent message can be understood.
ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS:
1. SENDER. The sender or the communicator generates the message and conveys it to the
receiver. He is the source and the one who starts the communication
2. MESSAGE. It is the idea, information, view, fact, feeling, etc. that is generated by the
sender and is then intended to be communicated further.
3. ENCODING. The message generated by the sender is encoded symbolically such as in the
form of words, pictures, gestures, etc. before it is being conveyed.
4. MEDIA. It is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted. The message may
be transmitted orally or in writing. The medium of communication includes telephone,
internet, post, fax, e-mail, etc. The choice of medium is decided by the sender.
5. DECODING. It is the process of converting the symbols encoded by the sender. After
decoding the message is received by the receiver.
6. RECEIVER. He is the person who is last in the chain and for whom the message was sent
by the sender. Once the receiver receives the message and understands it in proper
perspective and acts according to the message, only then the purpose of communication is
successful.
7. FEEDBACK. Once the receiver confirms to the sender that he has received the message
and understood it, the process of communication is complete.
8. NOISE. It refers to any obstruction that is caused by the sender, message or receiver
during the process of communication. For example, bad telephone connection, faulty
encoding, faulty decoding, inattentive receiver, poor understanding of message due to
prejudice or inappropriate gestures, etc.
FACTORS AFFECTING COMMUNICATION PROCESS:
a. Psychological Factor. Communicator’s mood or feeling-- emotions.
b. Cultural Factor. Communicator’s values, beliefs and norms.
c. Physical Factor. Place, time and environmental conditions that make up the
communication process.
d. Social Factor. Relationship between the communicators.
e. Historical Factor. Previous communication incidents between communicators.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION:
1. Principle of Clarity. The idea or message to be communicated should be clearly spelt out.
It should be worded in such a way that the receiver understands the same thing which the
sender wants to convey.
2. Principle of Attention. In order to make communication effective, the receiver’s
attention should be drawn towards message.
3. Principle of Feedback. There should be a feedback information from the recipient to
know whether he has understood the message in the same sense in which the sender has
meant it.
4. Principle of Informality. Formal communication is generally used for transmitting
messages and other information. Sometimes formal setting can not achieve the desired
results, informal communication may prove effective in such situations.
5. Principle of Consistency. This principle states that communication should always be
consistent with the policies, plans, programmes and objectives of the organization and not
in conflict with them.
6. Principle of Timeliness. This principle states that communication should be done at
proper time so that it helps in implementing plans. Any delay in communication may not
serve any purpose rather decisions become of historical importance only.
7. Principle of Adequacy. The information communicated should be adequate and
complete in all respects. Inadequate information may delay action and create confusion.
Inadequate information also affects efficiency of the receiver. So adequate information is
essential for taking proper decisions and making action plans.
LESSON THREE: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE VERBAL COMMUNICATION:
▪ Know your audience.
▪ Know your topic.
▪ Plan your presentation.
▪ Be familiar with the venue.
✓ NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION This is the use of body language, gestures and facial
expressions to convey information to others. It can be used both intentionally and
unintentionally. For example, you might smile unintentionally when you hear a pleasing or
enjoyable idea or piece of information. Nonverbal communication is helpful when trying to
understand others’ thoughts and feelings.
NON-VERBAL CUES THAT ARE COMMONLY USED:
➢ Facial Expressions
➢ Eye Contact
➢ Body Language
➢ Posture
➢ Touch
➢ Space/Proxemics
➢ Appearance
➢ Symbols
➢ Aesthetic Communication
✓ WRITTEN COMMUNICATION Written communication is the act of writing, typing or
printing symbols like letters and numbers to convey information. It is helpful because it
provides a record of information for reference. Writing is commonly used to share
information through books, pamphlets, blogs, letters, memos and more. Emails and chats
are a common form of written communication in the workplace.
SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION:
▪ Use familiar words.
▪ Choose short over long words.
▪ Use technical words with caution.
▪ Select words with the right strength and vigor.
▪ Use concrete language.
▪ Use active voice.
▪ Avoid overuse of camouflaged words.
✓ OTHER FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Intrapersonal Communication. Communicating with one-self. This includes self-talk, acts
of imagination and visualization, recalling, etc.
2. Interpersonal Communication. This refers to the exchange of ideas, information, feelings
and attitudes between two or more people.
3. Public Communication. This refers to the delivery of a message to a particular group of
people.
4. Visual Communication. This refers to the transmission of information and ideas using
symbols and images.
5. Mass Communication. This is a process in which a person, group of people, or an
organization sends a message through television, radio, print media and social media.
6. Computer-Mediated Communication. The use of an application computer to control
multimedia interactive and message-based communication.
LESSON FOUR: VISUAL COMMUNICATION
1. GEOGLYPHS
▪ Drawings or designs on the ground produced by arranging gravel, stones or soils.
▪ Believed to be built for religious purposes.
2. PICTOGRAMS, IDEOGRAMS and LOGOGRAMS
▪ Pictograms are images that represent physical objects.
▪ Ideograms are graphic symbols that represent an idea or concept regardless of a specific
language.
▪ Logograms are characters that represent a word or a morpheme.
3. CUNEIFORMS
▪ One of the world’s earliest systems of writing invented by the Sumerians.
▪ The writing system employed signs to represent numbers, things, words, and the sounds
of words.
4. HIEROGLYPHICS
▪ Contained a combination of logographic, alphabetic and ideographic elements used by the
ancient Egyptians.
NORMS FOR ETHICAL COMMUNICATION:
▪ Be truthful.
▪ Show respect for the power of words.
▪ Invoke participatory democracy.
▪ Demonstrate mindfulness of cultural diversity.
▪ Treat people as ends, not means.
GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL LISTENING:
▪ Be courteous and attentive.
▪ Avoid prejudging the speaker.
▪ Maintain the free and open expression of ideas.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVE IN ANALYZING VISUAL IMAGES:
1. PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE. ✓ This view posits that the analysis of an image depends on
the individual’s thoughts and values.
2. HISTORICAL PERSEPCTIVE. ✓ This perspective refers to the determination of the
importance of the work based on the medium’s timeline.
3. TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE. ✓ The analysis of the image takes into consideration its
different technical aspects like lightning, focus, tone position, and presentation.
4. ETHICAL PERSPETIVE. ✓ This perspective considers the moral and ethical responsibilities
shared by the artist or the producer of the image, the subject, and the viewer.
5. CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE. ✓ The perspective brings to the fore the idea that all cultures
use symbols to communicate meanings within groups. It involves the analysis of metaphors
and symbols used in the work.
6. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE. ✓ Allows the audience to look at the larger issues associated
with the image and the meaning.
UNIT 2: MODES OF COMMUNICATION
LESSON FIVE: COMMUNICATION ETHICS
WHAT IS ETHICS?
✓ Ethics deals with the issues of right and wrong in human affairs.
✓ A system of moral principles.
✓ Deals with values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness and
wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of
such actions.
COMMUNICATION ETHICS:
✓ Maintaining the correct balance between the speaking and listening.
✓ Ethical communication encompasses being honest in all communications, keeping
confidential information confidential and not discussing the personal or business situations
of others in public or in front of a third party.
✓ A business with unethical communication practices is not as effective as one with ethical
communication practices.
LESSON ONE: PUBLIC SPEAKING
WHAT IS PUBLIC SPEAKING?
✓ In one sense, we all know what public speaking is: a speaker transmits a message orally
to an audience. But this simple view does not explain just how the speaker and listeners
participate in communication, interacting in order to build connections whereby they can
understand each other and recognize common interests.
✓ Early theories of communication viewed public speaking as a series of oneway messages
sent from speaker to audience. In fact, however, the audience participates along with the
speaker in creating shared meaning and understanding.
✓ The speaker’s ideas and values are tested and refined through interaction with the
audience, and listeners’ knowledge and understanding are modified through interaction
with the speaker. Thus, public speaking is a continuous communication process in which
messages and signals circulate back and forth between speaker and listeners.
ELEMENTS OF VOCAL DELIVERY:
1. Pitch. This refers to the highness and lowness of the tone of the voice.
2. Volume. This refers to the loudness or softness of the sound.
3. Rate. This refers to the speed at which words are spoken.
4. Pause. This refers to the temporary stop in the vocal delivery.
5. Animation. This refers to the liveliness of the voice.
6. Vocal Clarity. This refers to proper pronunciation.
7. Vocal Quality. This refers to the distinct characteristic of one’s voice.
PHYSICAL DELIVERY:
1. Facial Expression. Facial expressions communicate a range of emotions and are also
associated with various moods or personality traits. Facial expressions help set the
emotional tone for a speech, and it is important that your facial expressions stay consistent
with your message.
2. Eye Contact. Eye contact is an important element of nonverbal communication in all
communication settings. As a speaker, eye contact can also be used to establish credibility
and hold your audience’s attention.
3. Gestures. Gestures include arm and hand movements. By this point in your life, you have
a whole vocabulary of hand movements and gestures that spontaneously come out while
you’re speaking. Some of these gestures are emphatic and some are descriptive (Koch,
2007).
4. Posture. Posture is the position we assume with our bodies, either intentionally or out of
habit. In a formal speaking situation, it’s important to have an erect posture that
communicates professionalism and credibility. In informal settings, it may be appropriate to
lean on a table or lectern, or even sit among your audience members. In most speaking
situations, it is best to keep your head up, facing your audience. A droopy head doesn’t
communicate confidence. Consider the occasion important, as an inappropriate posture can
hurt your credibility.
5. Movement. Sometimes movement of the whole body, instead of just gesturing with
hands, is appropriate in a speech. This allows you to concentrate on managing anxiety and
focus on more important aspects of delivery like vocal variety, avoiding fluency hiccups and
verbal fillers, and improving eye contact.
6. Appearance. Looking like a credible and prepared public speaker will make you feel more
like one and will make your audience more likely to perceive you as such. This applies to all
speaking contexts: academic, professional, and personal.
PREPARATION FOR A BETTER SPEECH:
1. The Speaker.
a. Draw from your personal experience.
b. Make use of your hobbies.
c. Use the knowledge you gained from your other subjects.
d. Pick a topic regarding current events.
e. Choose a timely and relevant topic.
2. Occasion.
a. Time. The audience may have different moods and feelings according to the time the
speech is delivered.
b. Place. The place of gathering may be a factor in the success of your speech. You should
consider the venue of your speaking engagement.
c. Program. Your role in the program will determine the length of your speech.
3. The Audience
a. The speaker should consider the common characteristics of the audience.
b. Audience interest will depend on their age and gender.
4. Gathering of Materials
a. Yourself as the speaker.
b. More materials.
c. Library
ORGANIZING THE SPEECH CONTENT:
1. Creating a Speech Outline.
2. Creating the Introduction of the Speech.
3. Collation and Integration of Materials (Body of Speech).
4. Creating the Conclusion.
OVERCOMING THE FEAR OF PUBLIC SPEAKING:
BDO, Seidman & LLP (2009) offer three steps to overcome stage fright:
✓ Be prepared.
✓ Keep on practicing.
✓ Relax before speaking.
Agravante & Buenaventura (1999) provide some strategies to control tension when you are
on stage:
✓ Think of presenting your message, not yourself.
✓ Be prepared.
✓ Relax. Take several deep breaths.
✓ Try to be physically and mentally active.
✓ Act confident and you’ll be confident.
✓ Use gestures and movements.
PREPARATION FOR ORAL DELIVERY:
✓ Use your voice properly.
✓ Relax and speak naturally.
✓ Use the language effectively.
✓ Be careful in articulation and pronunciation.
✓ Avoid nervous filters and slang words.
✓ Show passion and sincerity.
✓ Use nonverbal signs.
✓ Be prepared.
LESSON TWO: SPEECHES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
1. Informative Speech
✓ An informative speech provides information about a specific subject to an audience. The
aim of an informative speech is to help your audience to understand and to remember the
information you are presenting.
✓ This type of speech provides information history, theories, practical applications, and etc.
that can help the listeners understand something that is unknown to them or already
known but not yet clearly understood.
✓ It is also meant to help the listeners understand a topic in a more in-depth manner by
providing the following in an organized way:
• new data
• data that are not readily available to everyone
• data already know to the audience but looked at in a different way.
2. Demonstrative Speech
✓ Demonstrative speeches teach an audience how to do a specific thing. Even if you’re an
expert at your topic, the process of writing a speech which assures the audience has
learned something new, can be challenging.
✓ As a demonstrative speaker, you will be their guide, taking them through a process of
‘show and tell’, covering each step from start to finish. It’s like an engaging ‘how-to’ speech.
✓ They are also known as explanation speeches or a demonstrative presentation. It relies
more on logic and information as opposed to emotions.
✓ Elements in Writing a Demonstrative Speech:
• Instructions
• Task Breakdown
• Key Points
3. Persuasive Speech
✓ A persuasive speech is a specific type of speech in which the speaker has a goal of
convincing the audience to accept his or her point of view. The speech is arranged in such a
way as to hopefully cause the audience to accept all or part of the expressed view. Though
the overarching goal of a persuasive speech is to convince the audience to accept a
perspective, not all audiences can be convinced by a single speech and not all perspectives
can persuade the audience.
✓ A persuasive speech is written to persuade, or convince the listeners, of the validity of
the speaker’s argument. This might involve persuading someone to change their opinion or
at the very least take into account some elements that have not really been considered
before.
4. Entertaining Speech
✓ It is a speech intends to captivate an audience’s attention and amuse them while
delivering a message. The purpose is not only to tell jokes. Neither is it the purpose of the
speaker to have the audience laughing throughout the speech.
✓ Guidelines in creating an Entertaining Speech:
• Choose an appropriate topic.
• Enjoy yourself.
• Keep it simple.
• Avoid making your presentation dull and boring.
LESSON THREE: SPEECHES ACCORDING TO DELIVERY
1. Impromptu Speaking
✓ Impromptu speaking is the presentation of a short message without advance
preparation. Impromptu speeches often occur when someone is asked to “say a few words”
or give a toast on a special occasion.
✓ The advantage of this kind of speaking is that it’s spontaneous and responsive in an
animated group context. The disadvantage is that the speaker is given little or no time to
contemplate the central theme of his or her message. As a result, the message may be
disorganized and difficult for listeners to follow.
✓ any idea or concept that the audience seems to have trouble grasping.
✓ Here is a step-by-step guide that may be useful if you are called upon to give an
impromptu speech in public.
• Take a moment to collect your thoughts and plan the main point you want to make.
• Thank the person for inviting you to speak.
• Deliver your message, making your main point as briefly as you can while still covering it
adequately and at a pace your listeners can follow.
• Thank the person again for the opportunity to speak.
2. Extemporaneous Speaking
✓ Extemporaneous speaking is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed
speech, spoken in a conversational manner using brief notes. By using notes rather than a
full manuscript, the extemporaneous speaker can establish and maintain eye contact with
the audience and assess how well they are understanding the speech as it progresses. The
opportunity to assess is also an opportunity to restate more clearly any idea or concept that
the audience seems to have trouble grasping.
3. Speaking from Manuscript
✓ Manuscript speaking is the word-for-word iteration of a written message. In a
manuscript speech, the speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed page except
when using visual aids.
✓ The advantage to reading from a manuscript is the exact repetition of original words. For
example, reading a statement about your organization’s legal responsibilities to customers
may require that the original words be exact. In reading one word at a time, in order, the
only errors would typically be mispronunciation of a word or stumbling over complex
sentence structure.
✓ However, there are costs involved in manuscript speaking. First, it’s typically an
uninteresting way to present. Unless the speaker has rehearsed the reading as a complete
performance animated with vocal expression and gestures (as poets do in a poetry slam
and actors do in a reader’s theater), the presentation tends to be dull. Keeping one’s eyes
glued to the script precludes eye contact with the audience. For this kind of “straight”
manuscript speech to hold audience attention, the audience must be already interested in
the message before the delivery begins.
4. Speaking from Memory
✓ Memorized speaking is the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has
committed to memory. Actors, of course, recite from memory whenever they perform from
a script in a stage play, television program, or movie scene. When it comes to speeches,
memorization can be useful when the message needs to be exact and the speaker doesn’t
want to be confined by notes.
✓ The advantage to memorization is that it enables the speaker to maintain eye contact
with the audience throughout the speech. Being free of notes means that you can move
freely around the stage and use your hands to make gestures. If your speech uses visual
aids, this freedom is even more of an advantage.
✓ However, there are some real and potential costs. First, unless you also plan and
memorize every vocal cue (the subtle but meaningful variations in speech delivery, which
can include the use of pitch, tone, volume, and pace), gesture, and facial expression, your
presentation will be flat and uninteresting, and even the most fascinating topic will suffer.
You might end up speaking in a monotone or a sing-song repetitive delivery pattern. You
might also present your speech in a rapid “machine-gun” style that fails to emphasize the
most important points. Second, if you lose your place and start trying to ad lib, the contrast
in your style of delivery will alert your audience that something is wrong. More frighteningly,
if you go completely blank during the presentation, it will be extremely difficult to find your
place and keep going.
LESSON FOUR: SPEECHES ACCORDING TO SPECIAL OCCASIONS
1. Speeches of Introduction
✓ The first type of speech is called the speech of introduction, which is a mini speech given
by the host of a ceremony that introduces another speaker and his or her speech.
✓ For an introduction, think of a hook that will make your audience interested in the
upcoming speaker.
✓ The body of your introductory speech should be devoted to telling the audience about
the speaker’s topic, why the speaker is qualified, and why the audience should listen.
✓ The final part of a good introduction is the conclusion, which is generally designed to
welcome the speaker to the lectern.
2. Speeches of Presentation
✓ A speech of presentation is a brief speech given to accompany a prize or honor.
✓ When preparing a speech of presentation, it’s always important to ask how long the
speech should be. Once you know the time limit, then you can set out to create the speech
itself. First, you should explain what the award or honor is and why the presentation is
important. Second, you can explain what the recipient has accomplished in order for the
award to be bestowed.
3. Speeches of Dedication
✓ A speech of dedication is delivered when a new store opens, a building is named after
someone, a plaque is placed on a wall, a new library is completed, and so on.
✓ These speeches are designed to highlight the importance of the project and possibly
those to whom the project has been dedicated.
✓ When preparing the speech of dedication, start by explaining how you are involved in
the dedication.
✓ Second, you want to explain what is being dedicated.
✓ Lastly, explain why the structure is important for the community where it’s located.
4. Toast
✓ A toast is a speech designed to congratulate, appreciate, or remember. First, toasts can
be delivered for the purpose of congratulating someone for an honor, a new job, or getting
married. You can also toast someone to show your appreciation for something they’ve done.
Lastly, we toast people to remember them and what they have accomplished.
✓ When preparing a toast, the first goal is always to keep your remarks brief. Toasts are
generally given during the middle of some kind of festivities (e.g., wedding, retirement
party, farewell party), and you don’t want your toast to take away from those festivities for
too long.
✓ Second, the goal of a toast is to focus attention on the person or persons being
toasted—not on the speaker.
5. Eulogies
✓ A eulogy is a speech given in honor of someone who has died.
6. Speeches of Farewell
✓ A speech of farewell allows someone to say good-bye to one part of his or her life as he
or she is moving on to the next part of life. Maybe you’ve accepted a new job and are
leaving your current job, or you’re graduating from college and entering the work force.
Whatever the case may be, periods of transition are often marked by speeches of farewell.
7. Speeches of Promotion
✓ The writer imparts an important, often galvanizing message to the audience.
✓ Recognizes others for their contributions to the speaker’s success, etc.
8.Roasts
✓ The roast speech is a very interesting and peculiar speech because it is designed to both
praise and good-naturedly insult a person being honored. Generally, roasts are given at the
conclusion of a banquet in honor of someone’s life achievements.
9.Dramatic Speeches
✓ Addressed by character and usually performed on stage with characters on play or roleplaying story.
✓ Types of Dramatic Speeches:
• Monologue. A long interrupted speech delivered by a character to other characters on
stage.
• Soliloquy. A type of monologue in which a character directly addresses an audience or
speaks his thoughts aloud while alone or while the other actors keep silent.
• Aside. A dramatic device in which a character speaks to the audience. By convention the
audience is to realize that the character's speech is unheard by the other characters on
stage
• Dialogue. More like on conversing with each other.
10.Inspirational Speeches
✓ The goal of an inspirational speech is to elicit or arouse an emotional state within an
audience.
✓ Two kinds of inspirational speech are: Speeches of Commencement and Speeches of
Goodwill.
11. Speeches of Commencement
✓ This is designed to recognize and celebrate the achievements of a graduating class or
other group of people. The most typical form of commencement speech happens when
someone graduates from school.
12. Speeches of Goodwill
✓ Goodwill is an intangible asset that is made up of the favor or reputation of an individual
or organization. Speeches of goodwill are often given in an attempt to get audience
members to view the person or organization more favorably.
✓ Although speeches of goodwill are clearly persuasive, they try not to be obvious about
the persuasive intent and are often delivered as informationgiving speeches that focus on
an individual or organization’s positives attributes. There are three basic types of speeches
of goodwill: public relations, justification, and apology.
13. Speeches of Justification
✓ The second common speech of goodwill is the speech of justification, which is given
when someone attempts to defend why certain actions were taken or will be taken. In
these speeches, speakers have already enacted (or decided to enact) some kind of behavior,
and are now attempting to justify why the behavior is or was appropriate
14.Speeches of Apology
✓ When you need to make an apology speech, there are three elements that you need to
include: be honest and take responsibility, say you’re sorry, and offer restitution.
LESSON FIVE: COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
WHAT IS COMPUTER- MEDIATED COMMUNICATION (CMC)?
✓ CMC is any form of communication between two or more individual people who interact
and/or influence each other via separate computers through the Internet or a network
connection using social software.
✓ This promotes self-discipline and requires one to take more responsibility for their own
learning.
✓ Computer-mediated technology provides tools that are useful in promoting collaborative
learning activities that can mediate communication between learners.
✓ Examples of CMC:
• Emails
• Mailboxes
• Shared network group folders
• Discussion boards
• Hyperlinked webpages
TYPES OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION (CMC):
A. Asynchronous Communication
• Computer mediated communication in asynchronous form occurs with time constraints-meaning all involved parties don't need to be present or available at the same exact time.
• Benefits of asynchronous CMC include opportunities to think, reflect and address diverse
set of topics in more depth.
• Instead of data being transmitted in a steady stream like synchronous communication, it
is transmitted intermittently.
• EXAMPLES: Emails, Discussion Boards, Text Messaging
B. Synchronous Communication
• Computer mediated communication in a synchronous form occurs when all parties
involved are online at the same time. AKA: Direct Communication
• The sender and receiver are synchronized with a signal that is encrypted into the data
flow.
• EXAMPLES: Telephone Conversations, Chatrooms, Video Conferences
UNIT 3: COMMUNICATION AND GLOBALIZATION
LESSON ONE: LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL SETTING
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF LOCAL AND GLOBA COMMUNICATION:
✓ Globalization is the increasing economic, political, and cultural integration and
interdependence of diverse cultures.
✓ Globalization requires that we pay attention to the concept of diversity which is about
the recognition and valuing of difference, encompassing such factors as age, gender, race,
ethnicity, ability, religion, education, marital status, sexual orientation, and income.
✓ The world is in need of multiculturalists—people who pay respect to the cultural
differences.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION:
✓ This is the process of interpreting and sharing meanings with individuals from different
cultures.
✓ This is the verbal and nonverbal interaction between people from different cultural
backgrounds.
FORMS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION:
1. Interracial Communication.
➢ Interpreting and sharing of meanings with individuals from different races.
2. Interethnic Communication.
➢ Interactions with individuals of different ethnic origins.
3. International Communication.
➢ Communication between persons representing different nations.
4. Intracultural Communication. Interaction with members of the same racial or ethnic
group or co-culture as yours. Understanding One Another:
Culture is defined as:
✓ the way of life of a particular society or group of people, including patterns of thoughts,
beliefs, behavior, customs, traditions, rituals, dress, and language, as well as art, music, etc.
✓ a shared pattern of belief, feeling and adaption, which people carry in their minds
✓ an organized group of ideas, habits and conditioned responding shared by members of a
society
Co-culture, on the other hand is:
✓ a group whose beliefs or behaviors distinguish it from the larger culture of which it is
part of and with which it shares numerous similarities
Co-culture Strategies:
• ASSIMILATION Cultural assimilation is the process in which a minority group or culture
comes to resemble a dominant group or assume the values, behaviors, and beliefs of
another group.
• ACCOMMODATION Cultural accommodation refers to the process by which individuals
may take on values and beliefs of the host culture and accommodate them in the public
sphere, while maintaining the parent culture in the private sphere.
• SEPARATION Separation occurs when individuals reject the dominant or host culture in
favor of preserving their culture of origin. Separation is often facilitated by immigration to
ethnic enclaves.
Exploring Cultural Dialectics
1. Individualism vs. Collectivism. Individualism stresses individual goals and the rights of
the individual person. Collectivism focuses on group goals, what is best for the collective
group, and personal relationships.
2. High-context vs. Low-context. High-context is a tradition-bound communication system
which depends on indirectness while low-context communication is a system that
encourages directness in communication.
3. High-power Distance vs. Low-power Distance. High power distance cultures have higher
levels of inequality and are more willing to accept that without question. Low power
distance cultures have lower levels of inequality and are less willing to accept unequal
power distribution.
4. Masculine vs. Feminine Culture. Masculine culture values aggressiveness, strength, and
material symbols of success. Moreover, masculinity signifies dominance and competitions.
Feminine culture values tenderness and relationships.
LESSON TWO: CULTURAL AND GLOBAL ISSUES AFFECTING COMMUNICATION
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES: INFLUENCES ON CULTURAL IDENTITY
✓ Our cultural identity is based on our group memberships which are determined by
gender, age, ethnic, religious, socioeconomic, political or even national affiliations.
✓ Our racial and ethnic identities may reflect our struggles or success that would affects
our attitudes toward contemporary issues.
✓ Our religious identity is at the root of countless contemporary conflicts occurring in the
different parts of the world.
✓ Similarly, our socioeconomic identity frames how we respond to issues of our day. The
widening gap between the rich and the poor is contributing to the development of different
attitudes and perspectives.
✓ Our national identity refers to legal status or citizenship. ETHNOCENTRISM VS.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
✓ Ethnocentrism is the tendency to see your own culture as superior to all others.
✓Cultural relativism is the opposite of ethnocentrism. Instead of viewing the group to
which you belong as superior to all others; you work to try to understand the behavior of
other groups on the basis of the context in which behavior occurs rather than from your
own reference.
STEREOTYPE and PREJUDICE
✓ Stereotypes are mental images or pictures we carry around our heads; positive or
negative that guide our reactions to others.
✓ Prejudice describes how we feel about a group of people whom, more likely than not,
we do not personally know.
LESSON THREE: TERMS, EXPRESSIONS AND IMAGES REFLECTNG DIFFERENT CULTURES
EXAMPLES OF CULTURAL IGNORANCE AFFECTING COMMUNICATION:
1. Showing the sole shoe means nothing to observers in the United States or Europe. In
Muslim cultures, the gesture is perceived as insulting. Similarly, crossing your legs in the US
indicates you are relaxed while in Korea, it is a social faux pas.
2. McDonald’s fast food chain unintentionally offended thousands of Muslims when it
printed an excerpt from the Koran on its throwaway hamburger bags.
3. The Japanese view the business card as an extension of a person, while Americans view it
as a business formality and a convenience. Consequently, while the Japanese handles
business cards with care, Americans are quick to put them away which end up insulting the
Japanese.
4. Eye contact preferences also differ across cultures. Americans place a high value on eyeto-eye communication and tend to distrust those who fail to look at them directly. The
Japanese, in contrast, believe eye-to-eye contact over a sustained period of time, shows
disrespect.
5. Americans tend to value personal achievement and individualism. In contrast, Asia and
Native American cultures stress group cohesion and loyalty, placing greater emphasis on
group rather than individual achievement.
UNIT 4: COMMUNICATION ACROSS PROFESSION
LESSON ONE: EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATION IN A WORKPLACE
EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION:
✓ An effective oral presentation is more about creative thinking on your feet and basic
skills than about wearing good shoes and knowing how to turn on the computer projector.
✓ Companies have long cried for graduates who can give dynamic talks, and they have long
relied on presentations as a key way to sway concerned parties towards a desired outcome.
✓ To become a modern speaker worth listening to, whether you’re serving as a company
representative or presenting at a conference, you must come fully prepared, engage your
audience’s attention and memory, read the audiences’ reactions, attend to some visual
design basics, and take stock of how you come across as a speaker.
WHAT ARE PRESENTATION SKILLS?
✓ Presentation skills refer to all the qualities you need to create and deliver a clear and
effective presentation.
✓ While what you say during a presentation matters, employers also value the ability to
create supporting materials, such as slides. Your prospective employer may want you to
deliver briefings and reports to colleagues, conduct training sessions, present information
to clients, or perform any number of other tasks that involve speaking before an audience.
✓ Giving engaging and easy-to-understand talks is a major component of the strong oral
communication skills that are a job requirement for many positions.
PHASES OF PRESENTATION:
1. Preparation involves research and building the presentation. This may mean crafting the
entire text (or at least writing notes) and creating any slides and other supporting
visual/audio materials.
2. Delivery is the part the audience sees. A good delivery depends on careful preparation
and confident presentation and requires its own distinctive skill set.
3. Follow-up includes properly breaking down and storing any equipment, contacting any
audience members with whom you agreed to communicate further, and soliciting,
collecting, and analyzing feedback.
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATION (Adrienne McLean):
• Have a knowledge about your audience.
• Plan your presentation.
• Make the presentation interesting.
• Wear appropriate attire. .
• Show your care.
• Be organized.
• Discuss the problems, issues, etc.
• Handle your nervousness and be confident.
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION STYLES: Try to assess your effectiveness as
a speaker by answering the following questions below:
• Do you take an active role in the communication?
• Do you connect and empathize with others?
• Do you take time to think and respond?
• Do you follow a logical path in presenting your points?
• Do you combine the first four statements above?
LESSON TWO: BUSINESS MEETING PROTOCOLS
CONDUCTING EFFECTIVE BUSINESS MEETINGS:
✓ Adherence to the proper etiquette for a business meeting establishes respect among
meeting participants, helps the meeting begin and end on time, and fosters an atmosphere
of cooperation. A lack of etiquette and poor planning are two of the main reasons why
many business meetings fail. Teach your employees business meeting etiquette to ensure
that your business's meetings are effective.
WAYS TO MAKE MEETINGS BETTER:
Business Meetings Management Planning Process
The key steps to be taken in planning a meeting are as follows:
• Establish the meeting objectives;
• Prepare the meeting agenda;
• Determine timing and physical arrangements;
• Identify and invite participants; and
• Consider matters of protocol.
Business Meeting Objectives
Why is the meeting being held? What will it accomplish? Meetings are usually held for one
or more of the following reasons:
• To disseminate new information or provide feedback;
• To receive a report;
• To coordinate efforts of a specific nature and obtain group support;
• To win acceptance for a new idea, plan, or system;
• To reconcile a conflict;
• To negotiate an agreement;
• To motivate members of a group;
• To initiate creative thinking within a group; and
• To solve a current problem within a group.
How to Conduct a Meeting Agenda
• Focus the agenda on items relating to the same general topic, if possible.
• Schedule fewer agenda items when the topics cannot be related.
• Attach background data for each topic to be discussed, when the agenda is distributed.
• Establish a time limit and priority for each agenda item.
• Don't have the meeting run too long.
• Submit the agenda to the participants, with the background data, as early as possible.
Business Meetings: Time/Physical Arrangements
When should the meeting be held? Where should it be held? There are several necessary
considerations regarding time and physical arrangements for the meeting. Among the more
important are:
• The convenience of the place.
• The size of the room. It should not be too large or too small. If the right-size room is not
available, it is better to select a small room, rather than too large a room. A small room
presents a friendlier atmosphere than a large, sparsely filled one.
• The seating arrangement and the availability of extra seats if needed
• The lighting, heating, and ventilation.
• Any visual aids required and their proper use.
• Availability of extra paper and pencils.
• The need for name plates or name tags.
• The handling of messages.
Business Meetings: Matters of Protocol
One of the initial steps to ensure a successful meeting is to give adequate consideration to
protocol. Protocol might be defined as the application of commonsense courtesy.
Some steps the chairman might take to avoid protocol problems are:
• Notify participants well in advance of the meeting date, and provide them with an agenda
and background data.
• Notify department heads when subordinates with expertise are needed.
• Make sure that arrangements with resource persons outside the organization are
completed before the meeting.
• Introduce resource persons and newcomers at the start of the meeting.
• List participants in alphabetical order in the meeting announcement and minutes, unless
someone present far outranks the others. In that case, list this person first.
• Express gratitude to those from outside the group as well as to those within the group for
significant contributions to the success of the meeting.
• Advise those invited to attend the meeting of postponement or cancellation as far in
advance as possible.
Managing the Business Meeting
The chairman should make the meeting as relaxed and informal as possible. He should
resort to Robert's Rules of Order only when attendance is large or debate becomes heated.
The chairman should "manage" the meeting, speak when appropriate, encourage
discussion, seek a consensus, and summarize. Under no circumstances should the chairman
be unprepared, "hog" the discussion, play the comic, chastise a participant, or let the
meeting run by itself.
The meeting will not get off the ground unless the participants know where they are going.
Therefore, it is important that the chairman make a concerted effort to ensure that:
• Every participant has a clear understanding of the meeting objectives at the start of the
meeting.
• Each agenda item has a time allocation. The time limit for the meeting should be
announced when the agenda is published, or at the beginning of the meeting.
• The objective(s) remain valid throughout the meeting. If not, they should be revised
LESSON THREE: WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS, MEMOS and MINUTES
WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS:
✓ E-mail may be the quick and convenient way to relay daily business messages, but the
printed business letter is still the preferred way to convey important information.
✓ A carefully crafted letter presented on attractive letterhead can be a powerful
communication tool.
Select a professional letterhead design for your small business: Your business letter is a
representation of your company, so you want it to look distinctive and immediately
communicate "high quality."
Use a standard business letter format and template: The most widely used format for
business letters is "block style," where the text of the entire letter is justified left. The text is
single spaced, except for double spaces between paragraphs. Typically margins are about 1
inch (25.4 mm) on all sides of the document.
Business Letter Template Fields:
• Date: Use month, day, year format, e.g., March 3, 20xx or 3 March 20xx
• Sender's Address: It is a good idea to include sender's email and url, if available. Don't
include this information if it's already incorporated into the letterhead design. This will
allow customers to find your small business more quickly.
• Inside Address: Use full name. Mr./Ms. is optional
• Salutation: Be sure to use a colon at the end of the name, not a comma as in personal
letters
• Body Text: State why you are writing. Establish any connection/mutual relationship up
front. Outline the solution, providing proof in the way of examples and expert opinions.
Group related information into paragraphs
• Closing "Call to Action": State what the reader needs to do and what you will do to follow
up
• Signature Block: Sign your letter in blue or black ink
• Enclosures: Use if you have an enclosure
• Carbon Copy: Use if you are sending a copy to additional person(s)
Use a professional tone: Save casual, chatty language for email - your printed business
letter should be friendly but more professional. As Scott Ober suggests in his book
Contemporary Business Communication, "The business writer should strive for an overall
tone that is confident, courteous, and sincere; that uses emphasis and subordination
appropriately.”
Write clearly: State your point early in your letter. To avoid any miscommunications, use
straightforward, concise language. Skip the industry jargon and instead choose lively, active
words to hold your reader's attention.
Organize your information logically: Group related information into separate paragraphs.
In a long, information-packed letter, consider organizing information into sections with
subheads.
Be persuasive: Establish a positive relationship with your reader right away. If you have a
connection to the reader.
Understand your reader well enough to anticipate how he or she will react when reading
your letter. Address his or her needs or wishes, or a specific problem, and then outline your
solution..
Conclude your letter with a "call to action." State clearly what your reader needs to do or
believe to achieve the desired solution and then state what you, the writer, intend to do
next to follow up.
Proofread your letter: All your careful crafting and printing can't cover up spelling or
punctuation errors, which might leave a bad impression
WRITING BUSINESS MEMORANDUM:
✓ A business memo is a short document used to transmit information within an
organization. Memos are characterized by being brief, direct, and easy to navigate.
✓ They are less formal than letters but should maintain a professional, succinct style. Often,
the purpose of a business memo is twofold: to identify a problem and propose a solution.
Other times, memos may provide or request factual information.
✓ Business memos are designed to accommodate busy readers who want to find the
information they need from the memo quickly and easily. In writing a business memo, you
should structure your memo to accommodate three kinds of readers:
• Those who read only the executive summary
• Those who skim the entire memo for its key points and a few details they're interested in
• Those who read the entire document for the details that support its major claims or
recommendations.
GUIDELINES IN WRITING BUSINESS MEMO:
• Present the main point first.
• Maintain a professional, succinct style.
• Create a very specific subject line to give the reader an immediate idea of the memo’s (or
message's) subject and purpose.
• Provide a summary or overview of the main points, especially if the memo is more than
one page.
• Use format features, such as headings, to signal structure and guide readers to the
information they're seeking.
STANDARD MEMO HEADING
• Though the format for a memo may vary from one organization to another, the standard
heading consists of a series of clearly labeled lines that convey key information about the
memo’s contents and its distribution. The following are standard elements of a memo
header:
Date: The date on which the memo is distributed
To: The person(s) to whom it is primarily addressed (sometimes with job title)
cc: Name(s) of anyone else who receives a copy (sometimes with job title)
From: Name of the writer, usually followed by his/her handwritten initials (sometimes with
job title)
Subject: or Re: Concise statement of the memo’s topic.
WRITING BUSINESS MEETING MINUTES:
✓ Robert’s Rule of Order (2005) recommends that minutes contain the following items:
• Committee or organizational name
• Kind of meeting (regular board meeting, annual meeting, special meeting)
• Date, location and time of beginning and adjournment
• Name of the chair and secretary or their substitutes
• Names of all present members
• Names of guests and their role in the meeting
• Reference to approval of last meeting’s minutes
• Motions raised. Motions must be written as stated, including the member or individual
who raised the motion, and the vote’s outcome.
• Reports. Record the name of the report, the name of the member presenting it, and any
action taken on the report. It the report was in writing, attach it, or tell where it may be
found. An oral report may be summarized briefly.
• Other special concerns from committees or individual members.
• The signature of the secretary upon the approval of the meetings.
LESSON FOUR: WRITING TECHNICAL REPORTS ACROSS PROFESSION
WHAT IS A REPORT?
✓ A report is a comprehensive document that covers all aspects of the subject matter of
study. It presents results of an experiment, investigation, research, or an inquiry to specific
audience.
CATEGORIES OF REPORTS:
1. THE INFORMAL REPORT.
• It functions to inform, analyze and recommend.
• It may be in a form of a memo, financial report, mostly activities report, development
report, etc.
• It is written according to an institution’s style and rules.
• It is used for conveying routine messages.
TYPES OF INFORMAL REPORT:
A. Progress Report. Provides information about an on-going project.
B. Sales activity Report. Provides information about the progress of the company’s sales
and shortcomings.
C. Personnel Evaluation. Assessment of employee’s performance.
D. Financial Report. Presents formal record of the financial activities of a business, person
or other entries.
E. Feasibility Report. Assessment of the variability of a new project; details whether the
projects should be undertakes, etc.
F. Literature Review. Explains a piece of literary pieces.
G. Credit Report. Presents the details of an individual’s credit history.
2. THE FORMAL REPORT.
• It is an official report that contains a collection of detailed information, research and
necessary data.
• It is formal, complex and used at an official level.
• It is often written account of a major project.
TYPES OF FORMAL REPORT:
A. Informational Reports. Provides data, feedbacks and other types of information serve as
updates of operations.
B. Analytical Reports. Presents results, analysis of results and draw conclusions based on
the given results.
C. Recommendation Reports. Advocates a particular course of action; usually presents the
results and conclusions that support the recommendations.
D. Research Reports. Most widely used report in the schools.
E. Laboratory Reports. Presentation of analysis and flow of experiments.
F. Case Study Analysis. Presentation of experiments, observations, etc. based on real-life
examples.
PARTS OF THE REPORT:
1. Title Page. Name of the report.
2. Table of Contents. What can we find in the report?
3. Executive Summary. A summary of the report.
4. Introduction. Background of the problem, approach, definition of operational terms used
in the report.
5. Methods. Methods or procedures which led to the findings.
6. Findings. Results of investigation and observation; calculations.
7. Conclusion. Conclusion and analysis drawn from findings.
8. Recommendation. Things that should/could be done for future reports.
9. Bibliography. Sources of information used in the report.
10. Appendices. Different relevant attachments.
LESSON FIVE: PREPARATION FOR EMPLOYMENT
THE RESUME.
✓ A resume (sometimes spelled résumé) is a record of work experience, professional
achievements, education, skills, certifications, and other details that make the case for the
job. It is usually the first contact between a company and candidate.
Features of a Resume.
1. ORGANIZATION. There are different ways on how you can organize your resume
depending on your goals, experiences, and qualifications. You can organize your resume
through:
a. Chronological- general listing of all your academic and work experience from the most
recent to the oldest.
b. Functional- organized around various kinds of experience.
c. Targeted- generally announces the specific goal up to top, just beneath your name, and
offers information selectively.
2. SUCCINCTNESS. A resume must be concise. Entries may not be written in sentences but
should be parallel (Organized inventory records instead of I organized inventory records).
3. COMPREHENSIVENESS. A resume must present all important details that can gain the
nod of the prospective employer. Make sure that the information written are reflected
correctly.
4. DESIGN. The resume should be reader-friendly and be professionally packaged.
THE APPLICATION LETTER. A job application letter (also known as a cover letter) is a letter
you send with your resume to provide information on your skills and experience. This letter
is your letter is your chance to “sell” yourself to an employer, explaining why you are an
ideal candidate for a position.
✓ Before you begin writing your job application letter, do some groundwork. Consider
what information you want to include (keeping in mind that space is limited). Remember,
this letter is making a case for your candidacy for the position. But you can do better than
just regurgitating your resume — instead, highlight your most relevant skills, experiences,
and abilities.
✓ To include the most convincing, relevant details in your letter, you'll need to know what
the employer wants. The biggest clues are within the job advertisement, so spend some
time decoding the job ad. Next, match your qualifications with the employer's wants and
needs. Make a list of your relevant experience and skills.
Features of an Application Letter.
1. QUALIFICATIONS. Give reasons why you are interested in the position. Indicate what
skills you possess that matches what the company is looking for.
2. PLEASING TONE. Go beyond simply stating your accomplishments. Let the employers feel
that you will be the kind of an employee that the organization wants.
3. FORMAT. Application letter typically follows a prescribed format, which is a conventional
business-like format. Below is the parts of an application letter.
a. Street address, city, zip code, date (Sender’s)
b. Recipient’s name and title, organization address
c. Salutation, with a colon
d. First Paragraph: Position identified
e. Second Paragraph: Match between experience and job description
f. Third Paragraph: Availability for further meet-ups
g. Fourth Paragraph: Gratitude
h. Closing
i. Sender’s name, all caps, signature above printed name (3-4 lines space after closing)
Guidelines for Writing an Application Letter.
1. Stay on focus.
2. Stay on topic.
3. Think of your letter as an argument. Make a claim.
4. Choose an appropriate salutation.
5. Proofread your letter.
INTERVIEW.
Types of Interviews:
1. Screening Interview. A company representative does the interview which would
become the basis to warrant a subsequent interview.
2. Structured Interview. There will be prepared questions to be asked by the interviewer
which allows him/her to explore the capacity of the interviewee.
3. Unstructured Interview. This is opposite of the Structured Interview because the
interviewer is not given the instructions on what specific areas to cover.
4. Multiple Interview. There will be series of interviews in which you will meet with
various representatives of the organization. After series of interviews, the interviewers
meet and pool their information about your qualifications for the job.
5. Stress Interview. The interviewer may ask questions that will make you uncomfortable
or you may be interrupted when you are speaking. This is intentionally done to upset you
just to be able to see how you react under pressure.
6. Targeted Interview. The key qualifications for success on the job are identified,
however, relevant questions are prepared in advance.
7. Situational Interview. The interviewee will be given a situation or a problem that
he/she may encounter in the work. Responses will be measured against pre-determined
standards.
8. Group Interview. A variation on this format is for two or more company
representatives to interview a group of candidates at the same time.
Interview Strategies:
1. BEFORE THE INTERVIEW:
o Do role playing.
o See yourself.
o Consider your strengths and weaknesses.
o Answer the commonly asked questions.
o Tailored your answer.
o Ensure appropriate clothing.
o Research about the company.
o Have extra copies of your resume.
o Arrive early (10-15 minutes before the scheduled time)
2. DURING THE INTERVIEW:
o Make a good impression.
o Determine perfect timing to answer questions.
o Act confident and you’ll be confident.
Frequently asked Interview questions:
1. Tell me about yourself.
2. What is your weakest point?
3. What is your strongest point?
4. What do you hope to be doing five years from now?
5. What do you know about our company? Why do you want to work here?
6. What is your greatest accomplishment?
7. Why should we hire you?
8. Tell me about a problem you had in your last job and how you resolved it.
3. AFTER THE INTERVIEW:
o Write down the name and title (be sure the spelling is correct) of the interviewer.
o Review what the job entails and record what the next step will be.
o Note your reactions to the interview; include what went well and what went poorly.
o Assess what you learned from the experience and how you can improve your
performance in future interviews.
o Make sure you send a thank you note within 24 hours.
UNIT FIVE: COMMUNICATION FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES
LESSON ONE: ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES
ENGLISH AS AN ACADEMIC LANGUAGE:
✓ The term academic language may be used to refer to formal English rules, structure, and
content for academic dialogue and text, and the communicative conventions that allow
students to meet the demands of school environments.
✓ A concise definition refers to academic language as “the specialized language, both oral
and written, of academic settings that facilitates communication and thinking about
disciplinary content” (Nagy & Townsend, 2012).
✓ For actionable, instructional purposes, these specialized language skills include advanced
vocabulary and syntax that help students unlock key elements of both oral and written
language. These skills support the listener or reader in gaining a rich understanding of the
message being delivered.
ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN WRITING ACADEMIC PAPERS:
A. ORGANIZATION. Cohesion and logic bring together the various parts in an organized
manner to create a unified idea that is to be communicated. It is important to note that the
transitions between sentences and paragraphs must be very clear to guide the readers.
B. THE TONE. Since the writer aims to state information and arguments, he/she should
have the authoritative point of view in exposing the relevant and significant details must
state the strengths or the arguments confidently, using a neutral language.
C. THE CHOICE OF WORDS. Choosing words that are to be used in writing academic papers
should be chosen carefully. The words must show definiteness for you to express the
intended purpose and meaning within the context of your writing without confusing the
readers.
D. THE LANGUAGE. As a writer, you must inhibit from using general terminologies,
colloquial expressions and irregular punctuations and abbreviations. The most appropriate
language should be to the point (conciseness), specific (preciseness) and proper (formal) to
develop the intended meaning.
E. PUNCTUATIONS. Punctuation primarily helps to indicate the pauses and the emphasis on
certain ideas or thoughts that are discussed in the text. In particular, in academic writing, it
is essential to accurately use punctuation as it helps to strengthen arguments that are made
in the text.
F. ACADEMIC CONVENTIONS. Certain conventions in academic writing dictate how this
supporting evidence is cited or referenced. These conventions ensure that readers of your
work are clearly able to find and evaluate the sources of your evidence. The expression of
opinion and argument is an essential part of academic writing.
G. EVIDENCE-BASED ARGUMENTS. Evidence-based argument builds the case for its claim
out of available evidence. Solid understanding of the material at hand, therefore, is
necessary in order to argue effectively. This printable resource provides further examples of
the differences between persuasive and argumentative writing.
H. THESIS-DRIVEN. Writing a “thesis-driven essay” implies that you are making an argument,
or that you’re trying to prove a point. The thesis is the solid statement of the argument that
your essay will make. A thesis can appear in the form of a single sentence, or in a couple
sentences. It is the part of your essay that explains what you’re trying to say, or the point
you’re trying to prove.
I. COMPLEXITY AND HIGHER ORDER THINKING. Evaluating, creating, judging, reflecting and
synthesizing are few of the higher-order thinking skills that facilitate the processes of
logically organizing and summarizing the contentions of your paper.
LESSON TWO: WRITING RESEARCH-BASED JOURNAL ARTICLES
✓ Most scientific papers are prepared according to a format called IMRAD. The term
represents the first letters of the words Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, And,
Discussion.
✓ It indicates a pattern or format rather than a complete list of headings or components of
research papers; the missing parts of a paper are: Title, Authors, Keywords, Abstract,
Conclusions, and References. Additionally, some papers include Acknowledgments and
Appendices.
✓ Most scientific papers are prepared according to a format called IMRAD. The term
represents the first letters of the words Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, And,
Discussion.
✓ It indicates a pattern or format rather than a complete list of headings or components of
research papers; the missing parts of a paper are: Title, Authors, Keywords, Abstract,
Conclusions, and References. Additionally, some papers include Acknowledgments and
Appendices.
IMRaD: What goes into each section?
1. ABSTRACT.
• The abstract should be definitive rather than descriptive; i.e., it should give facts rather
than say the paper is ‘‘about’’ something.
• 25% is on the importance of the research (Introduction)
• 25% is on what you did in the research (Methods)
• 35% in on what you found: the most important part of Abstract (Results)
• 15% is on the implications of the research (Discussion)
2. INTRODUCTION.
• Includes the problem you are trying to study and offer a solution with.
• In this part, the readers should be convinced to continue reading.
• The research gaps or the need to study the problems can also be included in this part.
• Explains why the research is timely and relevant.
3. METHODS.
• This includes the procedure of what you did in the research.
• The purpose of this section is to present in a simple and direct manner what has been
done, how, and when, and how the data were analyzed and presented.
• The simplest way to organize this section is chronologically; include all necessary
information, but avoid unnecessary details that the readers are supposed (ought) to know.
• Methods are usually written in past tense and passive voice.
4. RESULTS.
• This is where findings and outcomes of the research go.
• This could have two parts: reports and comments section. The reporting section always
appear in the results section while the comment section can go in the discussion section.
• Make sure all tables and figures are labeled and numbered separately.
• Captions can go above and beneath figures.
5. DISCUSSION.
• Summarizes the main findings of the study.
• Connects the findings to other researches.
• Discusses the flaws in the current study.
• It uses the flaws as reasons to suggest additional or further researches.
• If needed, it states the implications of the findings for further policy or practice.
LESSON THREE: WRITING RESEARCH-BASED ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
WHAT IS AN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY?
✓ In an argumentative essay, your job is make the reader agree with your opinion about a
controversial topic. You have to
(1) state your opinion,
(2) give reasons to support your opinion, and
(3) argue against the opposite opinion.
✓ Overall, you must convince the audience that your side of the argument is correct. To
convince the audience, your essay must be balanced—it must include your viewpoint and
the opposing viewpoint, or counterargument.
✓ Even though you are arguing only one side of an issue, you must think about what the
other side would say about your opinion. After you give the counterargument, you must
refute it by showing that it is wrong. If your essay is balanced, a reader is more likely to
agree with you.
HOW TO WRITE AN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY? INTRODUCTION ✓ 1-2 paragraphs tops
PURPOSE:
✓ To set up and state one’s claim
OPTIONAL ELEMENTS:
❖ Make your introductory paragraph interesting. How can you draw your readers in?
❖ What background information, if any, do we need to know in order to understand your
claim? If you don’t follow this paragraph with a background information paragraph, please
insert that info here.
REQUIRED ELEMENTS:
❖ If you’re arguing about a literary work—state author + title
❖ If you’re arguing about an issue or theory – provide brief explanation or your
issue/theory.
❖ If you’re arguing about a film—state director, year + title
❖ STATE your claim at the end of your introductory paragraph
BACKGROUND PARAGRAPH
✓ 1-2 paragraphs tops; Optional (can omit for some papers). Also, sometimes this info is
incorporated into the introduction paragraph
PURPOSE:
✓ Lays the foundation for proving your argument.
✓ Will often include:
❖ Summary of works being discussed
❖ Definition of key terms
❖ Explanation of key theories
CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH
✓ The write provides a summary or gist of the information provided by restating the
importance of the issue/topic, the thesis and the main arguments.
✓ Implications of the points raised in the essay may also be cited.
LESSON FOUR: WRITING WITH ACADEMIC INTEGRITY
WHY DO WE NEED TO WORK WITH SOURCES?
✓ Academic writing is more than expressing opinions, revealing facts or even presenting
results of research statistics. Academic writing demands from the writer or researcher the
most appropriate ways to show how the issues, claims or problems will be presented.
✓ Timbur (2011) identifies the common ways to work with the sources:
• To support a position, analysis or interpretation.
• To assess the uses and limits of an analysis or interpretation.
• To apply a concept to a new case or situation.
• To change the terms of debate.
• To uncover an enabling assumption and its consequences.
WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
✓ Plagiarism occurs when you use the words, thoughts, or ideas of someone else to
support your claim and don’t properly cite them as a source. Plagiarism can include:
• Copying and pasting from a source without enclosing the text in quotation marks and
providing a citation.
• Summarizing or rewording someone else's ideas without providing a citation.
• Reusing an assignment you submitted for a previous course. This is called self-plagiarism.
• Submitting an assignment completed by someone else.
• Collaborating on an assignment with a classmate or friend on an assignment meant to be
completed individually.
• Writing a paper that strings together quote after quote or paraphrases, even if cited
correctly.
HOW CAN WE AVOID PLAGIARISM?
1. CITE OFTEN AND PROPERLY
• Cite any ideas that are not your own, including summaries.
• Be sure to include in-text parenthetical citation after quotes and paraphrases. • Include all
sources on the Works Cited or References page.
2. CITE AS YOU WRITE!
• Although it might seem easier to save the citations for later, you risk mixing up your
sources and accidentally not citing a source.
• Organize and take notes as you do your research.
• Include your in-text citations as you add them to your paper.
3. USE QUOTATION MARKS AROUND:
4. OTHER TIPS:
• Use a block quote when a quotation has 40 or more words.
• Avoid self-plagiarism: don’t recycle papers and presentations from previous assignments.
• Don’t rely too much on direct quotes.
STRATEGIES FOR PARAPHRASING:
✓ Paraphrasing is taking the words of another and making it your own by using different
words and sentence structures than the original. It still counts as plagiarism if you keep the
original sentence structure while switching the author’s words with synonyms.
1. Read the source material several times, without stopping to take notes as you go.
2. Try to recall what main points you read without consulting the source material again
(keep the book closed and see what you come up with).
3. Be sure you understand the source material and can identify the main idea(s).
4. Write down in your own words what you understood as the main point(s).
• It helps if you pretend you are explaining it to another person who has not read the
source!
5. Repeat the process until you have a version that is in your own words and accurately
interprets what the source text says.
6. If you can’t paraphrase using only your own words, be sure to use quotation marks
around unique phrases from the original that you do use (and don’t forget to cite, too!).
WHAT YOU DON’T HAVE TO CITE?
• Your own ideas, findings, and conclusions.
• Common knowledge:
o public domain facts that are contained in multiple reference materials.
e.g. George Washington was the first President of the United States
o widely known phrases, expressions, and sayings.
e.g. The early bird gets the worm
• Common terms and knowledge within a field:
e.g. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (in Psychology or Child Development courses)
LESSON FIVE: COMMUNICATION IN LITERATURE
IMPORTANCE FO LITERARY COMMUNICATION:
✓ Literary communication -- the transmission of a written or spoken text between a
sender and a receiver -- is important because it recognizes the interaction of the reader
with the author as a creative act that transmits a message according to the unique
circumstances of the reader.
✓ The circumstances can be social, cultural and emotional -- even age and experience
contribute to the meaning a reader gives to the author’s message.
STRATEGIES IN ANALYZING LITERARY PIECES:
✓ In doing poetry analysis, we can use the TP-CASTT. Below is the explanation of this
analysis:
❖ Title. Consider the title and make a prediction about what the poem is about. This can be
done before reading the entire poem.
❖ Paraphrase. Translate the poem line by line into your own words on a literal level. Look
for complete thoughts and look for unfamiliar words.
❖ Connotation. Examine the poem for meaning beyond the literal level. Look for figurative
language, imagery, and sound elements.
❖ Attitude/Tone. Notice the speaker’s tone and attitude. Humor? Sarcasm? Awe?
❖ Shifts. Note any shifts or changes in speaker or attitude. Look for key words, time change,
punctuations.
❖ Title. Examine the title again, this time on an interpretative level.
❖ Theme. Briefly state in your own words what the poem is about (subject), then what the
poet is saying about the subject (theme). Note: Theme is written in sentence form.