See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310818831 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach Chapter · August 2016 CITATIONS READS 4 38,971 1 author: Micheal M Van Wyk University of South Africa 121 PUBLICATIONS 579 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Commissioned book project by Oxford University Press, Southern Africa View project ALL RESEARCHERS WELCOME GLOBAL PLATFORM View project All content following this page was uploaded by Micheal M Van Wyk on 25 November 2016. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. 3 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach Micheal van Wyk Chapter objectives After reading this chapter you should be able to: • Understand the fundamental principles of CAPS as applied to teaching EMS • Determine the situational factors involved in teaching EMS lessons • Define a learner-centred approach • Identify and explain different types of learner-centred approaches to teaching EMS • Select, plan, and use teaching strategies for a learner-centred approach • Integrate a learner-centred approach into teaching the EMS curriculum. Case study: A conversation between EMS teachers Pulane: Over the last couple of weeks, I have been rethinking my teaching philosophy and practice. I want to change the way I am currently teaching EMS. I am no longer excited and motivated. I think I have lost my passion for teaching the subject. Motshidi: Why? Do you want to get your learners more actively involved in your class? Or do you want to increase their performance in the subject? Pulane: Yes, both are ultimate goals. I realise that some of my learners do not participate actively in my class. It seems some are bored with my teaching. Motshidi: My advice to you is to start planning learner-centred methods. It will take you a long way. You will observe the change. I tried it and it works. The goal is to get them involved in the learning process but you will need to set the scene and the class environment. Pulane: During my teacher training sessions we were exposed to different types of learner-centred approaches but I am struggling to plan and implement them successfully. It seems I have lost my confidence in these methods. Maybe you can advise me about specific methods that you use successfully. Motshidi: I think you will love it when you start planning and implementing them in your daily presentations. Let’s see. Do you want your learners to work in 76 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences groups or individually? You must ask yourself the following questions: How can I make appropriate use of learner-centred methods in my subject? What specific learner-centred methods will I apply and how will I plan the teaching methods I chose so that I achieve my objectives in teaching EMS? There are many methods but I like the jigsaw method, student teams’ achievement divisions, project method and class discussions. The name of the game is plan, implement and reflect on the method. Pulane: Will these methods really work in teaching EMS? You mentioned the jigsaw method. What is so different about the jigsaw method as compared to the project method? How do you use the jigsaw method for an EMS topic, for example, unemployment? This method makes me think about building puzzles. Motshidi: Yes, I used it and it really works. You are on the right track. It works when you plan properly and you will see the results. The more you practice, the more successful you will become in using learner-centred methods in teaching EMS. Introduction Teaching EMS is about using a well-defined way of acting out a specific lesson or teaching plan in order to achieve a desired goal with the class. Teaching approaches play an important role in the repertoire of teaching skills needed by the teacher to achieve the intended objectives for the subject. Unfortunately, there is no golden rule or formula that the beginner teacher can use to select the right teaching approach for a specific teaching situation. There are various factors that can impact on the chosen teaching approach. Such factors include: • The teacher’s personality and competence • Learners’ abilities • Subject content knowledge • Pedagogical content knowledge • The nature of the subject • Class size, classroom environment • The purpose of the lesson. Think and Link Chapter 3 Teachers need to plan in order to execute lessons effectively. Teaching new subject content means the teacher must consider which approach is the most applicable and appropriate for achieving the desired lesson objectives. In this chapter, you will be introduced to the learner-centred approach. By applying this approach, your role and CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach 77 function changes from communicator to organiser and motivator in the class. Let us now start with a brief discussion of teaching principles within the context of teaching EMS at classroom level. 4.1 Teaching principles in the context of CAPS for teaching EMS In this section, you will be exposed to the basic principles of CAPS for teaching EMS in the classroom. 4.1.1 Fundamental principles underpinning the EMS curriculum It is important for you to read the CAPS document which directs the fundamental principles derived from the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 108 of 1996, as amended), before planning EMS lessons. The fundamental principles are: • Social transformation • Active and critical learning • High levels of knowledge and skills • Progression • Human rights • Inclusivity, environmental and social justice • Valuing indigenous knowledge systems • Credibility, quality and efficiency (Republic of South Africa, 1996). Think and Link Chapters 1 and 2 Teaching hint When selecting, planning and deciding to use any learner-centred teaching strategies, always adhere to the fundamental principles that underpin the EMS curriculum in all your lessons. These fundamental principles form the basis for teaching all school subjects in South Africa. It is important to integrate these principles into lessons when planning and teaching. For example, when teaching the topic of trade unions in South Africa, you should plan to integrate the fundamental principles of inclusivity, environmental and social justice into the lesson. With regard to this principle you should explain to the class that workers have a choice or a right to apply for membership to any registered trade union in South Africa. The class should be informed that business owners and workers can decide as a collective to start a trade union that will represent them when bargaining for higher productivity or negotiating fair wages and safe working places. 78 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences The EMS curriculum for South African schools provides us with information on the type of learner envisaged for the economy (DBE, 2010). It is important for you to understand your teaching role as a change agent. Therefore, it is imperative for you to understand why a specific principle has been chosen for teaching the subject. Furthermore, Van Wyk (2010:113) argues that when you are planning to teach the subject, it is a prerequisite that you should have an understanding of the fundamental teaching principles underpinning this teaching philosophy and practice. Before you plan EMS lessons, there are specific questions you should ask. Ralph Tyler, an American educator wrote a book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (1949), that still influences teaching today. He came up with the four questions below, called the Tyler Rationale, which teachers can use to structure their lessons: • What teaching and learning objectives should be considered? (What?) • What teaching methods will be applied and how will the chosen teaching methods being planned help to achieve the objectives in teaching the subject? (What and how?) • How to execute effective classroom management practices? (How?) • What to use and why use applicable assessment and evaluation tools in your lessons? (What and why?) You can employ Tyler‘s approach to your teaching by implementing the following steps: • Plan and write specific, intended lesson objectives to be achieved by the class • Categorise and organise your lesson objectives (meaning prioritising) • Outline how the lesson objectives will be achieved (meaning indentifying the right teaching methods) • Select instruments such as tests, worksheets and assignments to measure whether the objectives have been achieved • Compare the achievements of learners against formulated objectives. Think and Link Chapters 3 and 8 These teaching principles serve as guidelines when starting to plan your EMS lessons, but remember to reflect on them before applying them to your context. After studying Taylor’s approach to teaching, the question is: ‘How will I then select the appropriate teaching principles for EMS lessons?’ In this section, a selection of teaching principles are provided which you can use to make informed choices regarding the best principle(s) to apply. It is important that you teach according to a certain set of principles, in this case those applicable to the subject of EMS. It is imperative that the reason for applying a specific teaching principle is to encourage quality and excellence in the subject. This can only be achieved if you strive to plan and deliver quality and excellent learning experiences that accommodate and support a diverse learner population in the class. CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach These principles are: • Learner centredness as a principle focuses on the learner in the teaching and learning environment. • Critical thinking as a principle means to analyse and evaluate an issue in order to make an informed judgement. Learners need to conceptualise, apply, analyse, synthesise and evaluate information in order to reach conclusions. • Creativity is a thinking process whereby a new or original idea is created or invented, or an existing product is modified. • Assessment for learning and assessment of learning are principles relating to summative (grades and marks) and formative (developmental feedback) reporting on the performance of learners in the classroom. • Credibility: The study (lesson research) undertaken must be trustworthy and withstand the scrutiny of fellow researchers and the research community. • There should be a clear focus of intended objectives, a subject specific content in each grade, as prescribed by the curriculum. • Remedial teaching means specific education intended as a remedy for slow learners and means to rectify or make good. • Progression means the curriculum in the Senior Phase must show progression from the basic/simple to the more complex in Grades 7 to 9. You need to have an overview of all three grades to determine at what level content must be dealt with in a particular grade (Van Wyk 2010:114–115). Think and Link Chapters 1–3 Stop and reflect Go to the web site of the Eberly Center: Teaching excellence & Educational Innovation, https://www.cmu. edu/teaching/. This web site provides teaching principles for effective teaching: http://www.cmu.edu/ teaching/principles/teaching.html. 4.1.2 Determining the situational factors for teaching EMS lessons EMS is a living and practical subject that should be linked to what happens in real life. It is your responsibility to determine a strategy to do this. To be effective, EMS teachers must carefully determine the situational factors that might impact their teaching strategy. In this section we will explain the situational factors that determine what, why and how you will equip and empower learners with economic and management skills that enable them to participate in the South African economy. In order to achieve this specific objective, you should determine your strategy for teaching based on the following factors.: 79 80 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences • A careful analysis of learners’ existing knowledge and experiences: EMS as a subject is only introduced in the syllabus in Grade 7. Therefore, learners entering the Senior Phase will have limited knowledge of Economic and Management Sciences. This can be problematic, because the content of EMS requires learners to know, read and write about everyday economic, commercial and financial matters. Your first task will be to lay the foundation for further experiences and opportunities for learners in this subject. • The practicalities of the teaching context (for example, class size): The dilemma of teaching EMS in South Africa is accentuated by the inequality that still exists in South African schools in terms of unqualified teachers, resources, and class sizes. Grade 7 forms part of the Senior Phase, but is taught at primary school level. This poses a serious question about how prepared learners are for Grades 8 and 9. • The teaching and learning resources available: As mentioned above, the availability of teaching and learning resources will depend on the location and environment in which the school is situated. Sometimes the income potential of parents and the community in which the school is situated also plays a role. In South Africa each learner in EMS must be provided with a textbook and other learning and teaching material. In some schools, parents are expected to provide these necessities, but most under-resourced schools depend on the government to provide the learners with everything they need. • The nature and scope of subject knowledge to be taught: The nature and scope of new subject knowledge and of increased technology in the commercial, economic and financial fields make it imperative that you keep abreast of the latest developments. The curriculum must clearly state the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to be taught by you and learnt by the learners. This will result in the classroom becoming a place where learners are exposed to new knowledge, to rapidly changing technology and to the latest developments in the above-mentioned fields. • Empowering learners with relevant new content knowledge, skills or values in EMS lessons: You must equip learners with economic and management skills that will enable them to play a part in the South African economy. Learners in the Senior Phase must know about the economic cycle and how it impacts on the economy. You must introduce learners to the understanding of finance by equipping them with the necessary financial literacy knowledge. For example, you should discuss and explore the effect of the national budget on the economy. EMS must prepare learners for engaging in entrepreneurial activities. A developing country such as South Africa needs more entrepreneurs because CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach they are the ones that can contribute towards economic growth by creating more jobs. • Providing an enabling-learning environment and employing effective teaching methods to enhance learners’ knowledge, skills and values: You can make use of direct instruction, individual work, group work, simulations and research to enable the learning process. You can also design a list of interesting activities and resources to use at different points in your EMS lessons. • Assessing learners’ work to evaluate whether learning has taken place: The EMS policy states that we must ‘equip learners with real-life skills for personal development and the development of the community’ (DBE, 2010:5). The learners must be able to complete activities designed by you. EMS and all other subjects in a particular grade must have a formal programme of assessment and a teaching plan that guides teaching and learning in the classroom. Progression to another grade can only be achieved if the formal programme of assessment has been completed. This gives an indication of whether learning has taken place. Think and Link Chapters 1–3 Before you continue with the next section, complete Activity 4.1. Activity 4.1 Read the conversation in the opening case study and answer the following questions: 1. Explain in your own words the concept of a learner-centred approach. 2. According to the case study, Motshidi advises Pulane on ways to use a learner-centred approach. Write three things that you could use to advise Pulane on how to determine the situational factors that may influence her EMS lessons. Next, the learner-centred approach to EMS lessons is defined. 4.2 What is a learner-centred approach? The purpose of this approach is to place the learner at the center of the teaching and learning experience. Learners must take control of their own learning with the support of the teacher. For example, EMS teachers plan lessons focusing on what and why learners must achieve specific lesson objectives. EMS teachers should transfer not only subject content knowledge and skills, but also support, and direct learners to discover new knowledge, skills and changed attitudes toward the subject. Learners must be given opportunities to evaluate economic data, propose solutions, consider their likely effects and choose the best solutions for the problem. 81 82 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences 4.3 Teaching methods appropriate for the learner-centred approach In this section, the following teaching methods appropriate for a learner-centred approach are briefly discussed: • Small group work method • Co-operative learning techniques • Role play and simulations • Problem-solving method • Research method • Case study method • Project method • Class discussion method. 4.3.1 Small group work method This method involves two or more learners in a small group task where active participation of all members is required for success. The teacher must see to it that the groups are small enough to allow members to contribute equally. The benefits of this method include being able to give and share information and explain concepts to each other. Challenges include some learners being negative and influencing the group’s learning process negatively. This can be time consuming if the teacher does not monitor the situation closely. For example, learners can be given an EMS topic such as ‘Methods to increase economic growth in South Africa’ to explore. Small groups consisting of up to four learners can discuss the topic. The teacher provides instructions and specific questions to be completed by the group in class time. The groups must report their findings to the rest of the class. The groups will be observed and assessed by the teacher whilst reporting their findings. Each group selects a leader to report back on their findings (the reporter). Each group member is given a specific task to be completed. Each group member gives input and discusses ideas and collectively agrees on each point before they accept it as a group. The success of small group work lies in everyone in the group understanding the topic under discussion and the teacher only facilitating the process. 4.3.2 Co-operative learning techniques Using this method, learners are grouped to study the learning material provided and all members are involved in completing the task on a particular topic. Learners learn from each other and there can be a lot of face-to-face interaction between learners. They can learn new CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach skills from each other under the close guidance of the teacher. The advantage of this method is that learners can support each other. Learners are able to see their progress for themselves. This is a more hands-on approach and can motivate learners to be positive about their work. However, a big disadvantage is that the above-average learners’ progress is sometimes hampered by other learners’ dependency on them for their development and progress. They must put in more effort to bring the other learners up to the desired level and can neglect their own development. The teacher plays a small part in the lesson and this sometimes leads to disciplinary problems in a classroom. You should use the knowledge of the learners and learning process to know when is the right time to introduce this method. There are various co-operative learning techniques: • Teams–games–tournaments (TGT) • Student teams-achievement divisions (STAD) • Jigsaw strategy • Think–pair–share strategy • Group investigation strategy. 4.3.2.1 Teams– games–tournaments (TGT) In the TGT technique, groups participate in an academic game or tournament. Robert Slavin (1986:25) started this strategy in his classes: he gave his students time to read, to discuss and present their ideas on the content to the others. Slavin discovered several educational values to this strategy, namely, increased communication skills, better individual and group achievements, positive interaction between students and improvement in self-esteem. For example, the teacher gives students specific content to be learned in class. Small groups follow the process of each one teaching someone. This is also referred to as a technique of peer teaching (Bruffee, 1999:90). An example of this is that you can plan an economic quiz game whereby learners are grouped to play against each other and decide on an ultimate winner of the game. It is important for you to plan, organise and inform learners how and when this TGT will be used. You can use the following steps to implement TGT in your EMS class (Figure 4.1). First, you present lesson content to the whole class. Then the learners are divided into previously assigned four to five member learning teams. The teams work together on teacher selected or teacher-constructed study questions or practice exercises, coaching each other to mastery of the content. The lesson then ends with a tournament. Learners leave their learning groups and compete at tournament tables with two others of the same achievement levels. For instance three students, who are customarily the three top scorers in multiplication, compete at one table. Those who usually rank four, five and six compete at another table. Think and Link Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 83 84 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences Groups 1 &3 Groups 5 &8 Class of 40 learners Groups 4 &7 Groups 2 &4 Groups 3 &6 Figure 4.1 Plan of steps to use TGT in the classroom Step 1: Decide on a topic from the EMS curriculum, such as the economy, and inform the learners in the TGT groups what objectives should be achieved. Step 2: Plan and provide TGT groups with specific questions to complete the assignment or tasks or project or economic quiz on the topic. Step 3: Set up the rules for the teams to play the game. Step 4: Teams are divided into smaller groups of four members each. Step 5: Each team member selects a number and answers the question that matches the number selected by the team. Step 6: Plan and decide on time and points allocation to each game and the team who scores the most points overall is the winner. Step 7: Team recorded scores on TGT team sheets, and after each round, these are signed by the teacher to verify and assure that the scoring are correct and valid. Now that you understand what TGT is and know the steps on how to implement the strategy, we are turning our attention to STAD. CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach Activity 4.2 After reflecting on the issues raised in the conversation between Pulane and Motshidi, the following issues need to be answered: 1. Why are you selecting TGT as a learner-centred approach for teaching EMS? Motivate your answer. 2. How could this teaching method encourage the active participation of learners and why do you think it is of vital importance for learners to be involved in their learning? 3. What is the purpose of this strategy and how will you implement TGT strategy in your future lessons? Write a short paragraph, advising the two teachers on the importance of this co-operative learning approach. 4.3.2.2 Student teams-achievement divisions (STAD) EMS learners work as members of a team competing against other teams on a section of learning in order to accomplish specific goals. The faster the team works to accomplish the task, the better the results. STAD learner groups consist of five members; each member contributes to the overall team goals to be achieved on the task. Each member must learn a specific section of the topic and compete with other teams. The purpose of STAD is to build good relations, enhance co-operation and increase social interaction amongst groups to compete as teams on a topic. You can use the following components of STAD as a co-operative learning strategy: • Assigning learners to groups: The teacher can either assign learners to groups of 4 to 5 members or learners can divide themselves into groups. Ensure that each group has a good mix of members in terms of academic ability (Maloof & White, 2005). You can use this to assess social skills such as tolerance for others; this could be an important consideration in grouping learners. Groups would be formed based on academic performances of results as highmiddle- and low achievers. • Teacher presentation: At this second stage, you present to the whole class the content that is to be covered. The presentation could be done by a traditional lecture method, discussion type of lesson, demonstrations or by means of audiovisual presentations. During this session, the teacher explains the content thoroughly to the learners and allows them to ask clarifying questions before commencing with group discussions (Chung et al., 2010:290). • Team study: You distribute worksheets on the material you have taught to the different groups. Each group should then go through this content making sure that all members understand the work. The teams work together using the given study notes and complete worksheets that assist them to thoroughly comprehend the content. • Individual quizzes: After a period of time, every member in each team is expected to have mastered the given subject matter. The teacher then administers individual quizzes. The quizzes are on the material learners have learned and they may not help one another during this period (Balfakih, 2003:608). When the learners Think and Link Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 85 86 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences have completed the quizzes, the teacher collects and marks them and allocates grades for each individual. • Team rewards: According to Slavin (1986:39), the scores of learners are summed up and compared to other members of their division with equal abilities from other teams. For example, the high achievers’ scores from one team would be compared with other high achievers in other groups. The highest scorer in the category earns eight points for his team, the second highest scorer earns six points, the third highest scorer four points, and all others only two points. Then the highest scorer in each division or ability level is promoted to compete on the next higher level. You can take the following steps to implement STAD in your EMS class: • Group learners: Each STAD learner group consists of five members. The groups receive a topic, for example, the economic environment, as a research project. • Provide a task or assignment to be completed: Assign a specific assignment or task to be completed by each team. Groups must do a research project on the different role players and elements influencing the economic environment in South Africa. For this task, groups are given a week to plan, complete and submit their final assignment of five pages for assessment. • Provide content or learning material to be studied: Use the EMS CAPS documents to find content to be studied by each team. Groups can use their Grade 9 EMS book and conduct Internet searches on the topic. • Provide learners with the assessment criteria to be used to assess each STAD team. Plan the assignments or tasks to be completed by teams by using assessment rubrics or worksheets. Groups are given the assessment rubric with criteria for marking the assignment. • Allow sufficient time to complete the task. Enough time should be allocated for groups to study and complete each assignment. The time allocated for this project is a week. • Assess whether objectives are being achieved: Teams must present their tasks or assignment to the rest of the STAD groups. The teacher grades or marks the tasks as the groups present their project. The teacher evaluates each team on whether the team is meeting the objectives as set out at the outset. At the end of the week, the groups submit their final research project and also report back on their experiences as a collective group. • Allocate marks or grades. All scores are recorded on STAD team scoring sheets. The mark allocation for the research project is 50 marks. • Show change in progress by providing constructive feedback to each STAD team about how each individual team member has scored, as well as the overall progress of the team (Killen, 2009). During the week before the submission date, constant feedback on the project should be provided. Complete Activity 4.3 before you continue to the next section. CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach Activity 4.3 Read the opening case study again and answer the question below. During her undergraduate studies, Motshidi was exposed to student teams-achievement divisions as a cooperative learning method. Currently she teaches all the Grade 9 EMS classes at her local school. She decided after her conversation with Pulane to read more on STAD as a co-operative learning method. Motshidi is facing a teaching dilemma regarding how to plan and implement this learner-centred approach in teaching her subject. What possible reasons could you formulate to help Motshidi in her decision to use this teaching method in her subject? What components and steps must she follow to be successful in this method? 4.3.2.3 Jigsaw strategy The jigsaw strategy was developed in 1997 by Professor Elliot Aronson and his students at the Universities of Texas and California. Using this strategy, course materials are studied by groups to achieve specific objectives in a subject. The jigsaw strategy enhances the listening, engagement, and empathy skills of learners, as well as of the group, as an important part of competing in a class activity. Jigsaw is a co-operative learning strategy whereby learners study course materials to achieve specific objectives in a subject. Teachers use this teaching strategy to plan and organise class activities in a way that builds strong relationships and collaboration. This teaching strategy is characterised by the formation of base groups and expert groups. • Base group: Learners are placed in base groups consisting of five members per group. Jigsaw base groups are the original groups that study learning material on a problem and at the end completes an assignment. Each base group chooses a member to represent them in the expert group. • Expert group: The chosen base group members form a new jigsaw expert group who works with the class teacher on a problem and report back to the original base group what the expert group have learnt on a specific topic. After completion of each unit, experts follow a rotating system so that other base members also become experts in the class (Aronson & Patnoe, 1997:56; Aronson, 2005:38). • The educational value of this strategy is the reduction of racial conflict amongst school learners. It further promotes better learning for both the individual and within the groups. It improves learners’ motivation to study the content and increases enjoyment of the learning experience. Hundreds of classrooms have used the jigsaw classroom strategy with great success (Jacobs, Vakalisa, & Gawe, 2011:20). To use this strategy, the following steps should be taken (Killen, 2009:119): • Divide the classroom into teams • The material to be the object of the study should be divided into as many parts as there are members in the jigsaw group Think and Link Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 87 88 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences • Each expert member of the team meets with the other expert members of teams who have the same knowledge area (or jigsaw piece) and carry out activities to become experts in that topic • Once these activities are completed, the expert learners work out how they will explain what they have learned to their team members • The experts return to the base teams. Each expert is responsible for explaining the part he/she has prepared to the rest of the team. At the same time he/she has to learn what the other members of the team can teach him/her • The assessment may be done in teams, or in the most extreme case, it can be done individually (even focusing on the other team members), but with a team mark. Activity 4.4 Read the conversation in the opening case study and answer the following questions: 1. Explain the jigsaw method in your own words. 2. According to the case study, Motshidi informs Pulane on ways to use the jigsaw method as a learner-centred approach. Write to Pulane and advise her regarding the characteristics of the jigsaw method and the steps she must adhere to before she can successfully implement it. 3. Develop a lesson plan using the jigsaw approach and an EMS content topic. Stop and reflect Go to the web site https://www.jigsaw.org/. You will find ten easy steps that you can follow if you wish to apply the jigsaw teaching strategy. 4.3.2.4 Think–pair–share (peer tutoring) strategy Think and Link Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 This is a strategy where learners work in pairs. The learners study the lesson content, read it, pair with a partner and shares what he/ she has learnt from it. The advantage of using this strategy is the development of social skills. Set clear objectives to be achieved before the start of the activity. One way of using this strategy is to give each pair of learners some material to read that is divided into sections. They read the material, one section at a time. At the end of the first section, one of the learners in each pair explains to the other learner what the section was about. They then discuss it and come to agreement on important points. This process continues until all the material has been read, discussed and understood (Cooper, 2003:88). CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach 4.3.2.5 Group investigation (GI) method In this strategy, learners are grouped into groups of five or more. The teacher provides an interesting topic from the EMS as a task for the group. Clear instructions are given on how the groups must plan, complete and present their task or assignment. Groups follow the criteria provided for completing the task or assignment. Each member of the group is given the responsibility to complete his/her part in the task or assignment during the time decided on by the EMS teacher. At the end of the time, the group presents their findings to the rest of the class. The task or assignment is assessed by the teacher and marks are allocated per group. The following general steps can be applied in using group investigations: • Divide the class into groups. Let the learners choose their own groups with a leader. • Identify and select specific topics, case studies, or provide one specific case study for the groups to investigate. • Have sufficient sources for the groups to be read and used to complete the task or assignment investigation. • Introduce the groups to problems or case studies and give them enough time to complete the task. • Group members must write up the solutions to the problem or case study under investigation. • Groups report back to the rest of the class for assessment of their investigation. • Close the group investigation with a class discussion on their findings to the problem. Think and Link Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 Activity 4.5 After you had advised Pulane on the group investigation strategy, she used the strategy to teach the topic, ‘National budget for 2015’. She also used a recorded DVD about the budget speech and a poster about budgeted items as her teaching aids. 1. Read the steps for using the group investigation strategy. 2. In a group, study the EMS curriculum policy and choose any topic. 3. Prepare a lesson for a Grade 8 class using this method. 4. After selecting the topic, think about how your group will plan to use this strategy on the topic in question. 5. Decide how your group will design your group poster, DVD or PowerPoint presentation. 6. Decide what information you will display on the teaching aid for your lesson. 89 90 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences 4.3.3 Problem-solving method Think and Link Chapter 5 Think and Link Chapter 2, Section 2.2.3 The EMS CAPS document is based on problem solving and therefore it is important for EMS teachers to provide learners with problems to solve. In their own engagement with the EMS content, learners will be confronted with various problems and this requires critical thinking skills and decision-making abilities from learners. The following general steps can be applied to reach a solution to a problem. Learners should be taught how to use these steps. For example, using the EMS Grade 9 topic of Entrepreneurship: • Identify the problem: Why are entrepreneurs important for the South African economy? • Look at the reasons or causes of the problem. The EMS teacher presents a lesson on the reasons why certain entrepreneurs are successful. • Gather information on the problem. After the first part of the lesson, the teacher provides learners with the instruction to read a short newspaper article on the role of trade unions. Learners must discuss the relationship of trade unions with entrepreneurs. Learners then identify some successful South African entrepreneurs and discuss the role entrepreneurs play in job creation and economic growth. • Analyse the problem. The teacher provides a newspaper article, for example, on Raymond Ackermann of Pick n Pay as one of South Africa’s successful retail businessmen. The class reflects on how successful he is as a businessman and the impact he has made in the retail market sector. • Look for alternative solutions to the problem. Learners further reflect on other successful business persons who have started off very small but made significant contributions in different sectors. • Select the best solution for the problem. Learners agree on the reasons why entrepreneurs are successful and decide on the best option. Before you continue with the next method, complete Activity 4.6. Activity 4.6 After studying the problem-solving method, divide yourself into groups of not more than 10 members. Collect information from local newspapers and find articles relating to unemployment and the consequences of unemployment in your country and region. Write a letter to the MEC of social development as well as to your local councillor: 1. Expressing concerns about the state of unemployment in your community. 2. Giving suggestions regarding what can be done by the local community and by government to solve this challenge. CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach 4.3.4 Role-play- and simulation method The role-play method uses several techniques such as dramatisation, simulation games and socio-drama. All three techniques are ideal for introducing concepts such as the workings of a market and opening of a bank account to mention just a few. Learners are first allocated roles and the rules associated with the roles. If necessary, learners need to practice possible role-play scenarios in EMS beforehand. The teacher therefore needs to take this into consideration when planning such an activity. After completion of the role play the teacher needs to give feedback on the learners’ performance and on whether the message or content intended by the chosen technique was conveyed to the other learners in the class. A benefit of this technique is that learners are actively involved and they are in charge of the activity. This leads to learners having more confidence and it motivates them to participate in the classroom, leading to a positive attitude towards learning. A challenge will be that sometimes it can get out of control if sufficient time is not allocated to the activity. Think and Link Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 Example of a role-play activity for two class periods The teacher introduces the Grade 9 learners to the EMS topic in their textbook: the different role players in the South African economy. The teacher presents a lesson on the topic and explains the roles and functions of each player in the economy. The teacher introduces the learners to their different roles, such as consumers (households), business people (Raymond Ackermann, an entrepreneur), government (Minister of Small Business Enterprises), banking (Governor of the SA Reserve Bank), trade unions (President of COSATU), and the informal sector (Mrs Khumalo representing Spaza, the shop association of South Africa). All role players must defend their position in the South African economy. They must argue about how each one contributes to job creation and economic growth in South Africa. 4.3.5 Case study as a teaching method A case study is an excellent learner-centred method of presenting a particular problem or scenario to learners so that they can interact with the content of EMS. The benefits of the case study are huge in terms of providing learners with opportunities to read, communicate, write and reflect on the learning process. The following general steps can be applied in using case studies. • Identify and select a specific case study for the topic of the lesson • Make sufficient sources available for the learners to read and complete the task or assignment • Introduce learners to the case study and give them enough time to study it • Close the case study with a whole-class discussion. Learners can share information about the case study (Clark & Starr, 1996:46). 91 92 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences Read the following case study as an example of this teaching method and solve the problems in the case study. Case study: Dora Dlamini’s hairdressing and beauty shop Ms Dora Dlamini owns a hairdressing boutique in Soweto that renders services such as hair cutting, hair products and beauty services. She employs five other workers in her business. The business shows a small profit at the end of the financial year. In her first year as a businesswoman, the greater proportion of the costs of the business were spent on raw materials, electricity, labour and other related costs. On her recent trip to Cape Town, Dora visited a hair beauty boutique in the township of Kayamandi and was amazed when the owner pointed out that her hair cutting and styling business made more money. Dora was very impressed about how she was treated as a client. After Dora left the Kayamandi beauty boutique, she decided to invest in new hair cutting and hair styling equipment (clippers, scissors, hair dryers, hair spray) and work-integrated training (short course) for her staff in order to be more productive and increase her profit margins. As an individual activity, use the above case study to answer the following questions: 1. Name two methods that Dora used to save money. 2. Dora moved from labour-intensive production to capital-intensive production. How did this result in increased saving and capital accumulation? 3. Imagine that you are the owner of a local grocery store, Shop and Pay Store. List five different ways in which you can increase the profitability of your shop. 4.3.6 Research as a teaching method Think and Link Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 This is a learner-centred approach underpinned by the constructivist principle (see Chapter 2). Research as a teaching method is an outof-class activity which focuses on learning beyond the classroom. Learners are given a project and must search for relevant information in the real world. Research as a project method can be used as an individual or group teaching strategy. The benefit of the project method is that it provides learners with positive real-life experience as well as enhances problem solving and research skills. By using this teaching method, learners can undertake a project and develop their self-directing learning skills. The teacher must prepare learners before they start off with their project. The following features can be applied using this method of investigating a problem: • State the project question clearly for the research: Decide on the specific question or problem that learners must solve. • Enhance self-directed and authentic learning opportunities by creating learning opportunities for learners to explore a problem by answering or solving the project question. • Enhance collaboration skills: During the project, learners can work together as a team or as a partnership with the teacher or community to share and find solutions to the project problem. CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach • Create challenging learning opportunities during the project: During the project, learners must be challenged, but the teacher must provide support for opportunities to go beyond what they learn during the project. • Provide a product as a solution to the problem: After completion of the research project, there should be a tangible end product that addresses the project question (Santrock, 2009:334). In most subjects at school it has become imperative for learners to do some research on a prescribed project, and therefore it is necessary for learners to know how to do research. Research can be a long and difficult process for learners if the teacher does not give proper guidance on how to do the research. In order for a research project to be successful, the following guidelines can be followed: • You must preferably give learners a list of prescribed topics to choose from. • It is advisable to provide a marking rubric to inform learners how the project will be assessed. • It is important to have a prescribed format in terms of length or technical requirements. • Learners must plan in the classroom how they are going to approach the project so that you can assess whether they are on track with their research project. • Monitor the progress of learners by having regular feedback sessions. If you decide to use this method, adhere to the following suggestions: • Planning of the research project: Decide on the topic, define the objectives to be achieved, formulate the project questions to be answered, clearly state the timeframes for each milestone of the research project, provide relevant resources, and specify the submission date of the final project (see Chapter 4). • Time allocation for the research project: Timeframes for different stages of the research project must be clearly stated. • Provide specific topics from the curriculum: Clearly formulate the topic for the class project. Use the course curriculum of the EMS curriculum for the project. • Clearly state assessment criteria to assess the research project: Provide a set of formulated criteria to assess the project. Assessment must be clear, fair and transparent to learners in the project (see Chapter 8). You must maintain a firm hand in the lead-up to the completion of the project to make sure all of the learners comply with the rules and guidelines you have set out. Below is an example of a research project from the EMS curriculum. 93 94 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences Example of the research method from the EMS policy Mr James, the Grade 8 EMS teacher in Somerset West, Western Cape, assigned the following research project to his class: Subject: CAPS EMS Theme: Entrepreneurship Lesson topic: Discuss the role and impact of entrepreneurs in the South African economy Objective of project: To investigate the role and functions of entrepreneurs in the economy Time and duration: Four weeks Knowledge : Entrepreneurs: characteristics, role and functions Skills: Problem solving, research skills, collaboration and research project management Attitude: Real-life experiences and developing self-directed learning Teaching approach: Decide on teaching method(s) appropriate for the learner-centred approach Lesson procedures: Learners can work individually or in teams of five. He implemented the following steps for this method: • He gives each individual or group the research question and material on this topic to read. Further research can be done on the topic. • Timeframes for stages of the research project are clearly stated. The time to complete the research project and the time for reporting is stated. • Every week individual or groups report back on their research project to the rest of the class. Submission of final research product: Each learner or group presents their findings on the project. Over the five weeks, each learner or group plans and compiles information and conducts research towards submitting the final research project. The teacher assesses the final research project after the submission date and provides feedback to each individual or group. Activity 4.7 As a group activity, plan a Grade 9 EMS project on the following topic: Trade unions in South Africa. Make a group presentation (either in PowerPoint, a short podcast, DVD or poster format) on these criteria for using the project method: • State the objective of the project • Time and duration of the project • Knowledge, skills and attitude for the learners to be achieved • Lesson procedures for the project • The final product. CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach 4.3.7 Class discussion methods The teacher plans a specific topic for the class discussion. There must be clear purpose for using this method. This is a widely used teaching method whereby two or more learners in the classroom are provided with a topic for discussion. The teacher thinks about the objective of the topic to be discussed, plans what and why a topic is to be discussed and defines the role and responsibilities of the teacher and learners in the discussion process. The purpose of the discussion method is to increase knowledge and skills by the collective sharing of ideas and expression of views on the topic. Hayman (1980:27) mentions five types of discussions: • Policy discussion: Where people discuss issues related to policy, for example, the EMS teacher and class can discuss the school cell phone policy regarding the use of cell phones during school intervals (break) or transport policy (use of school buses for educational excursions. • Problem-solving discussion: Where a problem exists and the group discusses possible solutions, for example, the EMS teacher can provide the topic of wealth creation in their region of South Africa. Learners can discuss how to solve this problem. • Explaining discussion: Widely used in the classroom so that learners express their point of view on an issue from the lesson. • Predicting discussion: Where learners can guess or forecast the results of an issue, for example, the class discusses the effect of an increase in the petrol price on the family’s monthly budget. • Debriefing discussion: Used to probe or question issues, for example, learners can discuss the field trip during a farm visit. To set up a discussion, these requirements need to be followed: • Provide a topic that is meaningful for the class, for example, the effect of an increase in the petrol price on the family’s monthly budget. • All learners must fully participate in the class discussion, for example, what will the result be on the increase in price of 95 octane petrol from R12.30 per liter to R13.45 per litre if a family last month spent R1 200 on traveling costs? • Provide learners with opportunities to express their ideas in the discussion. The discussion duration should be about 20 minutes. • If you decide that for this exercise you will place learners in small groups, then they must decide on who will be the leader in their group. • Create a space where skills such as questioning, supporting and communicating can develop. Each learner is given the opportunity to raise questions, reflect and give input on the topic. The role and responsibility of the EMS teacher during the discussion is the following: • Create a classroom environment that promotes class discussion. • Rearrange the class layout and furniture for the class discussion. 95 96 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences • Provide clear instructions on the topic and procedures for the class discussion. • Encourage learners to listen attentively to ideas on the topic. • Instill respect for the opinions of others and of their views. • Provide clear directions and applicable EMS examples from the curriculum. Think and Link Sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 In the next section, we will discuss the different discussion techniques you could use when teaching EMS. These techniques are: • Brainstorming is designed to encourage learners to contribute to the topic or generate as many ideas on the topic. After the topic has been exhausted, final points are summarised. • Panel discussion is a process whereby learners elect a leader from their groups who will represent them on a panel. The EMS teacher must plan and provide the panel with a topic or preferably panel members should be part of deciding on the topic for discussion. The rest of the groups can ask question for clarity on statements made after the panel discussion. • Small group discussion: Where learners are placed in small groups of four to six members. All small groups are given the same or different topics to be discussed. After a period of time, each group reports back to the rest of the small groups. At the end, close the small group discussion with a debriefing to summarise the main points discussed. • Whole class discussion is structured so that all learners actively participate in the topic for discussion. The teacher must set the topic, objectives and outcomes for the class discussion clearly. Every learner must express and exchange ideas. • Class debating is discussion technique whereby learners debate a specific topic. Choose two teams and give the objective and outcomes for the topic under discussion. Each team selects a first and second speaker on the topic. Each speaker is allowed five minutes to speak on the topic. After each point is discussed, all points are summarised. Activity 4.8 After studying the opening conversation between the two EMS teachers, reflect on the following aspect: Today you were introduced to the class discussion method. In your next class lesson you will be teaching the topic ‘The impact of load shedding by Eskom on the SA economy’ to your learners. • What questions are you working on? • How will you suggest solutions in your discussion of this topic? • Will you use this method in future lessons? If so, why? • Motivate your choice. • What role and function will you play in this method? • What are the requirements before you can implement the method and how will you implement this method successfully in your subject? CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach 4.4 Flipped classroom pedagogy This pedagogical approach is a type of blended classroom teaching strategy which uses traditional teaching combined with an online strategy. This method uses a learner-centred approach in which learners explore pre-selected EMS topics. In the flipped classroom, the teacher plans and creates learning material for learners to use. Learners use pre-recorded topics, articles, digital video discs (DVDs) and classroom discussions. Learning material is uploaded, creating an online classroom discussion, or investigations outside the class are conducted under the supervision of the teacher. The teacher plans and pre-records classroom activities in the form of short podcasts, DVDs, in-time class time, research projects, exercises and online discussions. The characteristics of the flipped classroom method are active participative learning, learner involvement, mixed course design and podcasting. Lambert, Parker and Park (2015:270) view the flipped classroom as a pedagogical approach whereby learners view pre-recorded lessons to complete class activities, experiments and assignments. An example of flipped class room pedagogy The EMS teacher plans and designs a specific lesson for Grade 9 on the factors of production. The teacher will be on a district EMS training workshop for one day. The teacher creates a ten minute recorded session of the topic on DVD as well as a short podcast of five minutes of an interview with a local bakery businessperson for the class to watch along with other appropriate activities to be completed during the class period. The previous day, the teacher held a short meeting with the class about what is expected from them during the EMS lesson period. The teacher gives clear instructions to the class leader. The class can use the pre-recorded DVD and podcast lesson topic over and over to complete the activities as part of continuous assessment. 4.4.1 Benefits of the flipped classroom method Learners in the flipped classroom are compelled to take a bigger responsibility for their learning. They must take a more active role in their learning. This method permits the use of technologies such as DVDs, pre-video recordings, podcasting, and online instructions. Teachers can use online sources such as YouTube (Lambert, Parker & Park, 2015:272). There is more class time for the learner to be involved and to enhance collaboration and co-operation. This method permits teachers to understand learners’ grasp of content due to increased learner collaboration. It is possible to increase time for oneto-one discussions (Hawks, 2014:270). If the teacher or a learner is absent from class, the ability to reflect on recorded material makes it easy to move forward by catching up on lost time. 97 98 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences 4.4.2 Limitations of the flipped classroom method Think and Link Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 This method may not be applicable to all subjects. Strayer (2012:179) conducted a study using the flipped classroom strategy and reported that learners participating in the study were less satisfied with the flipped classroom than normal face-to-face contact sessions. Another huge limitation is that schools with limited financial budgets could find it difficult to sustain the use of the flipped classroom method. To sustain this method, schools need high-speed Internet connections, computers and other related materials. Prensky (2010:23) is of the view that it could be difficult to produce high-quality learning materials, which has a direct impact on the quality of video recordings, podcasts and additional PowerPoint presentations. Conclusion In this chapter we learned that the teacher is expected to perform differently in different situations, first to guide learners and second to create an environment for learner involvement in the lesson by using different learner-centred methods and strategies. Different types of learner-centered teaching methods were also discussed. Furthermore, the underlying principles for teaching EMS were explained. This chapter aimed to empower and equip you with different teaching methods, to help you decide on an appropriate teaching method for teaching EMS in your classroom. There is a wide range of teaching methods that are available to you, but this does not mean that you have to master and use all of them. The following learner-centred methods were discussed: small group work, co-operative learning techniques, role play and simulations, problem solving, research method, case study, project and class discussion methods. It is important for you to assess your own strengths and to constantly seek out ways to add to and refine your learner-centred teaching methods. All these methods will definitely support an active and participative learning approach to your teaching. If appropriately planned and implemented, EMS teachers can empower and equip their learners with problem solving, critical thinking, and collaborative and communicative skills for the challenges of the 21st century and beyond. Key concepts Co-operative learning: a method whereby learners work together to ensure that all members in their groups have learnt and gained the same knowledge, skills, attitudes and values on a particular topic CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach Flipped classroom pedagogy: a type of a blended classroom setting which uses a combination of normal classroom teaching and an online strategy Jigsaw method: a co-operative learning strategy whereby learners each study specific sections of a topic and collaborate by sharing and piecing together their information Learner-centred approach: where the learners are playing an active role in response to the teacher’s instruction and direction during the lesson, but take sole responsibility for their own learning process Student teams-achievement divisions (STAD): a learner-centred teaching technique in which learners work as a team competing against other teams to accomplish a specific assignment or tasks or project or compete in a quiz Teams–games–tournaments (TGT): a technique in which groups participate in an academic game or tournament to achieve an objective Think–pair–share (peer tutoring) strategy: learners work in pairs to study subject content and share what they have learnt Questions 1. List and describe the different learner-centred teaching approaches a teacher can use in his or her classroom. 2. Explain, with an applicable example, the steps and educational values of STAD as a co-operative learning strategy. 3. In your opinion, what are the advantages and challenges of the flipped classroom method in teaching EMS? 4. You have been selected to make a class presentation to your colleagues on the use of one of the co-operative learning strategies for teaching EMS. What strategy will you choose? What will be your main points of departure? What applied examples would you use to illustrate your ideas? How would you prepare yourself to answer specific concerns and uncertainties that would inevitably arise? Write up your specific plan for this presentation. 5. Write a short essay (about 300 words) on the role of the EMS teacher in promoting the flipped classroom approach, in both teaching and learning the subject. 99 100 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences References Aronson, E. (2005) Jigsaw Classroom. [Online]. Available at: http:// www.jigsaw.org. [Accessed: 29 February 2015]. Aronson, E. & Patnoe, S. (1997). The Jigsaw Classroom: Building Cooperation in the Classroom. 2nd edition. Wokingham: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Balfakih, N.M.A. (2003). The effectiveness of student teamachievement division (STAD) for teaching high school chemistry in the United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Science Education, 25(5):605–624. Bruffee, K. (1999). Collaborative Learning: Higher Education, Interde­ pendence, and the Authority of Knowledge. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Clark, L.H. & Starr. I.S. (1996). Secondary and Middle School Teaching Methods. 7th edition. New York: MacMillan. Cooper, J. Group formation in cooperative learning: What the experts say. In: J.L. Cooper, P. Robinson, & D. Ball (Eds). (2003). Small group instruction in higher education: Lessons from the past, visions of the future. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press. Department of Basic Education (DBE). (2010) National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. Economic and Management Sciences. Pretoria: DOE. Hayman R.T. (1980). Improving Discussion Leadership. New York: Teachers College Press. Hawks, S. J. (2014). The Flipped Classroom: Now or Never? AANA Journal, 82(4):264–269. Jacobs, M. Vakalisa, N.C.G. & Gawe, N. (2011). Teaching-Learning Dynamics, 4th edition. South Africa: Pearson. Killen, R. Using Direct Instruction as a Teaching Strategy. In: Killen, R. (2000). Effective Teaching Strategies: Lessons From Research And Practice, 5th edition. South Melbourne, Vic.: Cengage Learning. Lambert, R., Parker, K. & Park, E. Exploring the Flipped Classroom Model: Two Cases Studies from Applications in Higher Education. In: S. Carliner, C. Fulford & N. Ostashewski (Eds). (2015). Proceedings of EdMedia: World Conference on Educational Media CHAPTER 4 Approaches to teaching EMS: The learner-centred approach and Technology (2015). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). [Online]. Available at: http:// www.editlib.org/p/151293/ [Accessed: 15 July 2015]. Maloof J., & White, V.KB. (2005). Team study training in the college biology laboratory. Journal of Biology Education, 39(3):120-124. Prensky, M.R. (2010). Teaching Digital Natives: Partnering For Real Learning. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin. Republic of South Africa. (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 108 of 1996, as amended. Pretoria: Government Press. Santrok, J.W. (2009). Educational Psychology 4th edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Slavin, R.E. (1986). Using Student Team Learning. 3rd edition. Bal­ timore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Centre for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools. Strayer, J.F. (2012). How Learning In An Inverted Classroom Influences Cooperation, Innovation and Task Orientation. Learning Environments Research, 15:171–193. Tyler, R.W. (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago. [Online]. Available at: http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_W._Tyler [Accessed: 29 April 2015]. Van Wyk, M.M. (2010). The Selection of Didactic Principles by Teachers in the Field of Economics: An Exploratory Factor Analysis. Journal of Social Sciences, 24(2):111–119. Further reading Department of Basic Education (DBE). (2011). Curriculum and Assess­ ment Policy Statement. Pretoria: Government Printer. Dictionary.com. Critical Thinking. [Online]. Available at: http:// dictionary.reference.com. [Accessed: 22 June 2013]. Eberly Center, Teaching Excellence & Educational Innovation. Carnegie Mellon University. [Online]. Available at: http://www.cmu.edu/ teaching/principles/teaching.html. Frick, H. (1961). Needed: A Valid Concept of Teaching. Florida: The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 101 102 Teaching Economic and Management Sciences Gawe, N., Jacobs, M. & Vakalisa, N.C.G. Learner-centred methods. In: M. Jacobs, N.C.G. Vakalisa, N.C.G & N. Gawe, (Eds). (2011). Teaching-learning dynamics. 4th edition. South Africa: Pearson. Herreid, C. F. & Schiller, N. A. (2013). Case Studies and the Flipped Classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5):62–66. Large Classes: A Teaching Guide – Large Class Introduction. Center for Teaching Excellence, University of Maryland (2005). [Online]. Available at: www.cte.umd.edu/library/large/intro.html. [Accessed: 29 April 2015]. Lochrie, K. (1992). Using Cartoons As An Effective Learning and Teaching Strategy. SCRE Newsletter, 51:8–9. Pollak, J. & Freda, P. (1997). Humor, Learning and Socialisation in Middle School Classrooms. Clearing House, 70(4):176–178. Sever, A. & Ungar, S. (1997). No Laughing Matter: Boundaries Of Gender-Based Humour. In: The Classroom. Journal of Higher Education, 68(1):87–105. Tulloch, S.(Ed.) (1991). Reader’s Digest Oxford Complete Wordfinder. London: The Reader’s Digest Association Limited and Oxford University Press. Vakalisa, N.C.G. Participative Teaching. In: M. Jacobs, N.C.G. Vakalisa, & N. Gawe, (Eds). (2011) Teaching-learning Dynamics, 4th edition. South Africa: Pearson: 1–30. Van Wyk, M.M. (2007). The Use Of Co-operative Learning In Economics In The Further Education And Training Phase In The Free State Province. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of the Free State, Bloemfontein. Van Wyk, M.M. (2011). The Use of Cartoons as a Teaching Tool to Enhance Student Learning in Economics Education. Journal of Social Sciences, 26(2):117–130. [Online]. Available at: http://www. krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-26-0-000-11-Web/JSS-262-000-11-Abst-PDF/JSS-26-2-117-11-1102-Van-Wyk-M-M/JSS-26-2117-11-1102-Van-Wyk-M-M-Tt.pdf. [Accessed: 28 April 2015]. UNESCO. (2006). Practical Tips for Teaching Large Classes: A Teacher’s Guide. Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. [Online]. Available at: http://www.ineesite.org/uploads/files/resources/ Teaching_Large_Classes.pdf. [Accessed: 29 April 2015]. View publication stats
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