Toxic Chemical Pollution from Electronic Wastes (E-Wastes)
and Electronic Manufacturing
SHORT BACKGROUND OF CHOSEN TOPIC
Electronic waste, commonly known as e-waste, comprises all discarded
electronic and electrical devices that have reached the end of their useful life. This
includes items such as mobile phones, computers, digital music players, washing
machines, televisions, refrigerators and many other household appliances. The
classification of e-waste extends to used electronics which are intended for reuse,
resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal. Some categorize reusables (functioning and
repairable electronics) and secondary scrap (copper, steel, plastic, etc.) as
"commodities'', and reserve the term "waste" for residue or material which is dumped by
the buyer rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and recycling processes
(Sitaramaiah & Kumari, 2014).
E-waste is divided into three main categories: large household appliances (e.g.,
refrigerators, washing machines), IT and telecom equipment (e.g., PCs, monitors,
laptops), and consumer electronics (e.g., TVs). These categories are based on common
components found in electronic devices, which are identifiable and removable as they
form the fundamental building blocks of these products. (Pinto, 2008).
With the rapid advancement of technology and the relatively short lifespan of
many electronic products, e-waste has become a significant global environmental
concern. Alabi et al. (n.d.) stated that e-waste poses several risks to the environment
and human health due to the presence of various toxic components including heavy
metals such as nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), and
cadmium (Cd), and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polybrominated
diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polyaromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Improper disposal methods, such as landfilling or incineration,
can lead to the release of these hazardous compounds into the air, soil, and water,
resulting in ecosystem contamination and posing health threats to humans.
POLLUTANT SOURCE
E-Waste, characterized as the fastest-growing category of hazardous waste
worldwide, presents significant environmental and health risks in both developed and
developing nations alike. The expanding array of household electronics, ranging from
smartphones and laptops to TVs and smartwatches, only adds to the complexity of this
issue, as people readily discard these devices at the slightest inconvenience.
According to a report released by the International Solid Waste Association and
other international organizations, a staggering 44.7 million metric tons of E-Waste were
generated in 2016, averaging about 6.1 kilograms per person on Earth. Beyond its
sheer volume, the problem is exacerbated by the non-biodegradable nature of the raw
materials used in crafting these electronics, which often contain hazardous substances
such as lead, mercury, and cadmium.
Recent studies have focused on characterizing the toxicity of plastics from
discarded electronics, revealing a complex composition containing numerous additives,
both organic and inorganic. This complexity presents significant challenges for
recycling, recovery, and waste management. According to BCC Research, the
consumption of plastics in electronic components was valued at around 4.2 billion
pounds in 2017, projected to reach nearly 6.1 billion pounds by 2022.
For example, each unit of waste mobile phones contains approximately 15–20
different types of plastic parts. While the levels of certain hazardous substances like
lead, cadmium, and arsenic may not pose a major danger if properly collected and
recycled, others such as mercury, chromium, and antimony could pose significant risks,
particularly in the context of open burning. Mercury, in particular, poses a major risk for
carcinogenic and non-cancerous diseases when released from mobile phone plastics,
with lead also contributing significantly to these risks. Chromium presents the most
significant eco-toxicity risks in plastics.
This proliferation of heavy metals in E-Waste stems from the rapid expansion and
industrial development of the electrical and electronic manufacturing sector and thus,
possesses properties of environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, making them
particularly dangerous as they cannot be degraded or decomposed and have the
potential to accumulate in living organisms.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
When improperly disposed of, e-waste can have significant negative impacts on
the environment, including the biogeochemical cycle. Hazardous chemicals that can
damage plants and other living things can leak into the soil when e-waste is disposed of
in landfills. These pollutants can affect the biogeochemical cycling of elements including
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus by upsetting soil microbial populations and nutrient
cycle processes. E-waste can pollute the air mostly when it is shipped to nations with
loosely regulated recycling laws, which is common in poor economies. E-waste is
frequently disassembled and shredded in these informal economies, releasing dust or
big particles into the surrounding air that can seriously and persistently impair the
respiratory health of workers who are not wearing protective gear. Low-value e-waste
frequently ends up incinerated, and it typically contains a lot of plastic. Burning that is
either uncontrolled or improperly controlled frequently occurs at lower temperatures and
emits pollutants like dioxins, which are extremely harmful to both human and animal
health in a variety of ways.
E-waste, or electronic garbage, is burned to recover valuable metals, including
copper, aluminum, and gold. Workers, often children, burn electronic parts like wires,
circuit boards, and other components to obtain these metals. The burning process
releases toxic substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium and brominated
flame retardants into the air and soil. This e-waste is commonly known as Waste
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) or End-of-Life (EOL) electronics. After
extracting valuable metals, the remaining e-waste residues are often disposed of
improperly, either by dumping them in open landfills or burning them alongside other
waste. This improper disposal leads to the leaching of toxic substances into the soil and
groundwater, contaminating the surrounding environment and posing risks to human
health. Agbogbloshie is evident for its improper handling of e-waste that results in the
degradation of the environment and negative health impacts on people. The rise in
electronic product consumption is brought about by scientific and technological
advancements, as well as the digital revolution.
Furthermore, the particulate matter produced by burning e-waste includes tiny
particles that, when inhaled, can enter the respiratory system deeply. These particulates
worsen respiratory conditions including bronchitis and asthma and aggravate
cardiovascular disorders. Burning e-waste releases harmful gasses such as dioxins and
furans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). The creation of smog and ground-level ozone by VOCs might cause respiratory
problems. Meanwhile, dioxins and furans are extremely hazardous and persistent
organic pollutants that pose long-term health hazards, whilst PAHs are known to cause
cancer. Agbogbloshie's burning of e-waste releases pollutants into the atmosphere that
have effects on the environment beyond the local air quality. These pollutants are
carried by wind currents and deposited onto land and water bodies, affecting soil and
water quality, resulting in their deposition in far-off places. Contributing to climate
change and stratospheric ozone depletion.
Additionally, burning emits small particles into the air that have the ability to travel
hundreds or even thousands of miles. These particles can harm respiratory health by
evading the immune system and raise the risk of a variety of chronic illnesses and
cancers. Lastly, when recycling is not adequately regulated, higher-value materials like
gold and silver are frequently removed from highly integrated electronics and e-waste
using acids, desoldering, and other chemicals and processes that release additional
harmful pollutants into nearby neighborhoods. The personnel who handle this garbage
are most affected by the airborne consequences of informal e-waste recycling, which
can occur hundreds, even thousands of kilometers away from recycling facilities.
Agbogbloshie, Ghana, is home to one actual incident that demonstrates the
negative effects of unregulated e-waste recycling on air quality. One of the biggest
e-waste dumps in the world, Agbogbloshie receives electronic items from industrialized
nations for recycling or destruction. This site has drawn interest from all around the
world. Children and other informal recyclers in Agbogbloshie disassemble electronics
like PCs, TVs, and cell phones, frequently with the use of crude tools and techniques.
Toxic vapors from these processes, which include hazardous chemicals and heavy
metals, are released into the atmosphere. Furthermore, burning e-waste releases
dangerous compounds like dioxins and furans into the air when valuable metals are
extracted. Hazardous substances like lead, mercury, cadmium, and brominated flame
retardants are frequently found in e-waste. When e-waste is handled and disposed of
improperly, harmful substances may leak into the surrounding environment. When these
substances are discharged, they have the ability to enter the biogeochemical cycle,
contaminating the air, water, and soil and perhaps having an impact on the way
nutrients and other elements cycle through ecosystems. Agbogbloshie people and
anyone living nearby may suffer grave health effects from exposure to e-waste
contaminants.
PART III
EFFECTS AND VIOLATIONS
Toxic substances released into the air, water, and soil during the electronic
manufacturing process hurt human health as well as other environmental components.
A common byproduct of electronic waste, heavy metals, enters groundwater and
eventually contaminates ponds, streams, rivers, and lakes, leading to acidification and
toxification of water. In the study entitled by Singh et al. (2022), the severity of the
pollution is indicated by the altered biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and pH water
sample. Aquatic organisms like fish accumulate hazardous heavy metals in their tissues
through biomagnifications.
As soil faces degradation, crops become more vulnerable to absorbing toxins.
They pose a health risk and lower overall productivity. The flora and fauna absorb the
present heavy metals, harming the microorganisms and altering the microbial
community structure of the soil, thus compromising the long-term sustainability of the
farmland (E-Waste & Its Negative Effects on the Environment, n.d.). Handling electronic
waste endangers the workers and those around them as the pollution can extend for
thousands of miles from the origin through the air.
Human health also suffers the consequences of toxic pollutants traveling through
various pathways, like surface and groundwater, farming soils, rice, fish, eggs, and
meats. The heavy metals found as a byproduct differ in their impact. In the study of
Kumar & Singh (2014), lead (Pb) influences behavior, and learning capabilities, and
disrupts the nervous system. Copper impedes liver function, and high cadmium
concentration causes lung cancer and kidney damage. Brominated flame retardants
(BFR), commonly used as flame retardants in plastics, such as PBBs, PCB, Octa BDE,
etc., are a hazard to hygiene and health causing thyroid problems and impaired
development of the nervous system. DNA structure and pH levels emphasize the gravity
caused by electronic waste pollution to the health (Ankit et al., 2021).
While recycling is commonly known to people as primary management of wastes,
electronic wastes are not first on the list when it comes to recycling. However, as stated
by Aranico, E. et al. (2013), people’s purchase of more electrical and electronic
equipment causes the number of e-wastes containing toxic chemicals to rise. These
hazardous materials occupy huge space in the landfills and pose a threat to the
environment and the health of the people. Because of this, the implications of electronic
manufacturing and waste products become a crucial problem that requires attention.
RA 6969
In the Philippines, there was already a national and regulatory framework on
electronic waste management as early as 1990. The Republic Act (RA) 6969 or the
Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990 is an act to
control toxic substances and hazardous and nuclear wastes, providing penalties for
violations thereof, and for other purposes.
This law covers the importation, manufacturing, processing, handling, storage,
transportation, sale, distribution, use, and disposal of all unregulated chemical
substances and mixtures within the borders of the country. It also covers the entry, even
during transit, as well as the storage and disposal of nuclear and hazardous wastes into
the territory for any purpose. This law ensures that there are no hazardous wastes even
from other countries will be causing harm to the citizens.
In terms of manufacturing, Section 8 of this regulation requires the company or
manufacturer to submit a number of details, including the name of the chemical
substance, its molecular structure and identity, the proposed scope of use, an estimate
of the quantity to be used in the production, handling and disposal of the substance, and
any test results the manufacturer, processor, or importer may have regarding the effects
on health and the environment. Furthermore, section 13 of RA 6969 is illegalizing the
intentional use of chemicals in violation of the law, to refuse to provide the necessary
information and reports, failure to allow an inspection of their places of business, and to
assist—directly or indirectly—in the storage and importation of hazardous wastes into
the Philippines.
Criminal offenses and penalties differ depending on the intensity and the
offender. Upon any person who shall violate Section 13(a) to (c) of this act, there will be
a fine ranging from six hundred pesos (P600.00) to four thousand pesos (P4,000.00)
and a sentence of six (6) months and one (1) day to six (6) years and one (1) day in
prison. If a corporation or other association is involved, the managing partner, president,
or chief executive will be subject to the aforementioned penalty in addition to an
exemplary damage of at least P500,000.00. The chemical substances confiscated by
the government shall be turned over to the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources to dispose of them properly. Moreover, the firm behind the offense of illegal
importation will also be responsible for sending back the prohibited wastes.
E-Waste Management Act (Senate Bill No. 751)
​
In order to enable consumers to recycle electronic equipment without having to
pay an additional price, it is suggested that makers of electronic equipment establish a
recovery strategy. As a result, producers are required to retrieve from customers any
electronic equipment that has reached the end of its useful life. Electronic equipment
that is collected will then either be discarded or repurposed.
PART IV
MANAGEMENT/CONTROL
E-waste Management
Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to discarded electronic devices such as
computers, smartphones, and appliances. Proper handling is crucial due to its toxic
components, which pose a threat to the environment and humans when they come into
contact without proper knowledge and protection. The most common methods of
disposal for e-waste include recycling, reusing, acid bath, incineration, and landfilling.
1.​ Acid Bath, Incineration, and Landfilling.
Acid bathing is a method that involves immersing electronic components
or devices in acidic solutions of sulfuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acids to dissolve
and recover valuable metals like gold, silver, and copper. The metals can then be
recycled and used in the manufacture of new products. Although some valuable
materials can still be recovered from the bath, the acidic solution used might
contaminate the environment and leak into adjacent water bodies, so it must be
handled and treated carefully to ensure that any dangerous acid components are
disposed of safely. Additionally, the substance being utilized in this method can
be very corrosive and the fumes produced will just be an additional toxic that is
harmful if inhaled.
Secondarily, incineration, a thermal treatment process that involves
burning electronic waste at high temperatures in specially designed facilities
called waste-to-energy plants, can also be of assistance in managing e-wastes.
The energy content of combustible materials and the volume of electronics can
both be reduced by incineration. Some factories take the iron out of the slag for
recycling purposes. Also, some environmentally hazardous organic waste can be
transformed into less dangerous chemicals through this method. The heat
generated from the combustion process produces steam, which drives turbines
to generate electricity. However, it must be done with proper filtration systems to
prevent the release of toxic gasses and pollutants into the atmosphere. However,
it is not a cost-efficient mechanism because the installation of incineration
facilities can be too costly.
Landfilling, a common method of disposal that involves burying of waste in
a marked area and is the least expensive option for waste management. While it
is a common method, it poses significant environmental risks due to potentially
leaching toxic substances into soil and groundwater if not managed properly. The
mercury, cadmium, and lead can easily penetrate the soil, affecting the soil
quality, and can further pollute groundwater. Gupta, N. (2023).
2.​ Reusing. Is the most eco-friendly way to deal with e-waste. Charities gladly
accept donations of old electronics, which they fix up and give to people who
need them, especially those in less fortunate communities. This helps cut down
on waste, saves resources, and lessens the environmental impact of making new
electronic devices.
​
A study conducted in 2011 shows the most preferred methods of e-waste
disposal of Cagayan de Oro residents in the Philippines. The two most common
management practices done by the residents are selling them to scrap dealers
(25.5%), and keeping them at home (25.5%).
Figure 1. Disposal methods of electronic wastes (in percentage)
​
Majority of the respondents stored e-wastes such as televisions,
refrigerators, and washing machines in their homes. They kept them for one to
three years before they would dispose of them because they did not know where
and how to dispose of them since there was no collection facility in the area for
these products. Others are utilized for another function such as the washing
machine being a laundry basket.
Despite that, most of the e-wastes are sold to scrap dealers, thinking that
they could earn extra money from it. This could be a good practice as they are
dismantled to become raw materials for manufacturing again.
3.​ Recycling. This is the most common management for non-working items and
functional but outdated devices. E-waste recycling involves disassembling
electronic devices to recover valuable materials like metals, plastics, and glass.
E-waste collection programs have been in place locally since 2007. It began as a
national pilot project led by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), in which
distributors, service providers, major mobile phone manufacturers, and mobile
phone operators participated in order to manage the e-waste generated from
cellular phones. Up to the present time, mega IT and telecom companies are
creating partnerships with malls around the country to come up with a convenient
way of collecting electrical wastes from Filipino households. Workers classify the
waste based on its types and models. The components that are still usable will
be taken out of all the electronic gadgets once they have been inspected and
sold separately or combined to create a new computer or phone. What remains
of the non-functional e-waste will be processed for recycling. These materials are
then processed and reused in the manufacturing of new products, reducing the
demand for raw materials and minimizing environmental impact. Wu, T. L. (2023).
As stated by Gupta, N. (2023), minimize waste generation and recycle as
much as possible. Within the ambit of sustainable management of growing
e-waste pollution, the provision of awareness among citizens is an essential step
to focus on informal sectors that can sometimes be the most vulnerable. The
employees put their health at risk by coming into direct contact with e-waste and
failing to wear protective gear. The creation of job possibilities is the sole benefit
that results from this, but this does not cancel out the impact of exposure from
these toxic to their health and the environment.
Purchasing energy-efficient electronic devices suggests a major aid in
reducing the electronic waste that will just end up in landfills. Electronics can
have a longer lifespan and require fewer replacements if they are made to be
easily upgraded and repaired. In this sense, energy consumption will be greatly
decreased along with the production of e-waste with the aid of efficient recycling
systems.
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