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Particulate
.
of matter
nature
My
states :
-
particle separation
?
?
arrangement ( regular fixed )
•
°
•
f
motion
shape
V,
-
atoms ,
compounds
H
Mg 504
melting points
•
are
unique
ions
A-
+
boiling points
pure substances
to
1^1-0
substance
=
f
THEORY
KINETIC
•
,
,
absorb
thermal e.
→
K
movement
→
structure ?
→
vibrates
→
motion ?
→
structure
KE >
expands
breaks
intermolecular
between 32
forces
things
Heating / cooling curve
→
KE
DIFFUSION
states
-
-
-
-
requires energy ?
[ -1 ]
→
evenly spread out
relative molecular
→
faster
in
same
to
mass
( Mr )
than
,
different rates
Mr d
→
of
Experimental techniques
.
C2 1
.
.
Measurements
liquids
2
-
-
-
unit
equipment
time
s
stopwatch
to
0C
thermometer ( traditional /
mass
'
-
⇐
volume
?m3
accuracy
em
[
:
50cm
fixed V
3
⇒ minions
-
-
gases
↳
10cm
}
25cm
3
stopcock
digital balance
precise
✗ accurate
variable V
,
g. kg
-
-
*
make faster ?
•
O
motion
[ h_ ]
•
C2
,
random
until
*
liquid #
:
:
]
digital )
c. 2.2
.
Criteria of
purity
need
purity ?
why do
•
pure
in
•
we
=
only one
substance
food additives
↳
and
melting
e.
g.
:
,
drugs
*
happens if not ? impurities
what
boiling point analysis
pure water
I
b.
p
•
melt / boil
mixtures
over
a
if
how ?
data
→
tables
:
.
M.p.
*
*
?
:
not exact
range of to
values ?
*
why ?
ww
Paper chromatography
•
separate substances w/ different
in
•
a
solubilities
solvent
solvent
travels
via
capillary action
(
dif rates
>
•
Retention factor
→
-
( Rf ) values
identify components
compare
under
of mixtures
Rf ( unknown)
same
with
Rf ( Known )
conditions
I.
/
7
/
Rf
=
d
d
£1
-
-
highest / lowest solubility ?
pure / impure
?
moved
"
by compound ¥
"
solvent
Cmf
ratio
)
( no units )
C 2.3
Methods of purification
.
rely
-
Mixture
-
f
Mixture
,
on
a
difference
physical properties
in
a
as
?
of solids
magnetic properties
of
liquids
:
,
solubility
immiscible
decanting ( pouring carefully )
separating funnel
•
such
,
.
.
.
liquids
Filtration
•
:
separate undissolved
a
solid
and
solid
from
mixture
of
*
centrifugation
liquid / solution
crystallisation
•
separate dissolved
solid from
solution
,
when
in
a
a
hot
solid
is
solvent
more
soluble
than cold
yet;¥eÑ
•
•
( once
cooled )
→
o
•
•
heat
cool
filter to collect
wash
dry
crystals
w/ cold , distilled
water
to
remove
impurities
Simple
•
separate
Distillation
soluble
solid
Fractional
from solution
•
/
separate
distillation
32
miscible
liquids
03
Atoms elements
.
,
C 3.1
C. 3.2
.
Physical
Elements
.
chemical
changes
compounds
mixtures
+
,
,
,
compounds
•
compound
-
-
•
element
-
-
-
atoms
w/ same
#
protons
of
limited
:
pure substance
32
elements
unlimited
chemically combined
#
-
#
.
mixture
-
-
-
:
32
substances
NOT
chemically combined
can
be
separated physically
-
•
metals
and
non
-
metals
metals
conduct heat +
4
malleable
texture
lustrous (shiny )
dull , non
high
+ ve
formed
✗
brittle
formed
.
oxides
metals
ductile
density melting pt
+
ions
-
✓
shape
surface
non
basic
,
-
reflective
low
-
ve
acidic
•
conc
=
amount of
solute
specific V of solvent
unit ?
v.
display properties of both
C. 3
.
Atomic
structure
a
in
1-
NUCLEON
Periodic Table
NUMBER
→
=p
+
n
shells
08
+
-1 +
+
1-
1
12
negligible
gc
Electron
%
14
AN
shells
¥
try some
•
Noble
-
-
configurations ?
gases
Group 0 / VII
:
full outer shells
→
=
unreactive
stable
Isotopes
•
•
•
•
element
atoms
of
same
proton #
dif
nucleon
same
( same
\
:
same
#
properties
# e-
in
outer shell )
Ionic
C. 3. 4
.
Ions
a
ionic
bonds
between
metallic
+
non
-
metallic
bonds
Ions
S
✓
Ionic
compounds form
lattice
-
-
structures :
regular arrangement
alternating
ions
+ ve
and
-
ve
C 3.5
.
Non metallic
-
with
covalent
Single
•
covalent
Molecules and
elements
form
bonds
between
covalent
bonds
simple molecules
atoms
Hz
bonds
,
Clz
,
H2O
,
Cha
,
7-
Complex ( double / triple)
•
us
atom
gains full outer shell
MHz
HCl
each
→
.
,
7
covalent bonds
Nz
,
Gta
,
CH } OH
,
CO2
covalent
.
IoniÉt
meltinglboilingpt.fi
liquid
solid
stwt.IE?.s?iu?t#no-oeaporateeasixusua-yyes-aromas
gas
,
volatile ?
yes
:
ionic
usually
compounds
no
:
non
-
polar ;
conduc.to?#terrPdissdvesinorganic
yes
melting
*
-
ionic
-
a
boiling pt
compounds
have
strong
↳
molten / in solution
no :
all e- in bonds
.
high
oppositely charged ions in
↳
:
mlbpt
-
lattice
amounts
simple
-
electrostatic forces
require large
solvents
-
of energy
to
overcome
covalent
strong
substances
covalent
bonds
in each
weaker intermolecular forces
↳
less
energy
required
molecule
C. 3.6
Macromolecules
.
allotrope
-
:
-
-
-
element
•
dif
same
element
same
physical state
C
:
atomic / molecular
giant
covalent
structures
giant
lattice
structure
→
arrangement
mlbp ?
→
amount of
energy
?
4 free
¥-5
1C
-
very
→
4 Cs
strong
1C
-
covalent
bonds
°
conduct
4 ?
1
strong
-
-
extremely hard dense
used
jewellery cutting tools
( e.g.
as
:
→
,
heavy duty drill
-
°
bits )
per
•
slide
conduct
soft
,
as
•
Sick
Silicon CIV ) Oxide
-
-
macromolecule
-
10
bonds
to
2 Si
1- Si
bonds to
40s
shape
→
:
predictions ?
.
pencils
slippery
yeah
,
,
layers
smooth
?
Gines
-1 locks
industrial lubricants
"
,
4 conductor ( electrodes in
Silicon
[macromolecular ]
naturally as sand
occurs
J
a.k.a
between
→
4 ?
slippery
•
0
,
m.p.
used
→
layers free to move
bonds
covalent
•
I
forms
C
between
in
layers
→
,
e-
intermolecular forces
weak
•
→
free
↳
no
-0-8-0
3 Cs
to
-
→
?
m.p.
•
bond
layers of hexagonal shaped
→
intermolecular forces
no
-
to
tetrahedron
→
-
bond
quartz
Dioxide
electrolysis )
Stoichiometry
4.
C 4.1
Stoichiometry
.
atoms
•
combine
Group
Types of chemical
a)
1
11
2
111
3
IV
4
V
3
V1
2
V11
1
VIII
0
formulae
Structural formula
how atoms
:
bonded
are
(displayed formula )
diagram
ethanol
:
GHGOH
Valency
I
full valence shells
→
fixed ratios
in
1.
Deducing formulae by combining power
AI
>
t
3
C
4
Alzsz
S
2
>
<
methane
Cttq
H
1
Deducing formulae of ionic compounds
A1
b) written ( simplified
"
"
soy
structural formula )
L
-
-
504
Cu
L
j
>
CHZCHZCHZCHZ
*
2
formula
Molecular
.
actual
:
#
of atoms
a
balance
Catto
Empirical
3.
formula :
simplest ratio
Cztls
Equations
Names
-
words
:
compounds
of
hydrogen
NM
+
NM
nitrogen
NM
+
+
→
→
sodium chloride
hydrogen
+
+
bromine
→
hydrogen
→
[ lower
Group
#
oxygen
→
•
•
NM ide
•
-
bromide
•
coz
"
NO
carbonate
Cacoz
sulfate
Mgsoq
=
hydroxide
NaOH
=
nitrate
BACNO , )z
=
5042
OH
-
-
Mgocs) +21-11403 ( ag)
→
Mg( NO , )zCaq)
+
H2O (e)
2 Kclcaq )
+
Iraq )
-
=
-
-
,
first ]
nitrogen oxide
Ahozcs) -13 Cuts)
groups
common
:
chlorine
hydrogen
-
2 Alcs) -13 Cuocs) →
m-etal-n-on-m-e.to/-M+NM-ide
sodium -1
-
balanced
+
balanced
equations
state symbols
equations
Ionic
2kt (
aa
) + Clzlaq ) →
21%+21 lag )
-
-
21 (aq )
+
+
Cklaq ) → KÑaq+2Cliaq ) Izcaa)
Cklaq ) →
+
-
2cL Caq )
+
Izlaq )
Ar
relative atomic mass
=
atoms
of
on
scale
where
mass
of
-
a
has
Mr
=
a
formula
# of
specific
6.02
unit
-
12
units
F
mass
1-12504
mass
=
)
covalent molecule
molecule
×
:
particles called
constant
10
"
where does it
-
atom
The mole
.
Avogadro 's
=
ñ
B
C
HCl
compound =/
ionic
C. 4.2
exactly
compound
covalent
"
Ars
relative
=
the
molecular
of
sum
-
(
a
At
occurring
element
an
relative
=
Mr
of naturally
average mass
-
particles
come
( atoms
,
molecules
,
formulae )
from ?
mol
Molar volume :
=
•
=
V
that
1 mole of
any gas will occupy
at
room
1-
24 dm
°
and
cr.t.is )
pressure
3
.
3
or
am
Calculate % composition
Mr 402)
=
% of 0
Ar ( O )
=
e.
g.
:
Concentration
c-
-
1. 2 d. m3
ng
in
CO2
12+32 =
16
44
CS
c. 5.1
Electricity a chemistry
.
4
.
+
Electrolysis
-
breakdown
-
when
-
of an ionic compound
molten
(t)
f)
chemistry
OR
in
-
aqueous solution
-
ion
charge
attracted
?
to ?
electrode
=
,
-
rod of
-
4
metal / graphite
flows
current
in
/out
by passage of 4
-
-
electrolyte
-
-
covalent ?
g-
solid
-
ionic ?
Electrolysis of molten
-
electrode
:
graphite
Lead
(E) Bromide
OR
platinum rods
e-
f
( inert
→
=
¢ react)
Té
predict product of
•
molten
binary compound
( metal
,
MgO
NaCl
qt
→
Pb
"
+
2 e- →
-
Pb
2 Br
→
Brz
+
2 e-
.
bioi n.jfi.si
non
-
metal )
?
:
•
e.
g.
:
compound in molten
\ dissolved solution
conducts 4
ionic
-
( t)
f)
Lt
solution
aqueous
•
ions :
•
•
@
to
him
e-
lose
.
Lt
,
→
anode
•
*
,
attracted
↳
H2O
has
gas
-
Ck
lot
Brz
,
-
→
Iz
5042
02T
NO }
,
easily
more
-
-
-
OH
-
forms
→
OR
•
←
•
Ht
•
product
Br
concentrated
more
@ cathode
•
CI
reactive
less
=
-
I
ion
Lt
Hz T
→
metal ( if
below H in
reactivity
series
)
Determining the gas produced
•
Ionic
half
-
equations
✓
•
@
cathode
@ anode
:
:
'
'
H2
goes
with
a
Oz
•
•
OR
reduction ?
lit
lighted splint
relights
•
when
pop
a
halogen gases
oxidation
-
glowing splint
→
Bra
=
red
Clz
=
yellow
Fz
=
-
color
brown
-
green
pale yellow
H
Electroplating
-
-
a
process
surface of
a
@
)
""
=
where
1 metal
is
" "" " be
electroplated
°
coated with
Al
from
•
material
pure
less
]
reactive
@ anode
( t)
electrolyte
=
aq
of soluble salt
.
/
i
.
t
☒
.
BY
,¥
:
;
pure
gold
to =
in
molten
cryolite
"
"
*%
( Bauxite )
→
1000°C
Abdissolved
molten
in
=
( replaced )
cryolite
electrolyte
of
#
A/
i
-
•
Alzoz
Aluminium
purified
:
layer of a different metal <
↳
*
hate
3-1
>
€-504
.
02
Industrial
-
>
Applications
Manufacture of Ck
,
Hz
,
NaOH
Half
-
equations ?
C 6.
Energy As in chemical reactions
Exothermic
•
•
•
:
is
energy
a
given out
environment
e.g
reaction
to
in
Endothermic
which
surroundings
to
9
°
•
°
:
.
-
-
combustion
reaction
of fuels
energy
envir
e.
g.
-
of acid + metals
-
-
4absorbed Kelreleased )
e.
( bonds broken ) 4
( bonds formed )
[ for
products ]
e.
AH
=
-
=
=
reaction
taken
in
&
heat
of
reaction
which
in
from the
tot
surroundings
:
stages of photosynthesis
electrolysis
first
thermal
decomposition
tab sorbed) >
broken
) >
H
ve
enthalpy
is
a
e( bonds
1
H
:
=
of carbonates
•
e.
(released)
( bonds formed )
+ ve
C 7. Chemical Reactions
transparent
equipment options
C 7.1
Rate (
.
speed ) of
reaction
to
µ
→
opaque
capture gas
t
*
+
→
time
experiment
collect
readings at
timed
intervals
calculate
rate
of
reaction
Factors
1.
to T
=
rate
T
^
,
greater
cone
/ to / SAW/
catalyst
+
,
¥
'
'
-
E-
amount of
is
the
product
same
'
>
'
lesser
-
8
2. concentration T
*
Explosive
combustion
metal
@ industrial processes
coal
mining
flour
milling
→
3.
surface
to
(
4.
=
+
area
T
=
✓ ratio
smaller
catalyst
produce
high
↳
sized
particles )
:
fine particles
/
working
+
City
SA
combustible
with
small
in
air
spark
→
ignite quickly
↳
68 Acids bases
Redox
a. a.
salts
.
,
,
oxidation and reduction
in
same
reaction
@
same
time
C. 8.1
.
The characteristic
properties of
and
acids
bases
oxidation states
it
Fe III )
Fe II)
Fe
> +
↳ \
.
Cali)
Fest
cuz
-
A1
-1
0
Oxidation
Is
Loss
Oxidation
=
Reduction
=
+
Oxygen
OR
of e-
Reduction
-
Oxygen
Is
Gain of e-
-
•
oxidizing agent
reducing agent
CUO
ox
.
states
:
2
't
+
'
2-
→
c- universal indicator
gets reduced
gets oxidized
→
Cu
Hz →
0
0
+
H2O
"
21!
acid
base
pH
47
77
litmus
red
blue
methyl orange indicator
CUO
←
→
Cu
:
reduced
oxidizing agent
[
→
H2O
:
oxidized
reducing agent
acid +
neutralization
reaction
e.
H2
red
g.
:
other
-
yellow
base
→
e- ( H+)
+
HCl
sour ,
corrosive
salt
e-
+
water
( Ott )
NaOH
water
=
-
soluble
alkali
base
¥
Alkalis +
'§§°j§É
NH4a
NaOH
+
NaCl
→
T
H2O
+
salt
MHz
+
water
ammonia
L
decomposition
Hclcaq)
NaOH (
Htcaq)
→
ag )
→
Natcaq)
ctcaa )
+
test
OH lag )
Acids + metals
→
salt
+
Hz
•
•
•
+
metal
carbonates
→
salt
+
plants
outside
C 8.2
.
Types of
acid
solution
oxides
be
:
•
/
red
→ damp
+
litmus
blue
→
alkalinity
5- 8
range
cause :
but
coz + H2O
pH
:
NH ,
for
pH and soil acidity
-
+
•
Acids
salts
ammonium
the growth
→
rain ,
time
Cao
•
slaked
time
don't
Caco }
limestone
•
,
yield
crop
fertiliser ( Ntlqt )
powdered
careful
,
let
Ca COH
pH
•
too
become
high !
Neutral oxides
↳
e.
•
)z
reacts
g.
:
w/
neither
NO
H2O ,
,
acids
or
bases
CO
Amphoteric oxides
↳
both
-
e.
basic
+
salt
+
forms
g.
:
ZnO
,
acidic
properties
water
A-1203
AKO,
+
6 HCl
→
AKO }
+
2 NaOH
→
31-120
2 Alclz +
2NaAlOz
+
H2O
B) dilute acid
C 8.3
.
I
Preparing soluble salts
Preparation of salts
salt
is
water
soluble / insoluble
of
in
water ?
A) acid
crystallisation ?
+
dilute
+
+
alkali
Preparing insoluble salts
↳
precipitation
reaction
solid metal / base / carbonate
1-12504 Caa )
Crocs)→
equation ?
Pb ( NO } )z (
aa
)
+
1<2504 Caa)
C
aq
.
8.4
Identification of ions and gases
.
cations
→
color
of
precipitate Cppt )
anions
add
when
g-
NaOH
MHz
KMn04
gases
cations
•
→
flame
sample
placed
test
on
unreactive
metal
wire
( nichrome , Pt )
red
yellow
lilac
blue
orange
-
red
-
green
rotten
eggo leg go
C.9.3
69 The Periodic Table
Group
.
•
C. 9.1
a
•
method
predict
•
← Group
Periodic Table
The
.
to
properties of
1
metals
alkali metals
( form
Ma
Rb , Cs
Li
•
← Period
classify elements
Group properties
.
,
K
,
valence
•
,
e-
alkaline solutions )
Fr
,
1
:
elements
soft
•
,
down
easy
to cut
G1 :
softer
( except
surface
cut
•
•
•
Na
•
K
,
denser
+
•
shiny
:
4
conduct
heat
+
low
;
t
down
m.pt
silvery
,
usually kept
↳
)
readily w/
react
react
w/ Halle)
↳
produce
down
•
61
oil
violently
Hz
A
from nucleus
further
require less energy
→
H2O (g)
+
reactivity
:
( valence e-
Group
in
Oz
to
overcome
electrostatic forces )
Group 7
•
•
•
•
non
F
,
-
halogens
metals ,
CI
Br
,
diatomic
poisonous
,
e.
I
→
form
metallic
→
non
-
valence e-
1- 3
non
-
halide
metallic
covalent
good
poor
oxide
basic
acidic
many
physical
malleable
blmpt
.
high
.
solution
color
gas
gas
pale green
Brz
liquid
red
Iz
solid
black
down
.
do
.
ions
Clz
4- 7
w/ acid
.
blmpt
•
-
green
brown
blue
-
-
lighter
•
orange
dark
67
down
•
-
•
.
A
darker
→
harder
:
:
brown
(g)
→
(s )
metals
arrangement
bonding
{ conductivity
react
,
yellow
metallic
metals
Clz
Fz
Periodic trends
.
>
7
@ rtp
C 9.2
Fz
:
g
valence e- :
At
,
no
flaky
,
brittle
67
:
reactivity
•
t
valence e-
further
forces
→
weaker
*
Halogen displacement
•
aq
low
•
electrostatic
.
more
from
extra e2k Brca
)+
,
Kclcaq)+ Brzcaq )
Clzcaq)→
2
2MgI (aa)
2MgBr(aa)
halides
of
reactive
halogen
reactive
attract
reaction :
solution
displaces less
to
nucleus
halogen
Bra
(e)
+
→
+
Is Cao / s )
,
C. 9.4
.
Transition
metals
C. 9.5
•
Group 0/8
.
unreactive
full
•
Uses
•
→
•
•
•
•
,
strong dense
high m.pt
,
conduct
heat
formed
colored
7
1 oxidation
often
used
as
+
4
compounds
states
catalysts
•
gases
stable
shell
colorless
,
①
%
:
He :
less
•
Noble
gain / Lose e-
monoatomic
•
hard
,
valence
doesn't
→
•
hella
-
Ne
Ar
balloons
dense
than air ;
Ar
,
:
filling
•
.
,
Xe
inert
fill
:
¢
burn
advertising signs
atmosphere for welding
electric
bulbs
÷
±
010 Metals
C 10.2
.
tendency
Reactivity series
.
f
+ve
to
ions
lattice
010-1
Properties of metals
.
high mlbpt
•
.
-
-
strong
metallic bonds
giant
metallic structure
conducts
•
-
heat
4
+
( lattice)
:
a
free delocalized e-
malleable
•
-
:
ductile
+
layers of
-
metallic
→
(
each other
over
NOT disrupted
bonding
strong
slide
ions
+ ve
flexible )
+
Alloys
↳
mixture 32
T
strength
T
resistance
•
•
(
=
-2
to
metals
m
+
corrosion
Reactions
n.hn
•
.
different
→
g.
-
-
-
-
ions
reactive
harder )
•
e.
.
( + oxide)
extreme to
,
more
aq
:
:
→
Cu
brass :
W (
Fe
Ni / Cr
At +
Cu
,
Mg
→
,
Si
→
harder
corrosion
→
→
to
slide
over
compared to pure metals ?
stronger
→
Tungsten )
Fe +
+
Zn
+
harder
sized atoms
,
to
resistant
strong
aircraft
,
tf
body
(+ aq
.
ions
)
,
oxides
metal
displaces
less
reactive
metal
form
CIO 3
Extraction
.
•
.
Earth 's
from
the
often
mixed
needs
→
of metals
crust
from ores
.
other substances
with
acidic impurities
remove
•
hematite
from
extraction
ores =
finite
:
+
+
-
ve
:
-
-
conserve
less
T
must
→
resource
raw
recycle
!
materials
Al
transport
energy
to
used
in
recycling plants
collecting sorting
,
of metals
fstrength +
:
•
•
Steel
a
aircraft parts
food containers
:
Fe
+
→
•
resistant
:
0.25% C
steel
strong
→
,
bodies
car
stainless
•
:
At
→
by oxide layer
covered
'
apparent
unreactivily
'
corrosion
to
C
mild steel
,
impurities
,
,
+
soft
,
malleable
machinery
20k Cr
resistant
qehemieal plant
cutlery
.
to
.
10% Ni
corrosion
2h :
-
-
-
I
exothermic
pollution
( unreactive )
Uses
slag
remove
,
,
+ ve
.
as
,
*
C 10.4
¥
furnace
blast
•
Fe
of
Extraction
galvanize steel
brass
1
a- 1. Air } Water
CIT 1
.
Water
.
chemical
•
for water
tests
cobalt
(E) chloride
61-120 a) → Cock
copper LI) sulfate
Cocks , t
anhydrous
•
Cusoycs,
51-1204 )
+
AeS0¢
→
.
.
6420cg
51-120 ( s )
I
1
Water
•
!
treatment
Untreated water
insoluble
•
•
soil
:
soluble
:
Ca
:
impurities
,
org
,
.
!
matter
metallic
,
plant
bacterial diseases
↳ filtration
+
:
.
compounds inorganic pollutants
cholera
chlorination
bacteria
!
bits
,
layers of sand
•
kills
unwanted organisms
,
typhoid
+
gravel
filters
home
+
industrial uses ?
C 11.2
Air
.
Pollutants
•
CO
water vapor
noble
incomplete combustion of
:
×
:
poisonous ;
displaces
C-
containing substances
from
0
Hb
gases
•
→
✗
:
acid
acid rain
-
-
s)
( contain
combustion of fossil fuels
502 :
rain
corrodes
metal structures
-
\
buildings / statues
of carbonate rocks
damages aquatic organisms
pollutes crops water supplies
,
-
✓
:
-
-
Non
•
✗
:
acid
-
:
*
→
catalytic
converter
transition
metal
of redox
series
← redox ⇒
Rusting
•
lungs
throats
,
eyes
,
sulfur
petrol
flue
gas de.su/furizationw/Ca0
use
low
and to )
rain
photochemical smog
-
✓
( high pressure
engines
car
:
irritates
of
iron
conditions :
Oz
,
,
catalysts
breathing difficulties
Pt
→
reactions
,
Rh
Epsa
neutralizes gases
salty water
Nat a- T 4 conductivity
faster
H2O
2 CO
+
02
→
2 NO
+
2 CO
→
Nz + 202
2 NO
→
Nz
in
of water
Galvani
[
-
sing / Sacrificial
2oz
+
Oz
Protection
]
using reactivity series
layer of Zn
Zn
+
Oz
coz
+
Zncoz
→
-
↳
*
•
prevention
barrier methods
:
•
•
•
•
grease
layer damaged
more
↳ In
plastic
paint
reacts
→
barrier
?
reactive
→
Zn
"
"
-
+
Ie
=
↳
[
oil
=
,
instead of
Fe
stays
"
reduced
21-1++2 e- →
w/ Oz H2O
corrodes
sacrificial
Fe
Hype
µ
Boka
C 11.3
.
CO2
Cttq
+
greenhouse gases
=
formation :
CO2
↳ product of
-
-
-
-
:
combustion
of
C-
containing substances
respiration
acid
reaction
between
thermal
decomposition of
T[ greenhouse gases ]
=
→
T
+
carbonate
Caco
}
greenhouse effect
climate
change
C 11.4
.
Nitrogen {
Fertilisers
f
" ""
roots
Water-soluble
*
•
↳
•
growth
addition
P
:
Nhat
,
NO}
-
poq
3-
fruits -1 flowers
,
•
•
:
fertilisers
PK
Displacement of MHz
N
ions
K
:
K -1
from its salts
Nttqcl
of altai substances
I
CACOH )z
soil
to
to
neutralize
acidity
excess
to
too
much
→
OR
too
soon
displaces MHz
2 Nttqcl
Ca COH )z
+
lose N
,
→
and
caclz
+
effects of fert
2MHz
+
21-120
Conditions :
•
Haber
process
to
:
450°C
y
manufacture of MHz
:
lowe
;
slower
/
Hz (g) + 31-12 (g) ⇒ 2MHz (g)
[
BUT
to
higher
=
•
pressure
y
200 atm
Nzlg)
→
unreacted
+
31-12 (g) ⇒
2MHz (g)
⇒
y
:
reaction )
( reverse
-
450°C
compromised to
→
200 atm
higher P
;
dangerous
µ compromised
P
equipment
,
:
BUT
lower
P
lower
yield
safely
,
economically
:
lower yield
made
quicker
613 Carbonates
012 Sulfur
.
•
Sources
-
Manufacture of
:
S removal
of
by product
-
-
.
-
petroleum
from
,
natural
gases
•
limestone
sulfide ores
↳
:
time
contains
thermal
uses
Caco
,
decomposition
Ca coz
Uses :
-
1-12504
make
-
make
rubber tires
cheated
The
→
w/
s
S
1
Oz
)
Cao
2
502
+
503
+
Hzsoy
•
=
450°C
→
2503
exothermic
-
=
Hzszoz
( oleum )
•
2 atm
higher P
=
$n$
equilibrium @ far right
4
1-125207
( oleum)
+
H2O
→
( slaked
time )
1-12504
higher to favors
t yield
→
Ca (OH )z
→
slowly
502
02 ⇒
H2O
added
manufacturing
98%
3
+
( time)
Vzos
2
H2O
flexible
more
coz
→
+
( time )
for industries
Contact Process
+
Cao
→
21-12504
+
Ca ( OH
standard
)z
→
test
Cacoz
for
+
Hzo
cÑ cloudy
↳
ppt
Caco }
acidic
neutralize acidic
•
to ! ! !
•
of
treating
•
.
soil
industrial
waste
products
614
C 14.1
+
Organic Chemistry
Names of
.
C 14.3
.
.
Fuels
14 a.
-
compounds
Homologous
series
✓
coal
natural
,
gas
fossil
methane
combust
petroleum
,
→
i
fuels
mixture
↳
families
>
-
-
same
compounds
general structure
Properties of fractions
•
viscosity
:
ease
HC
longer
*
branched
us
alkanes / enes
.
unbranched
( up
to
4C
=
)
•
:
chain
chain T
flow
•
name
draw
CHy
,
GHG
,
Cztty
,
CZHSOH
•
mlb pt
:
volatility
chain
:
chain ✗
T
=
tendency
=
?
easier ?
harder ?
darker
=
forces ?
?
→
higher viscosity
colour :
liquid
of flow of
( thicker
*
+
tings
CO2
hydrocarbons
fractional distillation
:
separate
into
useful fractions
of
similar chemical properties
of
some
,
color
more
viscous
?
to
vaporize
)
C. 14.4
.
Cn Hzn -12
Alkanes
-
saturated
single covalent
ONLY
-
properties
•
•
•
complete
combustion
CH4
+
2oz
→
coz f-
H2O
→
coz
21-120
+
hydrocarbon
bonds
:
Recognize
-
-
alkanes
vs.
molecular
structure
reaction
w/
alkenes
Bra lag )
addition reaction
generally unreactive
EXCEPT
when
[
burnt
of alkenes
C- C
across
:
Czttg
14.5
.
Cnttzn
Alkenes
unsaturated
-
1
hydrocarbon
c=C
alkene
+
Hz
→
alkane
hydrogenation
=
→
•
•
-
produced by
long
-
catalytic cracking
short
hydrocarbon
→
chain
alkane
→
-
chain ,
alkene
more
alkene +
useful
H2O
→
alcohol
y
silica
alumina
goo
.
yooo ,
→
Vaporize
large molecules
breaks covalent
→
=
thermal
150°C
bonds
decomposition
catalyst
Ni
→
addition ?
•
330°C
•
60
•
catalyst
naw
hydration
=
Hz
+
addition ? ? or
-
70 atm
catalyst
:
HzP04
Cl 4.6
-
-
uses
.
Alcohols
:-|
formed
via
solvent
fuel
fermentation
g- ethene
+
steam
( catalytic addition )
Cl 4.8
C 14.7
Polymers
.
=
long
•
•
-
.
Synthetic polymers
addition
molecules
chain
formed
from
polymerisation
small units
( monomers )
covalent
350
bonds
✗
t
monomer
polymer type
•
homo
polymer
poly ethene
,
PVC
copolymer
nylon
linkages
monomer
join monomers
→
types
•
bond
1
•
biological proteins
,
72
•
repeat unit
joins
name :
with
c=C
bonds
breaks
with
poly
adjacent
monomer
+
-
covalent
amide
ester
condensation
•
monomers
polymerisation
link
usually 32 dif types w/ functional groups at ends
•
removal of
•
reversible
water
by
hydrolysis
:
ruptures peptide bonds
Formation
of
nylon
polyamide
diamine
dicarboxylic acid
-
COOH
-
amide
+
linkage
H2O
MHz
monomers