DELTA
Discourse Analysis
Coherence and Cohesion
These two terms are often confused as they both relate to how texts are
constructed or held together. All texts have some or all of the attributes that are
labelled coherence or cohesion, an understanding of these two concepts will help
you and your students read with deeper understanding and write with greater
fluency. Knowledge of these two concepts is directly tested in the exam either
through a student produced text – in which case you would have to identify errors
– or through an authentic text – in which case you would have to identify the
features used in that text.
Coherence
Coherence is a difficult concept to define, but it is very apparent when a text does
not have it. Coherence refers to the overall semantic structure of a text and the
unity of the text. Canale (1982) proposed that for a text to have coherence the
following conditions must be met:
1. Development: The presentation of ideas must be orderly and convey a sense
of direction.
2. Continuity: There must be consistency of facts, opinions, and writer
perspective, as well as reference to previously mentioned ideas. Newly
introduced ideas must be relevant.
3. Balance: A relative emphasis (main or supportive) must be accorded to each
idea.
4. Completeness: The ideas presented must provide a sufficiently thorough
discourse.
These four points have to be taken in conjunction with the concept of the genre
or schema the text reflects. Different texts (e.g. narratives , instructions, reports,
business letters etc.) reflect specific text structures or genres and will be judged
by readers as more or less appropriate and coherent according to the closeness
of the particular text’s structure and the genre that is expected for that type of
text. A good writer is able to draw on the particular discourse patterns (text
structures) of a particular genre to organize his or her writing, whether it be at the
paragraph or complete text level.
Cohesion
Complimentary to the above is cohesion. Cohesion refers to the linking
relationships that are explicitly expressed in the surface structure of the text
(Halliday and Hasan 1976). Cohesion is achieved through a variety of lexical
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DELTA
Discourse Analysis
and grammatical relationships between items within sentences in the text.
Halliday and Hasan identify five types of cohesive ties:
1. Reference: The children did not come because they wanted to stay at home.
The reference can be made using a noun phrase or demonstrative adjective
(Nominal Reference) e.g. One of his strengths is his patience. Or can be
made by using a pronoun (Pronominal Reference) see the examples below.
Reference is further divided by what the referent (i.e. the reference word or
phrase) is referring to:
a) Anaphoric Reference: This is used for referents, which refer backwards.
E.g. The apple on the table was half rotten. It had been there for days.
b) Cataphoric Reference: This is used for referents, which refer forwards.
E.g. He was wearing a shabby raincoat and pulled down fedora. The
detective showed me his badge and proceeded to question me …
c) Exophoric Reference: This is used for referents, which refer outside of the
text. E.g. The shops were crowded and festive music played everywhere I
went. It was three days away and there was incipient panic in the air.
2. Substitution: This is when a word previously used is referred to, by
substituting another word. E.g. We wanted to buy some glasses and finally
bought some French ones.
3. Ellipsis: This is when a previously stated word is subsequently left out as the
context makes it clear what is being referred to. E.g. “Would you like to hear
a joke? I know hundreds (of jokes).”
4. Conjunction: This is where a cohesive device, i.e. linking word, is used to tie
ideas or concepts together. E.g. Although I studied all night, I still managed
to fail the exam.
5. Lexical: This is when words are repeated or synonyms used to tie together a
piece of discourse. E.g. Henry presented her with his portrait of her. As it
happened she had always wanted a painting of herself. This feature can be
further divided by the way the lexis is used:
a) Paralleliism : This is where the same form of collocation is repeated in the
text e.g. A teacher is part educator and part parent as one tries to give
social guidance. He or she is also part police officer …
b) Lexical Collocation : Where words are linked by collocation e.g. traditional
values; broad minded; slow witted
c) Lexical sets : Where words are used from set of lexis e.g. car, motor,
steering wheel, driver, exhaust
d) Repetition : Where words or their different forms are repeated in the text
e.g. teacher, teaching, teach, taught
The combination of these patterns is called a text’s lexical chain. This will
differ for each text, but its presence will add to the cohesion within the text.
Appropriate uses of cohesive devices, as described above, support the overall
coherence of writing.
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