Study Guide
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Acknowledgements
Cover image by Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC).
Introduction .... ... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... .... 1
1.
Nutrition and health . ...... ..... ..... ..... ... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... .. 2
2.
Diet and health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.
Food safety . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. 35
4.
Meal planning, preparation and dining .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . 51
5.
Food management, preparation and service . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . 69
6.
Kitchen design and equipment .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . ... . . . .. . .. . ..... . .. . .. . .. 106
7.
Consumerism and purchasing of food ..................................... 114
8.
Putting together a portfol io of evidence .................................... 121
.
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 19
Index ................................................................. 124
ii
Food, Nutrition and Health for CSEC® A CXC Study Gulde has been developed by
experienced teachers and examiners, work ing closely with the Caribbean Examinations
Council (CXC®}. It focuses on the development of competencies by concentrating
on the areas of the syllabus that are most cha llenging to learn and essential to the
development of skills required by the programme and entry into the world of work.
The content contains relevant food-related and nutrit ional theories as well as many
practica l tasks including a range of recipes and activities to support the process of
re lating theory to practice and pract ice to theory. These activities are aligned with
the school-based assessment and allow students to review progre ss effectively. This
approach gives the student a positive role in managing their own learning. Additionally,
there are opportunities for students to use reflective techniques to ident ify what went
well, what might have been done more effectively and how similar activities might be
approached in the future (skill transfer}.
The study guide and associated activities support a range of pedagogy to make learn ing
engaging, interactive and efficient, leading to a deeper understanding. The range of
pedagogy includes:
1 . Assessment of and for learn ing
2 . Cooperative learning
3 . Differentiation
4 . Embedding language, literacy and numeracy
5 . Experiential learn ing
6 . Learning conversations
7. Relating theory and practice
8 . Using e-learning and technology.
Remember, where applicable, candidates who successfully complete the CSEC
examination in this programme will receive two awards: the CSEC Technical Proficiency
Certificate and a CVQ* (Caribbean Vocational Qualification) Statement of Competence.
We are confident that this book will provide students with the skills to succeed in their
course of study and beyond.
• CVQ is the Registered Trademark of the Caribbean Association of National Training Authorities (CANTA).
Nutrition
Nutrition is the study of nutrients, how they are used by the body, and the connection
between diet, health and disease. A nutritious diet is impor tan t for ensuring good health
and to enable the body to work efficiently. Consuming a healthy diet involves eating
a range of foods to provide the body with essential nutrients. Nutrients are chemica l
substances th at are found in food and beverages and provide us with energy, help with
growth and repa ir of the body, and are essential for proper body function.
Food nutrients
There are five basic food nutrients: protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals.
Although dietary fibre is not a nutrient, it is important for a healthy diet. Another
essential nutrient is water, discussed later in this chapter.
Protein
Table 1.1 Importance of protein in the diet
What is protein?
Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids.
There are two types of amino acids: essential amino acids and
non-essential amino acids.
Although there are 20 amino acids, only 9 are essential amino
acids because they cannot be made by the body and rn ust be
obtained from food .
The importance
of protein In
the diet
You need protein in your diet to help your body repa ir ce lls and
make news ones. Ever y cell of the body contains protein and it
is important for growth and repa ir of the body and to mainta in
good health.
The body tu rns excess protein into glucose and, if required, can
also use it as a source of energy.
Good sources
of protein
High-biological-value protein sources (HBV) or complete proteins
supply us with the nine essential amino acids and include meat, fish,
dairy products, eggs, soya and quinoa.
Low-biologica l-value protein sources (LBV) or incomplete proteins
do not supply all nine essential amino acids. These include beans,
peas, nuts, seeds, lentils, gelatin and cereals like rice and wheat.
Protein complementation is when two or more LBV protein
sources that are eaten toget her ensure adequate amounts of
essential amino acids. Examples of complementary meals that
contain LBV proteins that together provide all essential amino
acids include:
• rice and peas
• baked beans on toast
• bread and peanut bu tter.
Result of protein
deficiency In the
diet
Protein deficiency is rare but resu lts in protein energy malnutrition
(PEM) - there is loss of muscle mass and poor growth. PEM may
lead to a condition called marasmus (symptoms include being
underweight, an o ld-looking face , stunted growth, diarrhoea)
and kwashiorkor (symptoms include oedema [water retention].
cracked skin and weak muscles).
Result of excess
protein In the
diet
If there is too much protein in the diet it may be stored as fat in
the body, leading to weight gain and possibly obesity. The excess
nitrogen that is found in proteins can put a strain on the liver and
kidneys because it has to be removed from the body in urine.
Amount of
protein required
throughout life
The amount of protein requ ired changes throughout life. Babies,
children and adolescents have higher protein needs as they grow
rapidly. Pregnant women and those that are breastfeeding need
a higher intake of protein for the growing baby and a lso for milk
production.
Figure 1.1 Food sources of protein include dairy products, meat and fish, nuts and
seeds, and gelatin
Did you know?
Foods high in protein will make us feel fuller than foods that are a good source of
fat or carbohydrates. Therefore, choosing foods rich in protein but low in fat can be
usefu I for weight loss.
Carbohydrates
Humans need to find food to eat; however, plants are able to make their own food by a
process called photosynthesi s. Plants use water, nutrients from the soil, energy from the
sun and carbon dioxide from the air to make carbohydrates, as we ll as oxygen. These
carbohydrates are refined (processed) and turned into products such as table sugar or
corn syrup.
Table 1 .2 Types of carbohydrates
What are
carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are used by the body
for energy. They include sugars and starch, known as sugars and
complex carbohydrates.
What are
sugars?
Sugars are found in many foods, including fru it and milk and
include monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Monosaccharldes (mono meaning "one" and saccharide meaning
"sugar") are known as simple sugars and are sweet to taste and
soluble in water.
There are three monosaccharides: fructose and glucose - found
in fru it and honey - and galactose, which is found in milk.
Dl saccharldes (di meaning "two") are known as double sugars
and are sweet to taste and soluble in water. They are formed
when two monosaccharides join together. There are three
disaccharides: lactose (the sugar found in milk), sucrose (the
sugar used in cooking) and maltose (a result of the breakdown of
starch).
What are
complex
carbohydrates?
Ollgosaccharldes typically contain 3 to 10 sugar molecules, and
can be found in foods such as peas, dried beans and lentils.
Bacteria in the intestines may brea k them down, as the body
is unable to, which results in the formation of gas, resulting in
flatulence (passing of wind).
Polysaccharides are made up of many sugar molecules and
include starch, glycogen and dietary fibre .
Complex
carbohydrates
Starches are found in grains, such as wheat and corn; legumes,
such as beans and peas; and vegetables, such as yams and
cassava.
The digestive system breaks starch down more slowly than simple
carbohydrates and therefore supplies energy over a longer period
of time .
Complex
carbohydrates
Glycogen (lots of glucose molecules packed together) is an
irnportant source of carbohydrate in the body.
The body makes glycogen from the carbohydrate that is eaten in
the diet and stores it in the liver and muscles. If requ ired, this
glycogen can be broken down and used for providing energy.
Complex
carbohydrates
Dietary fibre is found in wholegrain cereal foods, including bread,
pasta and rice, as well as in beans, lentils, fru it and vegetables.
It cannot be broken down by the human digestive system,
therefore, the body doesn't use it as a source of energy. However,
it is important to include fibre in the diet as it helps the waste
matter pass through th e intestines.
Dietary fibre may be soluble or Insoluble. If it's soluble it will
dissolve in water, if it is insoluble it wi ll not.
Soluble fibre includes pectins, found in apples, and beta-glucans,
found in oats and barley. Other types include gums and mucilages.
Insoluble fibre is found in whole grains and other plants. Types
include cellulose, some hemicelluloses and lignin , and they are
useful as they help a person to fee l fu ller after eating (satiety).
They also stimulate peristalsis (contraction and re laxation of the
intestine wa lls, which pushes food along the intestines).
A diet containing adequate amounts of fibre can reduce blood cholesterol levels and
also help with maintaining an ideal body weight, as it helps us to feel fu ll and so helps
prevent overeating. Research shows that diets high in fibre are associated wi th a lower
risk of cardiovascular disease, bowel cancer and type 2 diabetes, as well as being useful
to help the management of type 2 diabetes.
Remember!
Wholegrain foods are unrefined, meaning the grains keep their outer bran layers,
Inner germ and the endosperm, so they are good sources of dietary fibre and certain
vitamins and minerals.
MILK
•
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Figure 1.2 Food sources of carbohydrate include fruit, milk, grains, legumes, bread,
pasta etc.
Fats
Table 1.3 Types of fats
What are fats?
All fats are high in calories (see Chapter 2 for calories);
there is a lot of hidden fat in the snacks we eat (biscuits,
crisps, chocolate).
Excess fat in the body is stored under the skin as
adipose tissue and also around certain organs, such
as the kidneys.
If required, the body can break down fat stored inside the
body to make energy.
What is the difference
between fats and oils?
As fats and oils differ in their chemical structure,
temperatu re affects them differently: at room temperature
fats are solid but oils are liquid.
Fat is made up of three fatty acid chains and one glycerol
unit, called a triglyceride. The main component of most
fats and oils are triglycerides.
Fats are also known as lipids.
Types of fats: saturated
and unsaturated
Saturated fat is mainly found in animal products such
as meat, butter, ghee and fu ll-fat cheese. It is also found
in coconuts, cakes and pastries. Saturated fat has the
maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms; therefore
is "saturated '' with hydrogen atoms. If there are hydrogen
atoms missing, the fat is considered unsaturated.
Unsaturated fats are found in many plant oils. Foods
rich in unsaturated fats include fish, nuts and seeds,
avocados, olive oils and vegetable oils. There are
two kinds of unsaturated fats: monounsaturated and
polyunsat urated.
Monounsaturated fats may be the healthier choice as
research shows that they can lower blood cholesterol
levels, and therefore lower the risk of developing
cardiovascular disease. Olive oil, canola and rapeseed oil
are good sources.
Polyunsaturated fats are found in sunflower oil and
vegetable oil, wa lnuts, sunflower seeds and oily fish.
Unsaturated fats :
linolenlc acid
( omega-3) and llnoleic
acid (omega-6 ) fatty
acids
The body can make the fatty acids it needs except for two
essential fatty acids (EFAs), known as alpha llnolenlc acid
(omega-3) and llnolelc acid (omega-6) . They are needed
to make cell membranes and nerve tissues.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a waxy substance that is found in all the
body cells.
Good sources of omega-3 fatty acids include oily fish,
such as salmon and mackerel, fish oil supplements and
flaxseeds. Good sources of omega-6 oils are vegetable
oils, nuts and seeds.
It is made in the liver and is used for a variety of important
functions, such as maintaining healthy ce ll membranes,
form ing bile salts and producing some hormones.
Cholesterol is not found in plant products.
As it is made in the body we do not need to find a
dietar y source.
There are two types of cho lesterol:
High-density llpoprotein (HDL) cholesterol is known as
·•good" cholesterol. These lipoproteins are helpful as they
pick up excess cholestero l in the blood and take it to the
liver, where it is broken down.
Low-density llpoprotein (LDL) carries cholesterol around the
body; however, too much cholesterol over a period of time
can result in it building up inside blood vessel walls, in sticky
layers ca lled plaques, and can eventually block the flow of
blood if there is excessive build up. Therefore, increased
LDLs and low HDLs increase the risk of heart disease.
The build up of plaque in the lining of the arteries is called
atheroschlerosis; it is the cause of most heart attacks and
strokes. A stroke occurs when blood flow to an area of brain
is cut off and can lead to death.
Trans fats
Anothe r type of unsaturated fat, known as trans fat, has
a s imilar effect to saturated fats, wh ich can ra ise the
amount of LDL cholesterol in blood but lower the amount
of HDL cholesterol.
Trans fats are produced when liquid oils are processed by
the food industry to turn them into solid fats, by a process
known as hydrogenation. A fu lly hydrogenated fat does not
contain trans fat; however, partially hydrogenated fats or
oils will contain it.
The food industry has removed trans fatty acids from
many processed foods, so consumption by the public has
decreased.
Funct ions of fat
Fat has the fo llowing functions:
• to surround and protect certain organs, such as
the kidneys
• to provide fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K
• to help keep us warm as the fat layer under the skin
helps to trap body heat
• to provide a source of energy.
Did you know?
Although palm oil is a vegetable oil , it has a high percentage of saturated fatty acids.
I
J
Canola
-
Figure 1.3 Food sources of fat include meat, fish, cheese, butter, oils, nuts etc
How to reduce saturated fat In the diet
Diets that are high in saturated fats may increase the amount of cholesterol in the
blood. A high cholesterol level is linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease or
stroke, so that's why current recommen dations emphasise the importance of reducing
the saturated fat in our diets. There are many ways to reduce the amount of saturates
(and also total fat) in the diet:
• avoid frying and roast ing food in fat-gril l, microwave or bake foods instead
• eat lean cuts of red meat
•
remove fat from meat
• eat skinless chicken
•
use lower-fat dairy products
•
use reduced-fat or low-fat spreads.
The effect of a high-fat diet
•
Obesity: High-fat foods provide a lot of calories but may have a less satiating (filling)
effect than other food groups (e.g. protein and fibre). Eating these foods results in a
higher calorie intake; therefore, excess fat is stored in the body, leading to a person
becoming overweight or obese.
•
Fat and coronary heart disease (CHO): A diet high in fa t, especially saturated fat,
may lead to a raised blood cholesterol level and so increase a person's risk of
suffering with coronary heart disease. A collection of symptoms - known as metabolic
syndrome and including excess body fat around the waist, abnormal cholesterol
levels, increased blood pressure and a high blood sugar level - can occur together,
increasing an individual's risk of heart disease, stroke and diabetes.
Vitamins
Vitamins are essential nutrients req uired by the body in small amounts. Eating a
balanced diet will help to ensure a sufficient intake. There are two types of vitamins
which dissolve in different substances: fat-soluble and water-soluble.
•
Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K and are found mainly in animal
foods and fatty food products, such as dairy food, eggs, liver, oily fish, margarine and
vegetable oils. These vitamins are not required in the diet each day because they
are stored in the liver and body fat. Too much fat-soluble vitamins in the diet can be
harmful to health.
•
Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the vitamin B complex group: thiamin
(vitamin B1 ), riboflavin (vitamin B), niacin (vitamin B3 ), pyridoxine (vitamin B6 ), folate
(folic acid), vitamin B12, biotin and pantothenic acid.
As the body does not store water-soluble vitamins it requ ires a daily intake of them.
Did you know?
Too much vitamin A can affect skin and joints, especially in children. Vitamin A is
important for the developing baby; however, excessive amounts can cause birth
defects.
Table 1 .4 Types of vitam ins
Vitamins
Best sources
Functions
Deficiency symptoms
Vitamin A ( retinol)
Fish liver oils,
oily fish, liver,
dairy products,
eggs, vegetab les
and fru it in the
form of betacarotene
Needed for normal
vision, even in dim
light.
Night blindness,
dry, rough skin and
reduced resistance
to infection.
(Beta-carotene
in fruits and
vegetables are
converted into
retinol in the body)
Vitamin B1
(thlamin)
Vitamin B2
(riboflavin)
Vitamin B3
(niacin)
Vitamin B5
( pantothenlc acid)
Growth of ch ildren.
Helps protect against
infections.
Wholegrain
cerea ls, brown
rice, wholemeal
bread, nuts,
eggs, fish and
milk
Helps convert
ca rbohydrate into
energy.
Wheat bran,
green or leafy
vegetables, peas
and beans, meat,
eggs and milk
Releases energy
from carbohydrates,
proteins and fats .
Needed for proper
functioning of the
nerves.
Loss of appetite,
lack of concentration,
inflamed nerves,
muscle weakness
and depression.
Can resu lt in
deficiency disease
Beriberl.
Maintains healt hy
skin.
Cracked lips, soreness
of mouth and tongue,
dermatitis, hair loss,
blurred vision and
dizziness.
Wholegrain
cerea ls, peas,
beans, nuts,
meat , eggs
and fish
Helps to re lease
energy from fats and
glucose.
Loss of appetite,
we ight loss, nausea,
depression.
Maintains healthy
skin, nervous and
digest ive systems.
Can resu lt in
deficiency disease
Pellagra .
Most foods,
especially
wholegrain
cerea ls, wheat
germ, green
vegetables, nuts,
eggs and fish
Helps to re lease
energy f rom fats and
carbohydrates.
Exhaustion,
abdominal pain,
headache, cramps,
"pins and needles"
sensation , more
prone to Infections.
Beneficial for nervous
system.
Converts cho lesterol
into anti-stress
hormones.
Vitami n B6
(pyrldoxlne)
Most foods ,
including
wholegrain
cereals, wheat
germ, green
vegetables, nuts,
eggs and fish
Needed for the
metabolism of
carbohydrates, protein
and fat.
Skin problems,
cracked lips, possibly
PMS, depression and
kidney stones.
Needed for the
production of
antibodies to fight
infection .
Helps maintain
healthy skin.
Vitami n B12
( cobalamln)
Liver, meat,
fish, pork, beef,
animal products
Detoxifies cyan ide
brought into the body
by smoking and food.
Pernicious anaemia
is a common cause of
vitamin B12 deficiency.
Nerve damage,
ca using t remors.
Mental deterioration,
menstrual disorder,
pigmentation of the
hands and t iredness.
Can resu lt in
deficiency disease
hypocobalamlnemla.
Vitami n C
( ascorbic acid)
Vitami n D
( cholecalciferol)
Fresh fruits and
vegetables, such
as citrus fruits,
kiwi fruit, West
Indian cherries,
ca llaloo, guava,
broccoli, peppers,
tomatoes
Needed for healthy
gums, resistance
against infection and
for the body to absorb
iron.
Fish, cod liver
oil, liver, eggs,
dairy products
and margarine
Needed to absorb
calcium for strong
bones and teeth,
blood clotting, muscle
and nerve funct ion .
Also comes from
exposure of skin
to sunlight. It is
made under the
skin
Needed to produce
connective tissue.
Helps to control the
amount of calcium
and phosphate in
the body.
Aches, pains, swollen
gums, nose bleeds,
anaemia, scurvy,
haemorrhaging.
Can result in
deficiency disease
scurvy.
Bone deformities
such as rickets
in children, wh ich
causes bones to
become soft and
weak.
Osteomalacia in
adults: weakened
bones, bone pain.
Vitamin E
(tocopherol)
Vegetable oils,
egg yolks, wheat
germ, nuts,
wholegrain
cereals, leafy
green vegetables
Antioxidant, therefore
slows down ageing
by protecting cell
membranes.
Anaem ia and
destruction of red
blood cells.
Needed for the
formation of red
blood cells.
Beta-carotene
Beta-carotene is respons ible for the colour of yellow and orange fru it and vegetables. The
body turns it into vitamin A and utilises it . Good sources of beta-carotene include carrots,
mango, papaya, spinach, sweet potato, pumpkin, callaloo, bok choy/pak choi and apricot.
Did you know?
Eating excessive amounts of beta-carotene can t urn the skin yellow in colour.
However, this is not harmfu l and wi ll reverse when consumption of it is stopped.
Minerals
Minerals are needed in small amounts to help the body function properly. As the body
does not make them, it needs a daily intake to help, for instance, build strong teeth and
bones and turn food into energy.
Table 1 .5 Types of minerals
Mineral
Best sources
Functions
Deficiency symptoms
Calcium
Milk and other
dairy products,
fish and dark
green, leafy
vegetables
Needed for teeth and
bones; essential for
blood clotting and
for muscle and nerve
function.
Bone loss (osteopenia)
and, if untreated,
osteoporosis. This
increases the risk of bone
fractures, especia lly in
older adults.
Phosphorus
Meat, cereal,
dairy products
Needed for bones,
teeth, and nerve and
muscle function.
Loss of appet ite, anxiety,
bone pain, fragile bones,
stiff joints, fatigue and
irregu lar breathing.
Potassium
Fru it,
vegetables
and grains
Influences nerve
function and muscle
contraction.
Muscle cramping,
weakness, constipation,
bloating or abdomina l pain
caused by paralysis of the
intestines.
Sodium
Many foods,
table salt
Important in fluid
balance and the
passing of impulses
between neurones
(nerve cells}; also for
muscle contraction.
Headache, nausea and
vomiting, tiredness, muscle
spasms and seizures.
M agnesium
Nuts, whole
grains,
green, leafy
vegetables
Needed for muscle
and nerve function;
also bones and teeth.
Fatigue, weakness, loss
of appetite, nausea and
vomiting. If left untreated,
magnesium deficiency can
lead to numbness, tingling,
muscle cramps, seizures
or abnorma l rhythms of
t he heart.
Iron
Meat, offal
(e.g. I iver),
nuts, egg yolk,
dried fruit
(e.g. ra isins
and prunes)
Needed for production
of haemoglobin (red
blood cells are able to
carry oxygen around
the body so efficiently
because of a special
protein called
haemoglobin).
Iron-deficiency anaemia:
Seafood, salt,
vegetables
grown in
iodine-rich
soils
Needed for the
production of thyroid
hormones.
Iodine
symptoms include feeling
weak, tiredness and
dizziness.
Deficiency can lead
to enlargement of
the thyroid (goitre).
Also hypothyroidism,
symptoms of which are
extreme fatigue, mental
slowing, depression and
weight gain.
Importance of water in the diet
Water accounts for approximately 60 per cent of body weight and without it a person
would die in a few days. It is important for body functions such as digestion, blood
circulation, transport of nutrients around the body and maintaining body temperature.
Insufficient flu id can cause tiredness and headaches.
Water is found in drinks we consume and in most foods we eat. It is recommended that
fema les aged 14 and over should drink around 1.6 L of fluid per day (about 8 x 200 ml
glasses) and males aged 14 and over should drink around 2 L of fluid per day (about
10 x 200 ml glasses). Children 4-13 years old should aim to drink about 6-8 glasses
(250-300 ml serving) of fluid per day and younger children need smaller drinks (120-150
ml serving). These recommended amounts are additional to water found in foods eaten.
However, more fluid may be required on hot days or if vigorous exercise is being carried
out, and less may be required on cooler days and if little activity is being undertaken.
Thirst is not the only indicator that we requ ire more fluid, another sign is when the urine
becomes darker yellow in colour; if adequate amounts of water are drun k the urine will
be pale in colour.
Digestive system
The digestive system breaks down food into tiny molecules that provide nutrients and are
absorbed and used by the body for energy, growth and cell re pair.
1' )
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Oesophagus
Stor ach
Liver
Gall bladder
Small intestine
Pancreas
Rectum
Llarge intestine
Figure 1.4 The main organs of the digestive system
Process of digestion in the mouth and stomach
Digestion of, for instance, a salmon sandwich, begins in the mouth where teeth chew
the food (mechanical digestion) and saliva helps to moisten it. Salivary glands produce
the enzyme salivary amylase to break down the starch found in the bread. The food is
swallowed and enters the oesophagus and then passes to the stomach, where it is
churned by the stomach walls and mixed with the gastric j uices. The enzyme pepsin
is released and hydrochloric acid provides an acid medium for the enzyme to work in,
helping to brea k down the protein found in the salmon.
Table 1.6 The organs of the digestive system
Organ
Description
Salivary glands
Produce saliva which moistens and softens the food. Saliva
contains amylase, an enzyme th at begins the brea kdovvn of
carbohydrates.
Oesophagus
Tube that carries food and liquid from the throat to the
stomach.
Liver
Large organ with many functions. Produces bile which helps
the digestion of fats in the small Intest ine.
Gall bladder
Bile is stored in the gall bladder.
Stomach
J-shaped organ that churns food to help break it down. The
stomach lining produces substances called enzymes that
break down proteins, and hydrochloric acid to destroy bacteria.
Pancreas
Produces enzymes that are re leased into the small intestine
to help break down protein, carbohydrate and fats.
Small intestine
Most of the nutrients in the food pass through the lining of the
small intestine into the blood.
Large intestine
Absorbs water from indigested food resu lting in faeces (waste
matter after food has been digested).
Rectum
Area where faeces are stored.
Conditions associated with the digestive system
Including dietary fibre in the diet is important to help prevent constipation, diverticulitis
and haemorrhoids (piles) as it absorbs water and binds other food remnants, therefore
ensuring the faeces are soft and bulky and pass easily from the body in minimum time.
Why don't you?
Research the information asked for to complete Table 1. 7. Make a copy and put it in
your portfolio of evidence.
Table 1. 7 Conditions associated with the digestive system
Condition associated
with the digestive
system
Definit ion
Cause and effect of condition
Diarrhoea
Constipation
Haemorrhoids
Irritable bowel
syndrome
Diverticulitis
Why don't you?
Copy Table 1.8 over the page and match the nutrients to their correct function.
Table 1.8 Match the nutrients to their correct function
Protein
Needed for healthy bones, teeth
and gums and res istance against
infection and for the body to
absorb iron.
Vitamin C
Important in fluid balance and
the passing of impulses between
neurones; also for muscle
contraction.
Calclum
Needed for strong bones and
teeth, blood clotting, muscle and
nerve function; helps to control the
amount of calcium and phosphate in
the body.
Carbohydrates
Helps keep the muscles of the
intestines exercised, prevents
constipation and provides bulk to
satisfy appetite.
Fats
Needed for normal vision, even in
dim light; requ ired for teeth and
bone formation; helps protect
aga inst infections.
Iron
Part of haemoglobin - a red protein
in red blood cells that carries oxygen
around th e body.
Dietary fibre
Antioxidant, therefore slows
down ageing by protecting cell
membranes; needed for the
formation of red blood cells.
Vitamin A
Used by the body for energy.
Vitamin D
Needed for teeth and bones;
essential for blood clotting and for
muscle and nerve function.
Sodium
Needed to transport fat-soluble
vitamins A, D, E and K; helps to
keep us warm as the fat layer under
the skin helps to trap body heat;
provides a source of energy.
Exam tip
0
Make up flash cards (usually 12 cm by 20 cm, index card size) which contain a
nutrient one side and their function on the other side. You can keep the cards
at hand to regu larly test yourself regarding the names and functions of the
different nutrients.
Figure 1.5 Label the organs of the digestive system
Why don't you?
Copy Figure 1.5, and label the digestive system organs.
Then, on a separate sheet, describe the function of each. This can be added to your
portfolio of evidence.
Useful links
Useful websites to research the digestive system include:
Inner Body: www.innerbody.com/image/digeov.html
Kids Health: http://kidshea lth.org;en/kids/digestive-system.html
Healthy diet
A healthy balanced diet contains adequate amounts and proportions of all the necessary
nutrients requ ired for healthy growth and body functioning. Poor food choices can lead to
a diet that lacks essential nutrients and therefore increases the risk of diseases relat ing
to poor nutrition. For example, if the diet does not include enough iron, anaemia may
resu lt, especially if the individual is fema le and menstruating. Iron deficiency anaemia is
a condition where insufficient iron in the body leads to a fa ll in the number of red blood
cells, resulting in t iredness and shortness of breath.
The Dietary Guide for the Caribbean, which helps to ensure a balanced diet, recommends
the following:
• eat a variety of foods from all of the food groups
•
maintain your ideal body weight
• avoid the use of or decrease your intake of fatty foods
• avoid the use of sugar
•
select carbohydrate foods that provide lots of starch and fibre
• decrease your salt intake
• eat iron-rich foods
• decrease or avoid the consumption of alcohol.
Why don't you?
Design a poster which includes the Food-Based Dietary Guidelines specific to your
territory. This can be added to your portfolio of evidence.
Did you know?
The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as •a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity''.
The six food groups
In the Caribbean, foods are divided into six food groups. The food groups are based on
foods that are commonly eaten and are easily available in the Caribbean. The Caribbean
Public Health Agency (CARPHA) promotes the six food groups for a balanced and
healthy Caribbean diet.
The six food groups used in the Caribbean are staples, legumes and nuts, vegetables, fruits,
foods from animals and fats and oils. Staples and legumes are the largest sections of the
whee l, showing t heir importance in the diet; the energy-dense group of fats and oils is t he
smallest, meaning there should be limited amounts in the diet.
Figure 2.1 Food groups wheel
Staples are the largest group and contain foods that are commonly found in the
Caribbean diet. Staples are an important source of carbohydrates. See Chapter 1,
Table 1.2 for types of carbohydrate.
Table 2.1 Staples
Staple foods
Nutrients
provided
Serving size
( most serving
sizes provide about
100 calories)
Amount that
should be
consumed dally
Cereal grains and their
products (oats, sago,
cornflakes, breakfast
cereals), flour and flour
products (bread, cakes,
cookies, pasta)
Mostly provide
carbohydrate,
protein,
dietary fibre, B
vitamins and
minerals.
1 slice of bread;
4 or more servings
Starchy fru its, roots,
tubers and ground
provisions (green
banana, sweet potato,
plantain, breadfruit,
yam, potato, dasheen
and cassava).
Roots and
tubers
are good
sources of
carbohydrates,
fibre, calcium
and vitamin C.
30g dry;
85g (or 1/2 cup)
cooked, such as
porridge,
30g (¾ cup) readyto-eat cereal
115g (as
purchased);
85g cooked (or 1
standard piece as
used in soup or
other dishes)
Wholegrain or wholemeal varieties of starchy foods (such as brown rice, wholewheat
pasta and wholemeal bread) contain more fibre and usually more vitamins and minerals
than white varieties.
Remember!
Potatoes are a great source of fibre. Leave the skins on (when possible) to keep in
more of t he fibre and vitamins. Make sure to wash them thoroughly before use.
Legumes (peas a nd beans) and nuts
Legumes are a good source of low-biologica l-value (LBV) protein. See Chapter 1,
Table 1.1 for more information about types of protein.
Table 2 .2 Legumes
Legumes
Nutrients provided
Serving size (each
serving provides
around 100 calories)
Amount that
should be
consumed dally
Kidney beans,
broad beans, split
peas, gungo/
pigeon peas, cow
peas, other dried
peas and beans
(dried peas and
beans are often
known as pulses)
Good source
of LBV protein
and complex
ca rbohydrates,
fibre, vita rni ns and
minerals.
30g dry
(or½ cup cooked)
1 or more servings
Peanuts, cas hew
nuts, sesame
seeds and
pumpkin seeds
Nuts are high in
fibre but contain
high levels of
fat, so should
be eaten in
moderation.
15g of most nuts
and seeds
Fruits
Fruits and vegetables are excellent sources of vitamins and minerals. See Chapter 1,
Table 1.4 and 1.5 for information about the nutrients they provide.
Table 2.3 Fruits
Fruits
Nutrients
provided
Serving size ( each
serving contains
around 100 calories)
Amount that
should be
consumed dally
Mango, sapodilla,
guava, waterm elon,
citrus (oranges,
grapefruit, limes,
tangerines),
pineapple, West
Indian cherry,
bananas, ripe
pawpaw/papaya,
golden apple/Jew/
June plum, passion
fruit, sugar apple/
sweet sop
Vita min C, water,
fibre.
1 medium fruit such
as an orange, guava,
small mango:
2 or more
servings
120 ml (or ½ cup)
fresh fruit ju ice;
80 g of fresh, frozen
or canned fruit;
80 g dried fruit
Vegetables
Vegetables are naturally low in calories and rich in vitamins and minerals.
Table 2.4 Vegetables
Vegetables
Nutrients provided
Serving size
Amount that should
be consumed dally
Spinach, dasheen
leaves, broccoli,
cabbage, bok choy/
pak choi squash,
pumpkin, carrot,
christophene,
string beans,
cucumber, tomato
and eggplant
(aubergine}
Carbohydrate,
vitamins, minerals,
fibre, water.
Raw - any amount;
cooked - 75g
2 or more servings
Did you know?
Dark green leafy vegetables - such as spinach, dasheen leaves, broccoli, cabbage
bush and bok choy/pak choi - contain iron , wh ich is important for making healthy red
blood cells.
Fruit and vegetables - five a day
Fruit and vegetables contain importan t vitamins and minerals and a variety of
phytochemicals (naturally occurring plant substances) that help to ensure good health.
Many of th ese nutrients also act as powerful antioxidants, which protect the body from
harmful free radica ls that can cause diseases, such as cancer. Studies have shown that
people who eat fewer than five portions each day are at a higher risk of heart disease,
stroke, hypertension and some cancers.
As potatoes are classed as a starchy food an d commonly replace other starchy foods,
such as pasta and rice, they are not counted as part of the five a day. For the same
reason , cassava, yams and plantains are also not included as part of the five a day.
However, sweet potatoes can be included in your five a day if they are ea ten as a
vegetable alongside another starchy food.
Remember!
Many nutrients found in fruit and vegetables cannot be stored in the body, therefore
fruit and vegetables must be eaten regula rly.
Food from animals
Meat and dairy products are a good source of high•biological-value (HBV) protein. See
Chapter 1, Table 1.1 for more information about types of protein.
Table 2.5 Foods from animals
Foods
Nutrients provided
Serving
size (each
serving Is
around 100
calories)
Amount
that
should be
consumed
dally
Meat,
poultry
(chicken
and turkey),
seafood
(fish, crab,
lobster),
milk,
cheese,
yogurt, egg
Meat is a good source of HBV protein,
vitamins and minerals, including
B vitamins (in particular B,), iron and
zinc. Red meats are excellent sources of
40-60g of
lean meat,
fish and
chicken;
2 or more
servings
haem Iron.
30g of
cheese;
Another excellent source of protein ,
vitamins and minerals is fish. Oily fish,
such as salmon, is rich in ornega-3
fatty acids.
Milk and dairy foods, such as cheese
and yogurt, are also good sources of
protein. They also contain calcium, which
is required for hea lthy, strong bones.
240 ml
(or 1 cup) of
low-fat milk;
1 egg
Fats and oils
Fat and oils provide the body with, of course, fat, which is important to health: however,
we only need small amounts of fat in the diet to help the body absorb vitarni ns A, D,
E and K. Fats help to add flavour and colour to food but are also high in calories. See
Chapter 1, Table 1.3 for more inform ation about fats and oils.
Table 2 .6 Fats and Oils
Foods
Nutrients
provided
Serving size ( each
serving Is around
100 calories)
Amount that should
be consumed dally
Butter, margarine,
ghee, coconut
cream/milk, meat fat,
nuts, avocado, ackee,
salad dressings,
mayonnaise
Fat, butter
and forti fied
margarin e
provide
vitamins A
and E.
1 tbsp of fats and
o ils;
3 or more servings
1 rasher of bacon
Did you know?
Most people in the Caribbean eat too much saturated fat.
Multi-mix principle
A food whee l (see Figure 2.1) can be used as a guide to help plan healthy meals. It
shows the six food groups; however, not all of the divisions in the chart are equal.
The size of each group corresponds to the nu1nber of servings daily a person should
consume from that group. The largest group is staples, meaning that most of the diet
should consist of foods from this group. Less food should be eaten from the smallest
group, fats and oi Is.
To help encourage healthy eating in the Caribbean, a food guide known as the
multi-mix principle is used. It is a system of combining foods from different base groups
to form nutritionally balanced meals. These base groups include four of the six food
groups: staples, food from anima ls, legumes and vegetables.
This principle is useful for most people, including babies, children, adults, the elderly,
vegetarians, those on low incomes and people with food allergies. It consists of three
categories - each is called a mix as it is made up of two or more food groups to help
ensure a nutritionally balanced meal. Staples should be included in all mixes, and there
should be no more than two per meal. Also, at least one protein source, preferably low in
fat, must be included in all mixes and can be from an animal or plant group.
cereal grains and
their products
Vegetables: spinac11 ,
carrots . s uash etc
Legumes: beans,
eas. etc
Food from animals: meat,
fish, mJlk, e s, etc.
Figure 2.2 The four base groups of the multi-mix principle: staples, food from animals,
legumes and vegetables
Creating a meal using the multi-mix principle
The simplest combination is called a two-mix because it uses foods from two of the four
base groups to make a meal. Using the staple foods as a base, foods should then be
chosen from an animal or legume source.
If a food item (base) is chosen from the cereal staple group, then the choice of the other
group could either be food from animals or legumes and nuts. If a food item (base) is
chosen from the starchy roots and fru its staple group, then th e choice of the other group
must be food from animals.
Combining the staples food group with foods from three of the other food groups can
resu lt in three types of mixes: the two-mix or double-mix, the three-mix and the four-m ix.
Two-mix meals
Meals from two food groups are often the cheapest to make. To be good for health, such
a meal must always use:
Staple+ peas or beans (e.g. rice and peas)
or
Staple + foods from animals (e.g. mashed potato and beef).
Why don't you?
Research a two-mix other than those stated above. Draw it onto a copy of the plate
diagram in Figure 2.3, and add labels. What nutrients are provided by this meal?
Ifll
l
Figure 2 .3 Plan a meal
using the mult i-mix
principle
Three-mix meals
Foods chosen from three groups make up a three-mix. They include:
Cereal staple + beans or peas + dark green leafy vegetables or orange vegetables
(e.g. rice, beans, callaloo/carrots)
or
Staple + beans or peas + foods from animals (e.g. pasta, peas, liver)
or
Staple + foods from animals + dark green leafy vegetables or orange vegetables
(e.g. rice, chicken and steamed spinach/squash)
Why don't you?
Research a three-mix meal other than those stated above. Draw it onto a copy of the
plate diagram in Figure 2.3, and add labels. What nutrient s are provided by this meal?
Four-mix meals
The healthiest meals include foods from each of the fou r main food groups and are
known as four-mixes. A four-mix includes foods f rom the following groups:
Staple + peas or beans + dark green vegetables or orange vegetables + foods from
animals (e.g. rice, peas, carrot and chicken)
Ideally, each day a person should
consume around five servings of staples,
two servings of legumes, three servings
of foods from animals and fou r servings
of vegetables. It is recommended to
include all four categories in the daily
diet: for example, a fou r-mix at breakfast,
a three-mix at lunch and dinner, and
perhaps two-mix meals in between main
meals. When staples and protein are
added together in a mix, vegetables
should be added. Fats and oils are not
included as fat can be added during
meal preparation.
...
-
Figure 2.4 A fou r-mix meal consisting of rice,
peas, carrot and chicken
Why don't you?
Research a four-mix meal other than stated above and draw and label it onto a copy
of the plate diagram in Figure 2.4. Wh at nutrients are provided by this meal?
Poor nutrition
M alnutrltlon means " poor nutrition " or ;' bad nutrition" and occurs when a person's
diet doesn't contain the right amount of nutrients, which can lead to poor health. An
inadequate intake of nutrients leads to undernutrltlon, resu lting in people becoming
severely underweight; however, overnutritlon results when people consu,ne more
nutrients (therefore more calories) than are required, leading to a person becoming
overweight or obese. Other signs of overnutrition include:
• diabetes mellitus
•
hypertension
• hear t disease
• joint problems.
Malnutrition may be due to economic constraints (low income). To prevent hunger,
poor families may eat foods with little or no nutritional value. Low income can lead to
increases in body weight, leading to chronic non-communicable diseases.
Obesity
A nutritious diet plays an important role in ensuring good physical, mental and social
health. A poor diet, such as regularly over-eating, can lead to many physical and mental
health problems, including depression and poor self-image. This can resu lt in a person
refus ing to socialise with friends and so feel ing isolated.
Diet-related health problems in the Caribbean are increasing and are a common
consequence of obesity. The World Health Organisation defines overweight and obesity
as ;'abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health " . A person is
considered obese when their weight is we ll above that of what is considered to be a
"normal weight'' for an individual's age and height. Around 25 to 30 per cent of adults in
the Caribbean are classified as obese.
According to the Caribbean Public Health Agency (CARPHA), the Caribbean is currently
experiencing a childhood obesity epidemic. They state that one in every five children is
overweight, and so is at risk of developing certain diseases in later life.
Did you know?
Energy density is the amount of energy or calories per gram of food.
The tradit ional Caribbean diet is a healthy
one, consisting of seafood, lean protein,
unrefined staples and plenty of fruit and
vegetables. However, these days the diet
isn't so healthy due to various factors,
including the consumption of energydense foods that are high in calories,
such as fried foods, and low activity
levels. This energy imbalance between
the amount of calories consumed and
the amount used by the body for energy
resu lts in weight ga in.
Figure 2.5 Weight is gained if more calories
are consumed than are used for energy
Being obese and overweight increases the risk of suffering from other potentially
life-threaten ing health problems, such as stroke (caused by the interruption of the
blood supply to the brain, usually because a blood vessel bursts or is blocked by a clot),
cardiovascular disease (conditions that involve narrowed or blocked blood vessels that
can lead to a heart attack) and certain types of cancer. It is also related to breathing
d ifficu lt ies, joint pa in and infertility.
According to the Department of Health Statistics and Information Systems at the World
Health Organisation , "In every region of the world, obesity doubled between 1980
and 2008." It found that in all par ts of the world, women are more like ly to be obese
than men, making them more vulnerable to diabetes, cardiovascular disease and
some cancers.
Other diet-related serious health problems
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a disease that affects the body's ability to use glucose (sugar) glucose is required by nearly all cells in the body - and causes the blood sugar level
to become too high. If a person is overweight or obese, they are at greater risk of
developing type 2 diabetes mellitus, especially if they have excess weight around their
abdomen. Type 2 diabetes is a common medical condition in the Caribbean. Typically, it
occurs mainly in people over 40, but due to increasing weight gain in younger people and
children, it is now affecting these age groups. It's a serious disorder, and if untreated
can lead to cardiovascular disease, blindness, kidney fa ilure and removal of limbs
(particularly lower legs). Treatrnent involves anti-diabetic medication or insulin and a
healthy diet and regular exercise.
Guidelines for the management of diabetes mellitus
•
Eat small portions of food.
• Avoid sugar-sweetened drinks.
•
Regularly eat fruits, vegetables and foods high in fibre.
•
Drink a lot of water.
•
Exercise frequently.
Remember!
The probability of developing type 2 diabetes rises sharply as body fat increases.
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
Blood pressure is a measure of the force of blood against the wall of the arteries as the
heart pumps blood through the body. Hypertension (high blood pressure) is a common
condition that involves blood pressure being consistently 140 over 90, or higher, over
a number of weeks. The continued pressure of blood against the artery walls may
eventually cause health problems, such as heart disease . Risk factors (factors that
increase a person's chance of developing a disease) for hypertension include:
•
high sodium (salt) intake
• being overweight or obese
•
lack of exercise
• drinking alcohol
•
smoking cigarettes
• family history of high blood pressure
•
high blood cholesterol.
Did you know?
Hypertension is a disease that is becoming increasingly more common in the Caribbean.
Salt
Table salt, commonly added to food , is sodium chloride. The term "salt" is now used on
food labels, rather than ;·sodium". Approximately 50 per cent of people with hypertension
have high blood pressure that is sensitive to salt (i.e. too much salt raises their
blood pressure).
Salt is found naturally in many kinds of food; however, more is added by food
manufacturers. Around 75 per cent of salt in foods is found in processed foods: foods
packaged in boxes, cans or bags. Also, salt is added while making many tra ditional
Caribbean dishes. It is unclear why, but people of African origin are more sensitive to
the blood-raising effects of salt than those from other ethnic groups.
Caribbean people commonly consume over 9 grams of salt a day. However, food
scientists recommend no more than 6 grams of salt a day in the diet . Children should
consume less salt, as shown in Table 2. 7.
Table 2.7 Recommendations for daily salt intake
Age
Maximum amount of salt that
should be consumed
1 to 3 year s
2g salt a day (0.8g sodium)
4 to 6 year s
3g salt a day (1.2g sodium)
7 to 10 years
5g salt a day (2g sodiu,n)
11 years and over
6g salt a day (2.4g sodium)
Reducing the amount of salt in the diet will help to reduce the risk of stroke and
heart disease.
Did you know?
Jerking is a method of cooking meat and poultry that doesn't include salt. It involves
marinating meat or poultry in a mixture of scallions (spring onions), garlic, thyme,
onion and lemon juice
Assessing a person's diet
Calories
A calorie (cal) is a unit of measurement of the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 °c. A kilocalorie (kcal) is 1,000 ca lories. Kca ls are
the units used to measure the energy value of foods.
The energy value of many foods is stated on the packaging. This information is
shown under the "Energy" heading, usually as kca ls and kJ (kilojoules - the metric
measurement for energy). To convert calories into kilojoules the calorie figure should be
multiplied by 4.2. See Chapter 7 for more information regarding food labelling.
Did you know?
One gram of protein provides 4kcals (17 kJ) of energy; however, one gram of
carbohydrate provides 3. 75 kca ls (16 kJ). Each gram of fat provides 9 kca ls (39 kJ) double that of either protein or carbohydrate!
Energy (in the form of calories) ingested during a meal and not used immediately by the
body for energy is turned into triglycerides and taken to fat cells to be stored. Hormones
control the re lease of triglycerides from t he body's fat t issue so ensure they can be used
if required by the body, such as during exercise.
Remember!
As a guide, t he average man needs around 2,500kcal (10,500 kJ) to maintain his
weight, and the average woman needs around 2,000kcal (8,400 kJ) per day.
Metabolism
Metabolism is a set of chemical reactions that occur in the body to maintain life.
Chemical reactions control body growth, repa ir cells, enable reproduction and ensure
organs function normally, such as the lungs for breathing and digestive organs for
digesting food. These chemical reactions require energy - the minimum amount of
energy the body requires to carry them out is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR) .
The BMR is the energy used by the body while at rest to maintain vital processes such
as breathing or keeping warm.
The metabolic rate is the speed at which the body burns energy (calories). The rate can
vary from person to person due to:
• age
• gender - male or fema le
• the proportion of muscle to fat in the body
• the amount of exercise and other physical activity carried out
• certain illnesses
• genetic traits.
Nutritional status
The nutritional status generally refers to whether or not an individual is eating the correct
amounts and types of nutrients and can be assessed by dietitians or doctors. If a person
has a healthy balanced diet rich in nutrients, they will probably have a good nutritional
status. A poor nutritional status re lates to a diet with an inadequate intake of nut rients
to meet the body's needs for energy, growth and maintenance, and help is requ ired to
prevent and treat malnutrit ion and diet-related conditions, such as coeliac disease.
Techniques used to assess nutrit ional status include anthropometric measurements,
physical observation and diet history, and laboratory testing.
Anthropometric measurements
Anthropometry means ;' to measure
the human body". It is used to
indicate nutrit ional status and is
helpful for determining protein
energy ma lnutrition. Anthropometric
measurements are used to estimate
the amounts of the various body
components, such as muscles and
fat. Equipment used to take these
• l
measurements includes weighing
scales and stadiometers (a vertical
measurement board or rod with a
Figure 2.6 A skinfold caliper
horizontal headpiece, used to measure
standing height). Other equipment includes tape measures and skinfold calipers.
The skinfold caliper is specifica lly designed for the accurate measurement
of subcutaneous t issue (body fat) and measurements are taken at specific sites on
the body.
-
To assess growth and development in infants, children and young people measurements
of height, weight and we ight-for-length are taken. The length of a baby can be measured on
an infant length board (infantometer). Head circumference is often measured with a tape
measure to monitor brain growth during infancy. Measurements are then compared to
specific data to help ensure normal development. For children who appear to be too heavy
for their height, a skinfold test helps to determine if the we ight is due to excess body fat.
To monitor a child's growth, paediatricians and other health care professionals use a
growth cha rt to record a ch ild's growth rate over time. A descending line on the chart
common ly means that the child has experienced a serious illness caus ing a decrease in
body we ight. A horizontal line is not ideal as it means that the child is not gaining vve ight,
wh ich may indicate an underlying problem. An ascending line on the chart is preferable
as it means that the child is gaining weight and growing we ll.
Anthropometric measurements used for adults usually include height and weight to
determine their body mass Index (BMI), wh ich is calcu lated by using either of the
formu las shown below.
BMI =
Metric
us
weight (kg)
we ight (lb)
BMI = - - - -2 x 703
(height (in))
(height (m)) 2
Figure 2. 7 Formula for measuring BMI
BMI can help to
determine if an adult is
underweight, of norma I
we ight, overweight or
obese. However, this
method is unsu itable for
pregnant women, ath letes
who carry a lot of muscle
bulk, and body builders.
Body Mass Index
130
• Obese
120
110
~
Nolm.JI
■ Undei"nel,fa
100
e,o
.,.
90
.s
j- 80
Waist-to-hip ratio involves
5: 70
using a tape measure to
measure the wa ist and
60
hips and then dividing the
so
wa ist measurement by
the hip measurement.
40
16(1
190
150
17'0
180
200
For instance, a woman
~tlncm
with a 37-inch wa ist and
39-inch hips wou ld have a Figure 2 .8 Body Mass Index chart
wa ist-to-hip ratio of 0.95,
wh ich is not idea l. If she reduces her wa ist size to 31 inches she wou ld reduce her ratio
to 0.79, a healthier ratio. The measurement helps to estimate the amount of abdominal
fat. If after a period of t ime there is an increase in, for instance, wa ist measurement, it
can indicate altered body fat distribution . A ratio of 1.0 or more in men or 0.85 or more
in women indicates too much we ight around the abdominal region, putting an individual
at increased risk of diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes and heart disease.
Table 2 .8 Waist-to-hip ratio norms
Gender
Excellent
Good
Average
At risk
Males
<0.85
0.85-0.89
0.90-0.95
~0.95
Females
<0.75
0.75-0.79
0.80-0.86
~0.86
Did you know?
Anthropomet ric measurements are often used to assess t he risk for chronic diseases
such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes.
Laboratory t ests
Biochemical measurements carried out in a laboratory can be t ime-consuming and
expensive. They involve a laboratory analysis of, for instance, blood or urine, which
is analysed to determ ine levels of specific nutrients in the body to see if there is a
deficiency or excess. Blood and urine samples are used to measure the levels of
glucose, fats and minerals in the body.
Did you know?
In recent times t he Caribbean has seen increases in the number of people with
diabetes, high cholesterol, heart disease and obesity.
Physical observation
There are physical signs that can indicate possible nutritional deficiencies or excesses.
The condition of the hair, skin, nails, gums and tongue are indicators of good and poor
nutrit ion. For instance, if gums are pale it could indicate anaemia; if the hair is very dry
and brittle it could be sign of thyroid problems; and blue nails may indicate a circulation
problem.
Why don't you?
Research how the condition of the hair, skin and nails is affected by poor nutrition.
Add your notes to your portfolio of evidence.
Diet history
Another method of assessing nutritional status involves asking the patient to complete
a diet and health questionnaire. During a consultation the practit ioner will ask
questions about medical history, including previous illnesses, diseases and surgeries,
and medications, as well as giving a physical observation too. The practitioner will also
want to find out about the patient's diet and supplement use and so will often ask
the patient to write a food diary stating what is eaten and drunk and at which t ime of
the day. Another method involves the patient reca lling what they have consumed over
a period of days; however this is often unreliable as the patient will probably have
forgotten some of what was eaten or may decide to omit certain foods, such as those
that are fattening, for fea r that they may seem greedy to the interviewer. A dietary
analysis is carried out by calculating the nutrient content of the diet.
Following the assessments, a nutritional care plan is developed and given to the
patient. An evaluation will be undertaken when the plan has been carried out for
a period of time.
Why don't you?
Copy the food diary table below (Figure 2.9) and write down everything you have eaten
this week. You cou ld include some pictures. At the end of the week consider if your diet
has been a healthy one. Compare with friends to see whether the ir diet is healthy or not.
---
My Food Diary
• •
•
Breakfast
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Figure 2.9 Food diary table
Lunch
Dinner
Snacks/ beverages
Why don't you?
Make a food group plate to help you remember the Caribbean food groups whee l.
Draw the six food group segments onto a paper plate, ensuring the size of each part
accurately shows how many servings should be consumed each day. Cut out pictures
of foods and drinks from rnagazines, then glue them onto the correct segment.
Alternatively, draw pictures of food.
The following resources are requ ired:
•
a large paper plate
• photos and pictures of various types of food
•
scissors and glue sticks
•
coloured pencils or pens.
Useful links
World Health Organisation (lists and describes many health conditions):
www .who.int/topics/ en/
National Nutrition Centre, Barbados (nutritional and practical guidelines for chi ldren):
http:// nutritioncentre .health .gov. bb/ pubIic/ uploaded_fi les/ GN HFSAug2015 .pdf
What is food safety?
Food safety involves safe food handling, preparat ion and storage in ways that prevent
foodborne illness. Accord ing to the World Health Organisation (WHO), at least 600 million
people each year, or 1 in 10 worldwide, become ill due to eating contaminated food , and
around 420,000 people die from food poisoning.
Microbes that affect food
Bacteria, fungi and viruses
Bacteria, fungi and viruses are also known as microbes or microorganisms. Some are
responsible for spoiling food by making it unappetising; others can lead to food poisoning.
Did you know?
Microbes are usually visible only under a microscope. A very powerful microscope is
required to see viruses, as they are so small.
Most foodborne illness is caused by bacteria. Bacteria are living organisms that are
mostly harmless and many are highly beneficial; however, some are harmful (pathogenic)
and can cause food spoilage and disease. Some of the most common infections
caused by bacteria include campylobacter, salmonella, shigella, E.coli 015 7:H7, listeria
and botulism. In the right conditions, the tiny bacteria can quickly reproduce by dividing
into two and continuing to multiply.
Did you know?
Salmonella and campylobacter survive for short periods of around 1 to 4 hours on
hard surfaces or fabrics.
When a person eats food containing bacteria that causes food poisoning, it will take a
while, common ly hours or days, before symptoms begin as the bacteria need time to
multiply in the intestine. The length of t ime depends on the type of bacteria and how
many are consumed.
Spore-forming bacteria, such as Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium botulinum, can
cause foodborne illness. As they grow, they form a "shell" which protects them from
heat, drying and chemicals. As spores are resistant to heat, the food industry uses
extremely high temperatures of over 212 F (100 C) and pressure to help destroy or
inactivate the spores when food canning.
Toxin-forming bacteria, such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) and bacillus cereus, are bacteria
that produce toxins (poisons) that can cause foodborne illness.
Did you know?
Bacterium is singular, whereas the word bacteria is plural.
Fungi include moulds and yeasts. Moulds are fungi tha t live on plant or animal matter
and can produce harmful mycotoxins. Common foods that become mouldy are bread,
cheese and jam.
Yeasts are fungi and are useful to the food industry as they break down (metabolise)
sugar in food , which resu lts in the production of alcohol and carbon dioxide. This process,
known as fermentation, is used to make wine and beer, and also bread. Yeasts are not
usually considered harmful, but they do cause food such as fru it and vegetables to spoil.
Viruses are very small infectious microorganisms and many are resistant to heat, drying
and freezing. The most common viral foodborne illness is norovirus; others include
rotavirus and hepatitis A and E. They cannot multiply in food as they need a human host
in wh ich to multiply.
People who are infected can spread it directly to other people, or can contaminate food
or drinks they prepare for other people. Viruses such as the norovirus can also live on
surfaces and fabrics. The majority of vira l infections are due to human-to-human contact,
with transmission of the virus through food, common ly through shellfish, being a minor risk.
Why don't you?
Copy and complete Table 3.1 with examples and descriptions of the microbes listed
above. You can add this to your portfol io of evidence.
Table 3 .1 Types of microbes
Microbes
Bacteria
Fungi
Viruses
Examples
Description
Food contamination and spoilage
What is food contamination and spoilage?
Food spoilage includes food that has an unpleasant smell and taste and an unappetising
appearance. It occurs over time and is often due to bacteria, fungi, damage, insects
or chemical reactions. The type of microbes that make food unsafe are not usually the
same ones that cause food spoilage.
Remember!
Many microbes that make food unsafe do not change the colour, taste or smell of
the food.
Foodborne microbes requ ire certain condit ions in which to grow and reproduce. They
need nutrients (food}, water and, for many bacteria, oxygen. Taking away one or more of
these factors will help the food stay fresher fo r longer, therefore helping to preserve it.
Food handlers can maintain food safety by controlling the following condit ions requ ired by
bacteria: food acidity, time, temperature, oxygen and moisture. The acronym FAT TOM will
help you to remember the six factors that contribute to food spoilage and contamination.
Table 3.2 Factors relating to food spoilage
Factor
How factors affect microbe
growth (mostly bacteria)
How to slow down growth
of bacteria
Food
Bacteria require food to grow
and live, particularly proteins and
carbohydrates.
Store and wrap food properly.
Meat, fish and dairy products are
particularly prone to bacteria.
Acidity
Bacteria prefer foods that contain
little or no acid. Pathogens
mostly cannot grow with a pH
level under 4.0.
Store food in an acidic
environment, e.g. pickles in
vinegar (acid).
Time
It takes t ime for bacteria to grow
in number. However, bacterial
growth will be quicker if food is
held at the temperature "danger
zone " - see Figure 3 .1 .
When preparing food , keep it out
of the fridge for the shortest t ime
possible.
Temperature
Bacteria grow quickly between
41 °F (S°C) and 140°F (60°C)
(the danger zone). Storing
perishable foods at 8°C or below
controls the multiplication of
most bacteria.
Ensure fridge temperature is
at 41°F (S°C) or below.
Chilling
Foods such as dairy produce
should be kept at a temperature
between 32°F (0°C) and 41°F
(5°C). This is typica lly the
temperatu re range found within a
refrigerator and helps to slow the
growth of microbes.
Freezing
Food is stored at 0°F (-18°C)
or below. This temperatu re will
ensure the microbes are inactive;
however it does not kil l them.
Oxygen
Microbes may be aerobic or
anaerobic. Aerobic organisms
requ ire oxygen; however
anaerobic organisms do not
require oxygen to grow.
Food packaging helps to prevent
oxygen coming into contact
with food. To further protect
food, the air in food packaging
often contains gases such as
nitrogen. Limiting t he arnount
of oxygen affects the growth
and reproduction of microbes,
therefore helping to preserve it
for longer.
Moisture
Bacteria require moisture to grow.
The amount of moisture available
in food is called water activity (A).
Microbes are less able to grow in
a dry environment. Preservation
methods include removing water
from food, wh ich is common for
foods such as dried foods in
packets and instant drinks.
The most controllable factors rega rding food spoilage and contamination are time
and temperature.
Did you know?
Many foods can be frozen, such as meat, fish and ready-to-eat meals. Freezing
maintains high standards of freshness and safety but does not kil l the microbes;
however, it will keep them dormant until the food is unfrozen.
The temperature danger zone is the temperatu re at wh ich microorganisms
multiply rap idly.
F
] ]O
C::
1iss•F
180"r
(74°C 82 q
1411'1'
Hot foods: 140°F
(60°C) or higher
~
140"f
(60"CI
1'20
110
100
Danger zone: Harrnful
bacteria grow rapidly
--------=,.,-----
40"1' 14'<:I
0
t
40'F (4'C)
~
Refrigerated foods:
40°F (4°C) or lower
CfF l-l
4-·· J
Frozen foods: 0°F
(-18°C} or lower
Figure 3.1 Diagram showing the temperature danger zone, where harmful bacteria can
grow rapidly
Did you know?
Potential hazards tha t may occur when producing foods can be reduced by a food
safety management system called hazard analysis critical control points (HACCP). It
helps to lower the risk of food poisoning and injury and also minimise quality issues
which would resu lt in customer complaints.
Handling food safely
Thawing food
As bacteria multiply quickly at room temperature (the numbers of bacteria that cause
foodborne illness can double every 20 minutes}, it is unsafe to thaw foods at these
temperatures. If left unrefrigerated, some bacteria can create toxins that can survive
cooking, even if the temperature is hot enough to kill th e bacteria.
There are three ways to thaw safely: in the refrigerator, in cold water and in
the microwave.
Table 3.3 Thawing methods
Method
Description of thawing method
Refrigerator
• After thawing in the fridge, items such as meat, poultry and
seafood should remain safe and maintain quality for a day or two
before cooking.
•
Red meat cuts (such as beef, pork or lamb roasts, chops and
steaks) can be stored for 3 to 5 days.
• Although some quality may be lost, food that has been thawed in
the fridge can be refrozen if requ ired.
Cold water
• Put the food into a leak-proof package or plastic bag (if the water
leaks out it could contaminate the area it covers, and if the water
enters the bag the meat will absorb some of the water).
• Submerge the meat in cold tap water, changing the water ever y
30 minutes so It continues to thaw.
• Small packages of meat, poultry or seafood - about a pound - may
thaw in an hour or less.
• A 1.5-2 kg package may take 2 to 3 hours.
•
For whole turkeys, it is rough ly 30 minutes per pound of weight.
Foods thawed by the cold water method should be cooked
immediately and also before refreezing.
• This method is faster than refrigerator thawing but requires
more effort.
Microwave
• When thawing food in a microwave, it should be cooked immediately
afterwards because some parts of the food may become wa rm and
begin cooking while thawing.
•
Holding partially cooked food can be dangerous as bacteria inside
it may not have been destroyed, and food may have reached ideal
temperatures for bacterial growth.
Remember!
When reheating food, it must reach a temperature of at least 162°F (72°C) to avoid
the risk of food poisoning.
Storage of food goods
Storing food safely and in adequate conditions at all times helps maintain the food's
quality, prevents contamination from insects and other pests such as rats, prevents
moisture reabsorpt ion, and helps to ensure th at food is safe to eat. It's important to
remember the following:
• All food items should be labelled and dated.
•
Using the FIFO (First In, First Out) method ensures that older items are used first. The
method applies to frozen, refrigerated and dry storage items.
• Always note th e expiry date on the food and ensure the foods with the earliest
expiration date are in front of items with later dates.
•
Food products must be tightly sealed as exposure to air may cause food spoilage and
damage by insects and pests.
• The dry storage room temperature should be maintained between 50°F (10°C) and
70°F (21°C). Foods commonly stored in this area include flour, sugar, rice, canned
goods and cereal, as we ll as some fru its and vegetables, such as bananas, onions
and potatoes.
Did you know?
Bananas can be stored in a refrigerator but the skin will turn black, which isn't
appealing to consumers; however, the flesh re mains the same colour.
Perishable foods
Perishable foods have a limited shelf life and often require refrigeration. Perishable foods
include meat, fish, poultry, milk, yogurt and many raw f ruits and vegetables, and cooked
foods . They are foods th at are likely to spoil or be harmful to eat if they are not kept
refrigerated or frozen. Less perishable foods, such as green vegetables, some types of
fru it, bread and cakes, have slightly longer shelf lives and do not necessarily need to be
stored at a low temperature.
Non-perishable foods
Non-perishable foods have a long shelf life and don't require refrigerat ion. Non-perishable
food s include dry cereals, dried foods, canned foods, sugar and flour. They have very long
shelf lives, as long as they are stored correctly. Sugar has a shelf life of at least two years!
Remember!
Eggs should be stored in their box in the refrigerator, as they wi ll deteriorate more
quickly when left out at room temperature.
Why don't you?
Now, make a copy of the diagram of a refrigerator in Figure 3. 7 and decide which of
the following foods should be stored in the fridge. Decide where you would place
the foods and draw the fo llowing perishable items onto the diagram: slices of ham,
packet of crackers, whole chicken, Jar of coffee, tub of butter, packet of cornflakes,
bottle of milk, tin of peas, lettuce, cucumber, dry pasta, pot of yogurt.
...-:::::: ::::::.
.l
:,
'
'
'
'
/
I
\.- 1
.......
,
<:;;,__
y
/
Figure 3. 7 An empty refrigerator
Why don't you?
Copy Table 3.4 and correctly match th e words associated with food safety with their
defi nitions.
Table 3.4 Food safety: match the word with the definition
Words associated with food safety
Definition
Perishable foods
This tempe rature will ensure the microbes
are inactive; however it does not kill them
Cross.contamination
Refrigerator, cold water, microwave
Controlling these factors helps to
slow down bacterial growth
Clean, separate, cook and chill
Danger zone
Foods that spoil easily
Bacteria, mould and yeast
Bacteria grow quickly in food at
temperatures of between 40°F and 140°F
0 °F c-1s 0 c)
Useful for t he production of wine, beer
and bread
Four steps that can reduce the
risk of foodborne Illness
Microbes
Yeast
Bacteria transferred to food from other
food, hands, surfaces or equipment
Three ways to thaw safely
Food, acidity, t ime, temperature, oxygen
and moisture
Why don't you?
Find the safety errors in this picture below and describe the implications for each
error identified.
....
_ ,,
Figure 3.2 An unhygienic kitchen
Food poisoning
Food poisoning is a general term referring to an illness involving symptoms such as
nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Most food poisoning outbreaks ta ke at least 12 hours
to show symptoms after the contaminated food is eaten.
Table 3.5 Bacteria responsible for common types of food poisoning
Bact eria
Types of food
Cause
Symptoms
Staphylococcus
Meat, seafood,
salad
Poor hygiene: foods
not stored at correct
temperature
Nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea within 4 to
6 hours
High protein
foods such as
meat, poultry,
fish, eggs
Contamination of
ready-tereat foods;
insufficient cooking;
cooked foods becoming
contaminated
Diarrhoea, nausea,
vomiting, fever
within 12 to 24
hours
aureus
Salmonella
Bacteria
Types of food
Cause
Symptoms
Clostrldlum
perfrlngens
Meat, pou ltry,
sauces, gravies
Poor temperature
control of hot foods;
recontamination
Cramps, diarrhoea
with in 12 to 24
hours
Bacillus cereus
Starchy foods
such as rice
Not holding or storing
food at correct
temperature after
cooking
Mild case of
diarrhoea and
nausea within 12 to
24 hours
Listeria
monocytogenes
MiIk, soft cheese,
vegetables
fertilised with
manure
Canta mi nation
Fever, muscle aches,
sometimes nausea
and/or diarrhoea
Campylobacter
jejuni
Meat, poultry,
milk, mushrooms
Insufficient
pasteurisation or
cooking; crosscontamination
Diarrhoea,
abdominal cramps,
nausea
Clostrldlum
botulinum
Home-canned
foods
Incorrect canning,
preserving or cooking
Blurred vision,
breathing problems,
paralysis
E.coli
Meat, cheeses
Insufficient cooking;
contamination of
cooked food products
Diarrhoea,
abdominal cra rnps
Figure 3.3 Food poisoning can be very unpleasant
Table 3.6 Other causes of food poison ing
Food poisoning
agent
Types of
food/d rink
Cause
Symptoms
Viruses:
Shellfish
Spreads easily
from person to
person or through
contaminated food
or water
Diarrhoea and vomiting
occur 24 to 48 hours
after coming into
contact with the virus
and last fo r around
two days
Untreated
water
Can be found in
contaminated food;
symptoms usually
occur 10 days after
eating contaminated
food
Mild diarrhoea;
abdominal cramps;
blood in the faeces
(possibly pus as well);
t iredness
Poisonous
mushrooms
or plants
Can also be caused
by contaminated fish
or shellfish
Diarrhoea, nausea,
and vomiting
Norovirus
Parasites
Giardiasis - an
infection caused by
a parasite
Cryptosporidiosis an infection caused
by a para site
Chemical food
poisoning
By pesticides
sometimes seizures
and paralysis
Keeping food in
unclean containers
Why don't you?
Rearrange the letters in these anagrams to discover the terms re lating to food
poisoning.
•
Ertalisil
• Vosunrrio
•
Leslanlaml
• hrdraoiea
• gmovitin
• respo
• ditoslcilmur muntbouli
• sepataisr
• celio
Food infection and food intoxication
Two main types of food poisoning are food infection and food intoxication. Food infection
is caused by ingesting (eating) a food or beverage contaminated by a microbe that
grows inside the person. Harmful bacteria include campy/obacter, salmonella, listeria,
c/ostridium, E.coli and shigella. Campylobacter is the most common food-borne illness
and is found in most raw poultry, such as chicken. It can be destroyed when the meat is
cooked at a high temperature, but if poultry is undercooked, some bacteria will not be
killed and food poisoning may result if it is eaten.
Remember!
Even one drop of liquid from raw chicken can have enough campylobacter in it to
Infect a person.
Food intoxication is caused by ingesting a food or beverage that contains a toxin
usually produced by a microbe growing inside it. Even though the food containing
the toxin is cooked to the temperature that destroys the microbe, the toxin is able
to withstand these temperatures, and when the food is eaten it causes illness.
Harmful toxin-producing bacteria include Clostridium botulinum, C. perfri ngens and
Staphylococcus aureus.
The difference between the symptoms of food Infections and food Intoxications
Generally, food infections take much longer to produce symptoms after eating
contaminated food than toxins do. Food contaminated with toxins will cause symptoms
to develop shortly after eating and may resu lt in sudden and uncontrollable vomiting
and/or diarrhoea. Symptoms from food infections may also last longer than intoxication
symptoms and are usually more easily passed from person to person.
Why don't you?
Copy and complete Table 3. 7, adding one example of each food infecti on and food
intoxication, with a description of each and t he symptoms.
Table 3 . 7 Food infection and food intoxication
Examples
Food Infection
Food Intoxication
Description
Symptoms
Preventing foodborne illnesses
When prepari ng food, it's important to reduce the ri sk of foodborne illness by fo llowing
four simple steps: clean, separate, cook, chill.
2.
/
/
I
~
\..
r .,.
\
,~ ,_
~
,
A ,,.._ J' \J'
\.'\
C :::>
3.
I~
C _:,
4.
~
-
Figure 3.4 Steps to help prevent food poisoning
1 . Clean
Wash your hands with warm water and soap for at least 20 seconds before and after
handling food.
Ensure all surfaces and equipment, including dishcloths, are clean.
Bacteria can easily be spread to food and utensils if hands are not washed correctly,
which can lead to food poisoning. Figure 3.5 shows the correct way to wash hands.
It is important to wash
hands:
• after using the toilet
•
•
'
•
having left the kitchen
and then returned
• after dealing with meats
or root vegetables
, ,___ _
• after coughing or
sneezing
·-------
.
..,._....,_
--------
• after emptying a bin
• after cleaning duties.
·- _.....,_
•
--- -----
Figure 3 .5 Food Standards Agency (UK) handwashing
poster
Why don't you?
Demonstrate effective hand washing to a partner, then prepare a checklist on the dos
and don't s of hand washing.
2 . Separate
Cross-contamination is a medium for foodborne diseases to spread and occurs when
harmful microbes, such as certain bacteria, are transferred to food from other food,
hands, surfaces or equipment. It is a common cause of food poisoning. Therefore, it is
important to prepare food safely by ensuring you carry out the following steps:
• Always sanitise a surface that has come into contact with raw meat.
•
Use separate chopping boards, kn ives and other equipment for food that is ready to
eat and raw meat, poult ry or unprepared vegetables. Otherwise cross-contamination
can occur from the raw meat or unwashed vegetables onto the ready-to-eat food.
• Wash fru it and vegetables before eating, especially if eaten raw. Root vegetables
may have some harmful bacteria If soil remains on their skin, as they may have been
grown in manure; therefore, ensure you thoroughly wash them.
• To avoid cross-contaminat ion, separate raw meat, pou ltry and unprepared vegetables
from other foods. When storing raw meat and poultr y for short periods, ensure they
are covered and placed on the bottom shelf of the fridge so that the juices can 't drip
onto other foods.
• Wash hands after touching raw meat, poultry and unwashed raw vegetables.
Remember!
You should avoid using wooden spoons, wooden boards and other wooden utensils
as they are difficult to sanitise.
Why don't you?
Prepare and act out a drama sketch to illustrate cross-contamination.
3 . Cook
Cooking food at high temperatures helps to ensure food safety as harmful bacteria
are destroyed. A thermometer can be used to measure the internal temperature of the
cooked food. It is important to:
•
Take the internal temperature. The internal tempe rature of poultry should be taken at
the thickest part of the thigh or breast.
•
Cook fish and shellfish to an internal temperature of 145°F (63°C) or until the flesh of
the fish is opaque and separates easily with a fork.
•
Reheat sauces, soups and gravies by bringing them to a boil.
•
Heat leftovers to at least 165°F (7 4°C).
Remember!
The colour and texture of cooked foods are not reliable indicators that a food is
safely cooked.
4 . Chill
Refrigerating certain foods
helps to slow down bacterial
growth so is essential
for preventing foodborne
illnesses. It is important to
ensure the following:
•
Keep the refrigerator
temperature at around
40°F (4 .5°C) or below.
•
Refrigerate perishable
foods (foods that
spoil easily) as quickly
as possible as cold
temperatures slow
the growth of harmful
bacteria.
Figure 3 .6 Food thermometer
•
Ensure the refrigerator is not over-full as cold air must c ircu late to help keep food safe.
•
Hot foods should not be put into the refrigerator as this can ra ise its internal temperature.
•
Never allow raw meat, poultry, eggs, cooked food or cut fresh fruits or vegetables to
remain at room temperature for more than two hours; they should be placed into the
refrigerator or freezer. If the room temperature is above 90°F (32°C), the food can remain
at this temperature for only an hour before being put into the refrigerator or freezer.
•
Large amounts of leftovers should be divided into containers for quicker cooling in
the refrigerator.
Did you know?
Oral Rehydration Therapy helps to replace fluid in someone who is suffering with
dehydration, commonly due to diarrhoea. An oral rehydration drink involves mixing
together one litre of clean water, eight level tsps of sugar and one tsp of salt. The
sufferer should drink some of this mixture as soon as diarrhoea begins, and medical
help should be sought.
Why don't you?
Create a leaflet giving information about the importance of ''Clean, separate,
cook and chill" when preparing food? Don't forget to add pictures to make it more
interesting. See Figure 4.2 to help you create a leaflet.
When serving food, hot food should be held at 145°F (63°C) or warmer and cold food
should be held at around 40°F (4.5°C) or colder. When serving food at a buffet, keep hot
food hot in chafing dishes and warming trays. Keep cold food cold by placing dishes in
bowls of ice.
Exam tip
0
Make up flash cards (usually 12 cm by 20 cm, index-card size) which contain
the information contained within Table 3.2. It will help you to remember how
factors affect microbe growth and how to slow down bacterial growth. You can
keep the cards at hand to regularly test yourself.
Why don't you?
Produce a poster to depict the basic steps to follow to reduce or stop the growth of
harmfu l bacteria. Before you begin, take another look at Figure 3.1. When you have
fin ished, present and discuss the poster with your class or group.
Why don't you?
Research the statistics provided by the World Health Organisation on illnesses and
deaths of people as a consequence of unsafe food practices. Focus on illnesses
and deaths that occur in your country and discuss implications for the fam ily,
the workforce and the govern ment. You can add your findings to your portfolio of
evidence.
Useful links
World Health Organisation (food safety information relating to this chapter):
www. who.int/ mediacentre/factsheets/fs399/en/
4. Meal planning, preparation
and dining
Choosing and storing fresh food
When planning and preparing meals, it is important to choose good-quality food and also
to store it properly to ensure fres hness.
Table 4.1 How to choose and store food
Food
Description
How to store
Fruit and
Vegetables
Choose fru its and vegetables
that are in season, as they
will be cheaper and of better
quality.
Depending on the type of fru it or
vegetable, it should be stored in a
cool, dry place or in a refrigerator.
Depending on the type, they
should be firm, fu ll of colour
and not wilting. They should
also be free of bru ising, mould
or insect damage. Fruit should
be ripe or a little under ripe.
Meat,
poultry and
fish
Meat, poultry and fish should
have a good colour and not
have an unpleasant odour.
They should be used by the
specified date and be in good
condition when cooked.
Fresh f ruits and vegetables
(West Indian cherries, lettuce,
herbs, mushrooms, torn atoes and
cucumbers), as well as produce that
has been pre-cut or peeled, shou ld
be stored in a clean refrigerator at
a temperature of 40°F (4.5°C or
below).
Raw meat, poultry and fish should
always be stored for a short period
of time on the bottom shelf of the
refrigerator to prevent drips from
th em contaminating other foods ,
which could lead to food poisoning.
When storing meat , poultry and fish
in the freezer, ensure it is properly
wrapped to avoid "freezer burn". This
happens when frozen food loses its
moisture and is damaged due to air
reaching the food. It is safe to eat
but food quality will be lost.
Eggs
Cracked eggs should never be
used as salmonella may be
on the eggshell and can enter
the egg. For this reason, it is
important to wash hands after
handling them.
Thorough cooking is an
irnportant step in making sure
eggs are safe.
Store eggs in a cool, dry place,
preferably in a refrigerator to help
increase shelf life.
Dairy
Dairy products are commonly
pasteurised, a process of
rapidly heating the product,
holding the temperature for
a short period of t ime, then
rapidly cooling it. This is
effective for killing bacteria and
so making them safe to eat or
dri nk; otherwise food poisoning
may result.
Keep dairy products in the fridge and
ensure they are consumed by the
;·use by dates".
Milk and cream should always be
kept in the container in which they
we re purchased.
To bring out a cheese's ful l
flavour, it should be removed
from the fridge two hours
before serving and be loosely
wrapped. However, if the
cheese has a high moisture
content, such as ricotta or
mozzarella, it should not be left
out of refrigeration for longer
than two hours.
Cheese, butter and margarine should
be wrapped and stored in an airtight
container and kept in the refrigerator.
Wrapping helps to prevent spoilage
from exposure to light and air, and
also protects the product from
absorbing flavours of other foods.
Milk may be frozen for up to three
months; however, freezing affects
the quality of cream so is not
recommended - it causes changes to
the cream's fat and affects its texture.
Butter freezes we ll but should be
fu lly wrapped be fore doing so.
Remember!
Rotten fru it produces a chemica l ca lled ethylene, which shortens t he life of nearby
fresh fru its and vegetables.
Did you know?
To freeze vegetables, first wash, peel and chop the vegetables into smaller pieces,
blanch in boiling water, then plunge into a bowl of ice water. They can be stored
in freezer bags in the freezer. Blanching is a method used to help prevent vitamin
losses, co lour changes, browning and unwanted changes in flavour (when preparing
vegetables to be frozen), and involves dipping cut vegetables into boiling water for
two to three minutes.
Meal preparation
Cooking food is important for destroying harmful organisms but is also needed to help
make food more appetising and easier to digest. However, cooking is also responsible
for the breaking down of nutrients. Overcooking food can result in vitamin loss so foods
such as fru its and vegetables are better consumed raw.
Preparing vegetables t o ensure minimum nutrient loss
To ensure minimum nutrient loss when preparing vegetables:
•
Slice or peel vegetables shortly before cooking.
•
Avoid deep peeling of vegetables, as this will remove vitamins and minerals found
under the skin.
• Avoid soaking vegetables as this can remove nutrients such as vitamin C.
•
Do not chop and shred vegetables too fi nely. Ideally, vegetables should be cut into
large pieces or cooked whole. For example, baked potatoes retain more nutrients than
mashed potatoes.
Did you know?
Microwaving broccoli helps to preserve alrn ost 80 per cent of its vitamin C.
Remember!
Steaming is one of the best ways to cook vegetables as more nutrients are retained
than when they are boiled. The colour and texture of vegetables may also be better if
they are steamed rather than boiled.
Nutrient loss can occur if foods are cooked in large amounts of water or with fat at a
high temperature. However, nutrients are preserved if the cooking method uses small
amounts of water or fat and does not require prolonged exposure to heat, such as
microwaving or stir-frying.
Nearly all minera ls are unaffected by cooking, with the exception of potassium, which
leaches (passes) from the food into the liquid it is being cooked in. However, most
vitamins are sensitive to heat and water. Water-soluble vitamins, especially most of th e B
vitamins and vitamin C, are lost from the vegetables into t he water; however, t he cooking
water containing the vitamins can be used in a food such as a soup to help make it more
nutritious. Vitamins A, D and E are fat-so luble and leach out of the vegetables into the
cooking oil. Only vitamins K and B3 are not lost during cooking.
Figure 4.1 Vegetables being steamed
Table 4 .2 Factors wh ich cause nutrient loss in foods
Nutrient
Heat
Vitamin A
✓
Air
Water
✓
✓
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
✓
✓
Vitamin C
✓
✓
Thiamin (vitamin B1 )
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Riboflavin (vitamin B2 )
Vitamin B6
✓
✓
Folate
✓
✓
Vitamin B12
✓
✓
✓
✓
Biotin
Pantothenic acid
Fat
✓
Potassium
✓
Why don't you?
Create a poster showing how cooking methods can cause loss of nutrients in food.
Planning meals for all stages of life
Infants
Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended up to the time of wean ing, after wh ich semi-solid
and solid foods are introduced in addition to breast milk, usually between four and six
months of age. When solids are introduced, the mult i-mix principle (see Chapter 2) will
help to ensure a healthy balanced diet. It is important for th e baby to eat a wide range of
nutritious foods that have a soft text ure; however, avoid giving spicy foods and only use
small amounts of salt during the preparation of foods. Recommended foods include fru it,
dark green leafy vegetables and yellow vegetables, iron-fortified foods and foods from
animals. As the in fant grows, portion sizes and t he range of food can increase.
Toddlers and pre-school children
Toddlers and pre-school children are usually very active and need to eat a wide range of
nutritious foods for energy and to ensure healthy growth. When planning a menu , it is
important to add nutrients including protein for growth, ca lcium for healthy bones and
teet h, and iron-rich food to ensure hea lthy blood. Offeri ng both a savoury and sweet dish
at mealtimes will widen the range of foods eaten .
Did you know?
Children should not be given swordfish, shark or marlin due to the levels of mercury
in these fish, which can affect a child's developing nervous system.
Children
Recommendations for nutrition are similar for children and adults. A child should be
encouraged to eat lots of different types of fruit and vegetables, as they provide fibre,
vitamins and minerals. Foods that are high in fat and sugar, such as butter and biscuits,
should not be eaten frequently. Solid fats should be replaced with vegetable and nut
o ils, as they contain essential fatty acids and vitamin E. A va ried and balanced diet will
provide all the vitamins and minerals that children need.
Sugar is often added to drinks such as fru it squash and milkshakes. If these types of
drinks are consumed, it should be at mealt imes; if they're taken between meals there
is an increased risk of tooth decay. It is recommended to drink water or milk between
meals instead.
Adolescents
During puberty, young people grow and develop rapidly, so as we ll as a balanced diet they
should also have an increased amount of certain nutrients. Important nutrients include
calcium, vitamin D and iron. Calcium and vitamin Dare required for the growth of bones,
and iron is needed by menstruat ing girls to replace the iron lost during periods, therefore
helping to prevent anaemia. Iron is also required to help with growth and repa ir of body
cells. Vitamin C helps the body to absorb non-haem iron from food ; therefore, drinking a
glass of fru it j uice or eating vitamin C-rich fru it and vegetables at mealtimes is beneficial.
However, drinking tea and coffee can reduce the amount of non-haem iron absorbed, so
should be avoided at mealtimes.
Food considerations for a pregnant woman
Eating a balanced diet during pregnancy will help the baby to develop and grow healthily.
A special diet isn't required; however, it's impor tan t that a wide range of food is eaten to
ensure the diet is balanced and nutritious.
Vitamin A (retinol) supplements and fish oil supplements should not be taken during
pregnancy as too much can harm t he baby. Therefore, if a woman is pregnant or thinking
about having a baby, she should avoid foods that contain high amounts of vitamin A.
Vitamin D is made as a resu lt of the action of sunlight on the skin. People who may
requ ire a vitamin D supplemen t include:
• women who are pregnant or breastfeeding
•
people who spend most of their time indoors
• elderly people
•
people of Asian origin who wear clothing that covers the whole body
• vegans.
Iron-rich foods such as meat, eggs, dark green vegetables, nuts, beans and for tified
foods (such as some breakfast cereals) should be regularly eaten throughout pregnancy
to help reduce the risk of iron deficiency. As previously mentioned, vitamin C helps with
the absorption of iron.
Ideally, vitamins and minerals should be provided by foods eaten, but during pregnancy
women may be advised to take supplements. The fo llowing advice is recommended:
•
Eat folate-rich foods such as green vegetables, brown rice and fortified breakfast
cereals. Folate helps to prevent birth defects known as neural tube defects, including
spina bifida, which affects the spinal cord.
• Consume 10 micrograms of vitamin D each day throughout pregnancy and while
breastfeeding to help bone development. Vitamin D controls the levels of calcium
and phosphate in the body and so helps the baby to get sufficient amoun ts of them.
These minerals are requ ired for strong teeth and bones.
Did you know?
Folate ls a vitamln that occurs naturally in foods; folic acid is the synthetic (man-made)
form of fo late, found in supplements and also added to fortified foods.
Remember!
Chapter 1 discusses vitamins and minerals in more detail.
The common expression "'eating for two" suggests that during pregnancy a woman
should consume excess calories; however, the dietary reference value for energy intake
during pregnancy is only an extra 200 kca l/day during the third trimester. This is similar
to the calories found in around three medium-sized pieces of fru it.
Did you know?
It is recommended that women give up drinking alcohol throughout pregnancy.
Remember!
Caffeine should be avoided during pregnancy; however, if caffeinated drinks are
consumed, the amount of caffeine should be limited to 200 mg/day, which is around
two cups of coffee or three to four cups of tea.
Elderly people
Elderly people generally requ ire fewer calories than younger people because their basal
metabolic rate decreases with age, as well as the amount of physical activity undertaken.
It is important that regular physical activity is carried out to help protect the body against
conditions such as cardiovascular disease.
Drinking sufficient amounts of fluid is importan t as elderly people can more easily
dehydrate than younger people. Fluids include water, orange squash or j uice, tea or coffee.
Vitamin C helps to form a substance made from protein called collagen, which is
requ ired for wound healing and repa ir of bones and teeth. Vitamin C is an antioxidant,
wh ich is important for blocking some of the damage caused by free rad ica ls (substances
that damage body cells), and so helps to prevent health conditions such as heart
disease and cancer. Vitamin C is mainly found in fruit and vegetables; however,
supplements are also available.
People aged 65 and over should take a 10 mg vitamin D supplement as, unlike when
younger, the skin does not readily make vitamin Das a result of the action of sunlight on
the skin. They are also encouraged to eat food such as oily fish, eggs and fortified breakfast
cereal (see Chapter 7 regarding fortification), which are good sources of this vitamin.
As bones age, the calcium stored within them may be reabsorbed back into the body,
resu lting in osteoporosis - a condition th at weakens the bones so they become brittle and
fragile and so easily fracture. Dairy products such as milk, cheeses and yogurt are good
sources of ca lcium, as well as leafy green vegetables and fortified cereals. Also, vitamin D
helps the body to absorb calcium and so slows the rate of calcium loss from bones.
Many elderly people suffer with const ipation for numerous reasons, such as not drinking
enough fluids or as a side effect of taking medication. Therefore, the diet should include
plenty of flu id and fi bre to help prevent constipation. Good sources of fi bre include
wholegrain bread and cereal, brown pasta and rice, and fru its and vegetables.
Why don't you?
Create a leaflet giving dietary advice for a particu lar age group. Use a an A4 s ized
piece of paper and fold it into three. Use the template below in Figure 4.2 to help you.
First page
Back page
Title
Brief summary
Auttiors
Figure 4.2 Template of leaflet
Planning meals for different dietary requirements
Vegetarian diet
A vegetarian diet does not include meat. However, some types of vegetarians eat fish,
eggs and milk. Meat is an important source of B12, therefore a replacement needs to be
found. B12 is derived from animals (i.e. meat, dairy products and eggs). It is also found in
yeast extract and fortified foods such as breakfast cerea ls, vegetable marga rines, soya
milk and soya or vegetable burgers.
There are many alternatives to meat for vegetarians, including:
•
Quorn (made from mushroom type fungus and egg wh ite)
•
textured vegetable protein (TVP) (made from soya beans)
•
tofu (made from soya beans).
These products are not tasty so flavourful ingredients should be added to make them
more appetising.
Figure 4 .3 Alte rnatives to meat include Quorn and tofu
There are various types of vegetarian:
•
a lacto-ovo-vegetarian eats dairy products and eggs and is the most common type
of vegetarian
•
a lacto-vegetarian eats dairy products but not eggs
•
an ova-vegetarian eats eggs but not dairy products
•
a vegan's diet is very restrictive as they do not eat dairy products, eggs or any other
animal product.
A well-balanced vegetarian diet is healthy as it common ly involves eating lots of fruit and
vegetables. Studies have also shown that processed meat, such as bacon, sausages and
ham, may be a risk factor for cancer. Also, eating foods derived from animals that contain
saturated fats may ra ise the level of cholesterol in the blood. High levels of low density
lipoprotein (LDL} cholesterol in the blood increases the risk of heart disease and stroke.
Reasons fo r people to become vegetarian include:
• to improve general health
• an objection to animals being slaughtered
•
religious beliefs
• environmental reasons (to reduce carbon footprint, conserve land and water)
• a dislike of the taste of meat.
There are health benefits to being a vegetarian with a healthy diet (assuming plenty of
fru it and vegetables are consumed):
• There is a lower risk of constipation, haemorrhoids (piles) and diverticular disease
since the diet will contain more fibre.
• Vegetarians are more like ly to be with in a healthy weight range, which helps prevent a
range of diseases, such as hypertension, joint problems, type 2 diabetes and certain
cancers.
•
Eating fru it and vegetables ensures sufficient levels of potassium are consumed to
help prevent or treat hypertension. Also the diet tends to be lower in salt; a diet high
in salt may be a risk factor for hypertension.
•
Incidence of heart diseases is reduced because of the lower intake of cholesterol and
saturated fats.
Vegan diet
A vegan diet does not include food that comes from animals, including eggs and dairy
products. The diet mostly consists of plants, such as vegetables, grains and nuts and
fruits. A vegan must ensure that a balanced diet with a wide range of foods is eaten. It
should conta in plenty of fru it, vegetables and starchy foods. Protein can be derived from
beans and pulses, and also from products such as soya milk.
It is difficu lt for a vegan to obtain all the nutrients needed from their limited diet,
although a dietary supplement can be taken, and so t hey need to carefully plan their diet
so they do not become deficient in certain nutrients, such as omega-3 fatty acids, iron,
vitamin D, vitamin B12, calcium and iron.
Omega-3: Vegans may have a low omega-3 intake as excellent sources include fish, so
they must obtain these nutrients from other foods. The richest plant sources are found in
seeds, nuts and oils.
Iron: Many vegan foods, including green leafy vegetables, pulses, seeds, nuts, dried
fruits and who le grains (such as wholemeal bread) are rich in iron. Iron absorption is
helped by consuming a food or drink rich in vitamin C, such as orange juice, at the same
time as consuming iron.
Did you know?
Menstru ating women may not obtain adequate iron through food alone, and may need
to take a supplement.
Vitamin D: Dairy foods are common ly a good source of vitamin D and, as plants do not
contain sufficient amounts, exposure to direct sunlight is important as it allows vitamin
D to be made in t he body. To help protect against skin cancer, on a warm sunny day it is
advised to:
•
stay in the shade, especially between 10am and 4pm
•
wear suitable clothing, including a broad-brimmed hat and UV-blocking sunglasses
•
use a (UVA/UVB) sunscreen with an SPF 15 or higher every day.
Vitamin B12 : As most vegan food contains little or no B12 , it is important for strict vegans
to find alternative sources. It is recommended that fortified foods, such as cereals, are
eaten and that a supplernent is also taken.
Calcium: A poorly planned vegan diet may provide insufficient ca lcium. Fortunately, many
foods and drinks, including nuts, cerea ls, fru it and vegetables (mainly dark green leafy
vegetables), ca lcium-fortified orange juice and soya milk are good sources.
Religious diets
Around the world, people choose to eat or avoid certain foods depending on
their re ligious belief. Table 4.3 shows the dietary habits of certain religions.
Table 4 .3 Religious diets
Religion
Description of diet
Muslims
Muslims do not eat pork and shellfish or drink alcohol. Meats that
are eaten should be slaughtered under Halal guidance. The Arabic
word halal means "allowed" and common ly refers to how animals
are slaughtered (by a ritua l slaughter and then drained of blood) and
prepared to make meat products.
Hindus
Hindus do not eat beef as the cow is considered to be sacred. A
lacto-vegetarian diet is fol lowed by many Hindus; however, their diet
varies by region; some follow a strict vegetarian diet, wh ile others may
eat meat hunted locally.
Jews
Jews do not eat pork or shellfish and food th at is eaten must be
kosher. Kosher is a Hebrew word that means "proper", and when a
food is kosher it means that it meets the dietary requirements of
Jewish law, including: not eating any non-kosher animals (such as
pigs and birds of prey), avoiding eating meat and dairy together at the
same t ime, and only eating meat that was slaughtered in a certain
way and then drained of blood.
Rastafarlans
Rastafarians believe that living things should not be harmed, so most
are vegetarians. A Rastafarian's diet, called ita l (which means "natural"),
does not include preservatives, such as salt, or chemicals. Rastafarians
generally do not eat processed foods or drink alcohol or smoke cigarettes.
Food allergies and food intolerances
Food allergies occur in 2 out of every 100 people; however, food intolerance is more
common. A food a llergy can be very serious, and occurs when the body's immune
system overreacts to a certain food that is eaten. This reaction triggers symptoms such
as rashes, itching, swelling and wheezing. In extreme cases a life-threatening reaction
known as anaphylaxis occurs and can result in death.
The foods that most commonly cause an allergic reaction are:
• wheat
•
milk
• tree nuts (such as wa lnuts, pecans and
almonds)
• eggs
• fish
•
• shellfish
peanuts
• soya.
Food intolerance may result if the body has difficulty digesting certain substances within
food, such as lactose found in milk. Food intolerance symptoms typically occur many hours
after eating the problem food and include wind, bloating, diarrhoea and stomach cramps.
Lactose Intolerance
Lactose intolerance occurs when the body is unable to digest lactose, the sugar found in
milk and to a lesser extent in dairy products such as yogurts and soft cheeses.
Coellac disease
Around 1 in every 100 people is known to have coeliac disease; however the actual
number is believed to be a lot higher, as many people do not know they have it . In coeliac
disease, the body's immune system reacts to a substance called gluten, a prote in
found in wheat, rye and barley, and attacks the small intestine lining. The damage to
the lining interferes with the absorption of food and so people with coeliac disease
become deficient in certa in nutrients. Coeliac disease is not an allergy or an intolerance,
but is an autoimmune condit ion. An autoimmune condit ion occurs when the body's
immune system attacks and destroys healthy body t issue by mistake. Symptoms include
d iarrhoea, wind, bloating, t iredness, anaemia and weight loss. It can be diagnosed with a
blood test and biopsy.
Did you know?
The Food and Drug Adm inistration (FDA) states that food allergens (e.g. wheat)
should be emphasised on food packaging. The allergens are usually printed
in bold.
Menu planning for a restaurant
It is important to understand the terms described in Table 4.4 if you are working in the
catering industry.
Table 4 .4 Meal planning terms
Term
Definition
a la carte
A French phrase meaning "from the menu" . Eating a la carte
means being able to choose from a list of several meals that offer
a separate price for each dish.
accompaniments
Items that are given separately to the main dish, such as
vegetables and sauces.
appetiser
A small portion of food or drink taken before a meal to help
stimulate the appetite.
batching
Refers to the preparation of meats and includes portioning,
marinating, wrapping of portions and packing in batches. The
batches of meat are put into containers and are placed in the
refrigerator or freezer.
breakfast
Commonly the first meal of the day. It is the "break'' of the
"fast", as it is the first meal after a long period of sleep.
brunch
Breakfast and lunch is combined to form "brunch". It is usually a
late-morning meal.
buffet service
Foods are kept in warmers and the consumer can choose foods
to eat from each warmer and put them onto their plate.
course
Part of a rneal that is served separately from the other parts. A
fu ll course dinner consists of meals, or courses. Examples of
courses include starters and dessert.
dessert
The sweet course eaten at the end of a meal, such ice cream
or cake.
dinner
Main meal t hat is eaten either around midday or in the evening.
Usually a heavy meal.
entree
The main course of a meal that usually consists of multiple
courses.
high t ea
A light meal eaten in the late afternoon or early evening. The
meal typically contains a drink and cake or biscuits.
hors d'oeuvres
A small portion of appetising food served before a meal. May
also be served at occasions such as a cocktail party, when there
is no other food served.
lunch
Meal eaten around midday.
main course
Usually contains meat or meat substitutes with staples and
vegetables.
menu
A list of meals and drinks available in a restaurant.
mise en place
French term for •·preparation''. It is pronounced meeze-on-ptus
and means that everything should be in its place, such as
glasses and flatware, before service takes place.
supper
The final meal eaten in any one day. The meal is similar in content
to lunch. May be a large meal or simply a hot drink and biscuits.
t able d 'hote
A restaurant meal, such as starter, main course and dessert, that
is at a fixed price, but there is limited choice. It is often known as
a set menu.
t able
appointments
Items used to set and decorate a table for dining.
Why don't you?
Copy Table 4.4, cut out the terms and definitions, mix them up and try to match them
back together. This will help you to learn these terms.
When planning a menu for an establishment such as a restaurant, the following should
be considered:
• the types of customers that are likely to visit the premises (is it a cafe or an upmarket
restaurant?)
• the t ime of year (consider appropriate dishes for Christmas, Easter, Valentine's Day
and other special dates during the year; buying seasonal produce will help to keep
costs down)
• the suppliers (choose a reputab le supplier of good-quality food)
• the number of staff available (if there are few staff it is probably better to have a
simple menu)
•
people with special dietary needs, such as vegetarians or those with allergies (their
needs should be catered for in the menu)
• nutritional balance (using the multi-mix principle can help to ensure that meals are
nutritionally balanced).
Customers want value for money, but it is also important to ensure that a good profit is
made. The ingredients should be significantly cheaper than the price of the customer's
meal, especially as staff wages and other costs need be considered.
Setting a table for lunch and dinner
The type of menu will decide how the table is set out. Two main types of menu are "a la
ca rte", wh ich consists of individually priced dishes, and "table d'h6te", wh ich contains fixedpriced dishes. Figures 4.4 and 4.5 show how the table should be laid for each type of menu.
c l'.'::!'>
tit)
I
~
(J
I
\
I
7..__;·
I
l
(.. ---'
Figure 4.4 A table laid out for an a la carte menu
-
Figure 4.5 A table setting for a table d'hote menu
Remember!
When laying a table, start from the outside and work inwards. For example, cutlery for
the starters, such as the soup spoon, is on the outside, but the cutlery for the main
course is on the inside. Putting flowers and/ or a candle in the centre of the table can
make the table look more inviting and attractive.
Why don't you?
Practise the breakfast table layout shown in Figure 4.6. How does it differ from the
layout of the a la carte and table d'hote menus?
Figure 4.6 Breakfast table layout
A buffet
A buffet is ideal for serving food to a large group of people. When planning a buffet, the
fol lowing should be taken into consideration:
•
Food can be served hot or cold.
• There are commonly two or three savoury items for every one sweet item.
• Agree a price for each guest. This helps with costings, ensuring a profit is made.
• Assess the equipment, t ime and staff required. If staff costs are too high, a profit may
not be made.
• Cater for all tastes. When planning the menu, include a variety of meat, fish and
vegetarian foods.
•
Ensure the expectations of the client are met. The client needs to agree the type
of buffet and food to be served to avoid disappointment. You should also consider
that many people have food intolerances or allergies and may require food that is,
for instance, gluten or lactose free. Nut allergies can be extremely dangerous so It is
important to find out what is contained within foods before serving them.
•
Ensure the buffet looks visually appealing by using garnishes and decoration.
Hot holding
Hot holding involves keeping food hot until serving to prevent the growth of harmful
bacteria which could lead to illness. Equipment such as soup kettles, cha fi ng dishes
and bain-maries can be used to keep food hot before serving and also to reheat
food. Thoroughly cooked hot food should be put into equipment t hat has been heated
otherwise food may not be ke pt at a high enough temperature of 145°F (63°C) and so
lead to the growth of harmful bacteria. However, if the food cannot be hot held it can be
displayed for up to two hours, but this can only be done once. Within the two hours the
food can be reheated until piping hot throughout and put back in hot holding equipment
or chilled to 8 C or below. If the food has been displayed for more than two hours it
should be thrown away.
When hot holding food ensure the following:
•
Keep food covered to help retain heat and prevent contamination.
•
Regularly stir food to distribute heat evenly throughout the food.
•
Use a temperature probe every two hours to monitor the food temperature.
Cold holding
Cold-holding involves keeping food chilled until serving to prevent the growth of harmful
bacteria. To help prevent food-born e illness resu lting from insufficient cold-holding ensure
the following:
•
Keep cold foods refrigerated until serving time.
•
Keep potentially hazardous foods at 41°F (95°C) or less at all t imes
•
Use a temperature probe every two hours to monitor the food temperature.
•
Ice may be used to keep foods cold but should not be in direct contact with the food.
Why don't you?
Research and discuss how each of the following piece of equipment is used:
• soup kettles
• chafing dishes
• bain-maries
Three main types of buffet are a finger buffet, fork buffet and sit-down buffet.
A finger buffet (also known as canape food) involves guests eating food using their
fi ngers. They are not given cutlery, so food needs to be easy to hold and eat. This food is
normally eaten while standing, as guests are usually expected to socialise at this type of
event. Allow for five or six items of food per person for a pre-dinner snack. However, if the
finger buffet is the guests' only food, allow around 11 or 12 items per person. This will
help you to work out the overall cost of the food.
A fork buffet can include more variety of food than a finger buffet because the guests are
provided with a plate and fork, and often a spoon, too. However, food needs to be sliced
or chopped so it can be easily consumed. Guests may stand or be seated to eat it.
A sit-down buffet often involves a "fu ll" meal so a fu ll range of cutlery is provided. After
choosing their food , the guest sits down to eat, so the table setting has to be considered.
More space is requ ired to provide this type of buffet and more staff are needed, such as
wa iters. Sit-down buffets are usually for more forma l events, such as a wedding.
Remember!
Cold food , if not cold-held, can be displayed for up to four hours; however, food that is
not hot-held can be displayed for up to two hours. See Chapter 3 for more advice on
serving food safely at buffets.
Never •·top up" dishes of high-risk foods such as mayonnaise. When a "high-risk"
food is running low, always replace the serving bowl with a clean, freshly fil led one.
Why don't you?
Plan a buffet by drawing a diagram of a serving table (see the example in Figure 4. 7)
and marking the position of foods and other items. Don't forget to include decoration
to make the food look colourful and appealing.
Butter Dish
Flatware
Napkins
Beverages
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Cold Foods
Hot Foods
Figure 4. 7 A suggested serving table layou t for a s it-down buffet
Instructions:
1.
Copy and enlarge the t emplate in Figure 4. 7, then cut it out.
2.
Fo ld the square in half lengthways and across the middle.
3.
4.
Turn the square over so the writing is facing down. Fold the four corners in to the middle.
Turn the square over again and fold the new four corners into the middle.
5.
6.
Fold in half so the questions fa ce in.
7.
Then choose a number and answer the question on the underside of the flap of
the number.
Put your fingers in the pockets and choose a colour; count the number of letters in
the colour (e.g. in blue there are four letters), and open the Chatterbox outwards
and upwards four times.
Why don't you?
Make the following Chatterbox to help you remember dietary advice for different
Iife stages.
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Give dietary advice
for a lacto-ovovegetarian
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Figure 4.8 Chatterbox template
Useful llnk
0
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Give dietary advice
for adolescents
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Give dietary advice
for toddlers
Give dietary advice
for an elderly person
-- ---- ------------- ' '
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Caribbean Public Health Agency: http://carpha.org/
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5. Food management, preparation
and service
Food preparation
Prepari ng food for eating involves selecting, measuring and combining ingredients to
produce an appetising and nutritious food product or meal. Sensory evaluation of food
is very important and involves using sight, taste, smell and touch to test food for certain
characteristi cs.
Food nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein and fats are very useful for the making of
many food products. See Chapter 1 for information about the different nutrients.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include sugars, starches and fibres and have a variety of uses when
producing food products. These uses include:
• sweetening foods
• thickening sauces and custards
• giving caramel its texture, colour and sweet taste
•
helping to aerate mixture (the beating of sugar and fat together in a cake mix).
See Table 5.1 for the functional properties of carbohydrates. (The functional properties of
food are the physical and chemica l changes that occur during food storage, preparation,
cooking and presentation.)
Table 5.1 Functional properties of carbohydrates
Functional
properties
Description
Food examples
Caramellsatlon
Heating sugar (sucrose) above its melt ing point
will resu lt in a change of the sugar's colour,
texture and flavour.
browning of
biscuits,
ice cream,
toffee,
cakes,
sweets
Dextrlnlsatlon
Dextrinisa tion only works with starch and is
respons ible for the colour and flavour changes
to food when they are grilled, roasted or baked,
such as the browning of bakery items. It is
also known as non-enzymatic browning or the
Maillard reaction .
bread,
toast ,
brown gravies,
sauces
Gelatinisation/
thickening
When a product contains starch, such as flour,
and it is added to water and heated it fo rms
a gel as the starch granules swell and then
burst. Starch is released from the granules and
absorbs the liquid, and so the mixture becomes
thicker. Eggs, pulses, cereals, sugar, fruit and
vegetables can be used to thicken liquids, and
heat is commonly applied.
sauces,
egg custard ,
potato soup,
syrup
Did you know?
Syrup is made by heating sugar and water (or fru it juice) together, and then reducing
the mixture to the desired thickness. To "reduce" refers to a method of reducing the
amount of liquid in a meal by simmering or boiling. The water evaporates and the
mixture caramelises, producing a syrup.
Table 5 .2 Food products made with carbohydrates
Food Product
M ethod
Roux sauce
To make a sauce, combine flour with melted fat, then cook, stirri ng
for three to five minutes. Gradually add the liquid. Continually stir
and heat until boiling point is reached (indicated by the formation
of lots of bubbles). When t he sauce has thickened, take it off t he
stove. Starch granules in the flour swell , rupt ure and release starch
which absorbs the liquid, causing the mixture to gelatinise.
Potato soup
Potato soup is made by combining chunks of potato with other solid
ingredients as we ll as liquid. The mixture is then heated. Thickening
occurs due to starch being re leased from the potatoes· cells which,
while heating, absorbs liquid and gelatinises, resu lting in thickening.
Protein
Most foods that are rich in protein are cooked before consumption. Protein is usefu l for
making certain food products as it:
•
helps to b ind ingredients together
• gives bread its texture and elasticity
• aerates a mixture, such as whisking egg whites in a meri ngue mix
•
helps to thicken sauces such as egg custard
• forms gels such as required to make j ellies.
Table 5.3 Functional properties of protein
Functional
property
Description
Food examples
Denaturatlon
Eggs are rich in protein that is made up of a chain
of amino acids that fold back on themselves
and have specific structures. Denaturation is the
process that involves proteins losing their shape,
such as when an egg is boiled.
raw egg to
cooked
Factors that cause denaturation of proteins
(unfolding of t he chain of amino acids), resu lting in
loss of shape, include:
• heat
meringue
(protein
denatured
during beating;
heat causes
coagulation)
baked/ fried
fish
• pH
• salts
• mechanical activity, such as whisking.
Coagulation
Foam
Coagulation is when something thickens from a
liquid to a solid.
egg,
yogurt,
When an egg is cooked it changes from liquid to
firm, and its colour also changes. This process
is irreversible. Other examples of foods that
coagulate include yogurt and cheeses.
cheese
Foam is made when gas (air bubbles) is added into
a liquid, such as in whipped cream and meringue.
To make meringue, raw egg white is whisked,
resulting in unfolding of the protein, leading to the
trapping of air bubbles and so a foam is formed.
If the foam isn't made stable it will soon break
down. Heating the egg white will set the foam in
place due to coagulation of the egg, resulting in
a solid foam. A foam that isn't heated will need a
product such as gelatin to set it, examples include
cheesecakes and mousses.
omelette,
cream,
sponges
Types of protein
l
Gelatin
Gelatin is a protein usually obtained from cows or pigs
and is made by boiling animal skin, tendons, ligament s
and/or bones with water. Mixing warm water with these
animal product s causes its proteins to unfold. When
the mixture is cooled it becomes a gel. Gelatinisation
is usefu l for making food products such as jelly and
confectionary.
'
Figure 5 .1 Gelatin sheets
Gluten
Gluten is a protein that is found in wheat and related grains, including barley and rye. It
is made up of proteins j oined with starch and is strong, sticky and elastic. When making
bread, kneading dough helps the gluten to develop, making the dough more elastic. The
gluten helps to ensure a chewy texture and the desired structure by aiding the trapping
of gases that expand during cooking, allowing the bread to rise.
Table 5 .4 Food products made with protein
Food product
Method
Meringue
Egg whites are beaten until the mixture resernbles a fluffy white
cloud and will form stiff peaks that remain in place when the mixing
blades are removed. Sugar is added slowly and beaten into the
mixture until it's thick and glossy. Vanilla extract is often added to
improve flavour. Blobs of meringue are then placed onto baking
trays and placed in an oven to bake.
Egg Custard
Milk is added to a saucepan and allowed to simmer over a low
heat. Eggs, sugar and vanilla are whisked together. The egg mixture
is poured slowly into the simmeri ng milk and whisked gently to
combine. The mixture is poured through a fine strainer into cups or
ramekins, then nutmeg is sprinkled on top.
Hot (not boiling) water is put into a pan until it reaches halfway up
the sides of the cups/ramekins. The custard is baked until it's set
but still a little loose. The custard is cooled before serving.
Fats
Fats play an important role in the production of certain food products. They help to:
• add flavour
• aerate (introduce air into) mixtures, such as creamed cake mix
• moisten a baked mixture, such as a cake
•
provide the desired texture for d ifferent types of foods, such as pastry and biscuits
• act as an emulsifying agent to stop two liquids from separating. Mayonnaise is
an emu lsion as it's a mixture of two liquids (fat and water) that normally can't be
combined and so will separate. Mayonnaise is made by slowly adding oil to an egg
yolk, while mixing rapidly to distri bute the oil. The lecithin and protein in the egg
yolk help to prevent the oil and water from separating in the mixture; therefore, the
emulsifier is egg yolk and is also a stabiliser.
Table 5.5 Functional properties of fat
Functional
property
Description
Food examples
Emulsification
Oil and water do not mix, so will be separated in
a solution. An addit ional ingredient, such as egg
yolk, salt , paprika or mustard, is requ ired as they
are able to wrap around the small oil droplets,
preventing them from joining back together.
mayonnaise,
gravy,
cheese
Functional
propert y
Description
Food examples
Shorteni ng
Shortening refers to any fat used in baking: butter, fla ky pastry,
margarine, lard, vegetable oil and shortening. Fats pie crusts
help to "shorten" pastry and give it a crumbly or
flaky texture.
The crumbly texture forms when fat covers the
flour particles; therefore, the particles are unable
to absorb water. This reduces the development
of gluten found inside the flour and so the dough
will be less stretchy. It is known as shortening
as any gluten strands that are able to form are
"shortened".
Pl asticity
Fats and oils are mixtures of triglycerides and melt
at varying temperatures. Fat, such as margarine,
can be moulded or pressed into various shapes
without brea king, which is a property of fat known
as plasticity, and makes some fats spreadable.
margarine ,
chocolate
Some fats, such as vegetable oils, are liquid at
room temperature and others, like animal fats,
are solid.
Foods such as margarine are made with fats that
have lower melting points so they can spread
easily, even when being taken from the fridge.
Vegetable oils have a higher melting point.
Remember!
Exposure to oxygen resu lts in oxidation of the oil and so it becomes rancid, resu lting
in discolourat ion and the development of "off" flavours.
Why don't you?
Design a series of posters that show the functional properties of carbohydrates,
proteins and fat. Cut photos from magazines, draw or use photographs to illustrate
your posters.
Combining foods to make food products
Food products are often made by combining va rious ingredients which, when mi xed, react
with each other, such as ra ising agents.
The role of raising agent s
Raising (or leavenIng) agents are added to foods
to make them rise; this occurs because of the
production of bubbles of gas inside the product.
,,
-
~ ~
Figure 5.2 A cake needs rai sing
agent to make it rise
They are used in the making of cakes and breads, and ensure that mousses and souffles
are light and fluffy. A cake that is cooked without using a ra ising agent will be moist,
stodgy and flat, as air bubbles have not been produced inside the mixture.
Aeration
Aeration is a process that helps to add air into a mixture of ingredients to make the food
product lighter and/or to create more volume. Air can be introduced to mixtures in a
number of ways, including rnechanical aeration, chemical aeration and biological aeration.
Table 5.6 Aeration methods
Aeration method
Description
Mechanical
aeration
Mechanical or physical aerating incorporates air into a mixture
by sieving, creaming, whisking, beating, folding and rolling, or
rubbing in.
Chemical aeration
Chemical aeration is the addit ion of chemicals, such as baking
powder or bicarbonate of soda, to create carbon dioxide gas
bubbles. While cooking, some of this gas becomes trapped
inside the food and expands and pushes up and out,
creating holes.
Blologlcal aeration
Biological aeration is the addition of a bio logical agent, such
as yeast, to create gas bubbles. Yeast turns carbohydrates
(sugars) to carbon dioxide by the process known as
fermentation, which occurs when yeast is mixed with sugar
and warm, moist conditions. When the fermented yeast is
added to flour and warm liquid, such as when making bread,
it increases in size wh ile "proving" . Proving involves leaving
dough in a warm place until it doubles in size.
Why don't you?
Try th e experiment described in Table 5. 7, which helps to demonstrate that yeast
creates gas bubbles. After the experiment, write an explanation about what caused
the balloon to expand.
Table 5. 7 Experiment to show that yeast creates gas bubbles
What you
wlll need
1 rubber balloon
Small empty water bottle or similar
1 packet of active dry yeast
2 tablespoons of sugar
1 cup of warm water (105°F-115°F/41°C-46°C)
Method
1.
Loosen the rubber of the balloon by blowing it up several t imes and
then letting it deflate.
2.
Add the yeast and sugar to the cup of warm water and stir.
3.
When the yeast and sugar are dissolved, pour the contents into the
bottle. (The yeast will produce CO 2 and form bubbles as a resu lt).
4.
Put the opening of the balloon over the lid of the bottle, ensuring
there are no gaps.
5.
After a t ime, the balloon should begin to inflate.
Foods that require aeration include meringues, scones, cakes and bread.
Meringues
To make a meringue, egg whites need to be whisked to produce a foam. The foam is
then folded with other ingredients, such as sugar, to create a light mixture. This causes
the protein in egg white to denature (lose its structure) and so air becomes trapped in
the mixture, resulting in a light and fluffy meringue.
Scones
Scones are made by combining self-raising flour with other ingred ients and then baking.
Raising agents in the self-ra ising flour (commonly baking powder) react with water to
produce carbon dioxide gas, which expands on heating and so creates small bubbles.
Cakes
To produce a cake, baking powder is added to flour, mixed with other ingredients and
then baked. Baking powder reacts with water to produce carbon dioxide gas, which
expands on heating, creating the light texture.
Did you know?
Bulklng forms the main part of the recipe, such as flour in biscuits, pastry and cakes;
oats in muesli; and rice in risotto.
Bread
To make bread, dried yeast is added to a flour mixture and liquid. The resulting dough
is kneaded and left to rise (to prove) then baked. Yeast releases carbon dioxide and
alcohol during rising and baking, causing the dough to expand due to the formation of
small bubbles within in the bread - the alcohol and water evaporate during baking.
Did you know?
Adding too much sugar to a yeast dough mixture interferes with the action of the
yeast, resu lting in a dense texture.
Table 5 .8 Combining foods
Process
Description
Binding
Binding is the process of combining dry ingredients together with another
ingredien t so that they stick together and a shape can be formed. Eggs,
fats, flour and cereals are used to bind ingredients. An example is a
pancake: milk is whisked with other ingredients until a smooth batter is
formed. Egg protein is dispersed by the milk and suspends the flour's
starch granules. An egg is used when making a fish cake because when
it is mixed with other ingredients the raw egg protein coagulates when
cooked, resulting in the product holding together.
Enrobing
En robing involves coating or wrapping a food with another ingredient;
for example, biscuits are coated or enrobed with chocolate. Foods
such as fish and chicken pieces can be coated in either a batter mix or
breadcrumbs (beaten eggs help the breadcrumbs to stick to food) and are
then cooked. Enrobing can be used to introduce a wide variety of different
flavourings into food .
Setting
Many sweet and savoury food products use gelling agents to make them
set. Gelling agents include gelatin (sold as a powder and in sheets), agar
agar (comes from a type of seaweed} and starches such as cornflour.
Gelatin is commonly used to set jellies and mousses.
Table 5.9 Common baking terms
Baking t erm
Description
Baking blind
Blind baking is the process of baking pastry before a fi lling is
added. It ensures a crisp fin ish and that the crust is fu lly baked in
preparation for adding fi llings that do not need to be baked or that
need to be cooked at low temperatures, either to prevent them from
burning or to allow them to set.
Bat ter
A mixture of flour, liquid and other ingredients that is thin enough to
pour, such as cake batter.
Beating
Beating involves vigorous mixing of ingredients using a spoon, fork,
whisk or electrical item such as a food mixer. It ensures ingredients
are thoroughly mixed together and also t raps air into the mixture,
helping to make cakes light and give a spongy texture.
Creaming
Creaming is a type of beating that involves combining ingredients
together, for example granulated sugar with a solid fat like shortening
or butter, and beating them until light, soft and creamy. As the
mixture becomes aerated it helps to make cakes light and to add
volume.
Curdling
Curdling involves a mixture becoming lumpy due to its component parts
separating. It can occur during baking if eggs are added too quickly to
the mixture or are too cold. Creaming the butter and sugar thoroughly,
so the mixture is light and fluffy, will help to prevent curd ling.
Folding In
A lighter ingredient, such as wh isked egg wh ite, can be folded into a
heavier mixtu re, such as batter. To mix the ingredients, a large spoon
or large rubber spatula is used to gently fold the mixture. This helps
to ensure a light texture.
Icing/
frosting
Cakes can be covered with various types of icing:
icing is made by beating icing sugar into water. Flavourings
• Glace
such as orange and chocolate may be added.
• Buttercream is made by creaming butter with icing sugar, vanilla
and milk.
Cream cheese Icing or frosting is made by beating icing sugar,
• butter
and cream cheese together.
Icing is made by mixing together fondant icing sugar and
• Fondant
wate r. However, it is common ly bought ready-made and is known
as ready-to-roll icing or rega l ice.
Icing is made by beating together icing sugar and egg
• Royal
wh ites. It is a glossy, runny icing that sets hard and is common ly
used for coveri ng wedd ing cakes.
Rubbing in
This method involves using the fingertips to squeeze hard fat (butter,
margarine or lard) into flour by rubbing them until combined.
Sifting
A s ieve can be used to sift ingredients such as flour and icing sugar
to help prevent lumps and also to help aerate a mixture.
Whipping
The wh ipping method common ly involves using a wh isk or electric
mixer to beat ingredients such as cream or eggs. When cream or
egg wh ites are wh ipped, air gets t rapped inside and ca uses the
ingredient to foam, increasing the volume.
Zesting
The zest is the outer peel of citrus fruit, such as a lemon, and Is
often added to cakes to give flavour. To create zest, rub the fru it
lightly against a grater - but avoid scraping off the bitter white pith
underneath the outer peel.
Finishing techniques
Finishing techniques are used to make the food look appealing, and therefore more
enj oyable to eat. For example:
•
Browning uses fats, eggs, sugar, milk, flour or oil, which darken a food when heated.
Honey is commonly spread over ham before roasting because it caramelises, giving a
shiny brown appearance.
•
Glazing adds a shiny coating to the top of foods and is applied by dipping, dripping or
using a brush. Examples include a sugar and water glaze on doughnuts, and pastry
brushed with beaten egg before cooking (the glazing in this case occurs due to
coagulation of egg proteins and the Maillard reaction).
Food additives
Food addit ives can be either natural or artificial, and are added to a product to improve
its properties, such as improving taste or extending shelf life.
Natural additives occur naturally in foods and are extracted and put into other foods. An
example is caramelised sugar, which is used as a colouring in cola. Artificial addit ives do
not occur naturally. They are made synthetically (in laboratories), for example, tartrazine is
a synthetic colouring added to some sweets to make them yellow.
Uses for additives
Both natural and artificial additives are used for many different purposes in the
food industry:
Preservatives extend the shelf life of a product by preventing bacteria from growing.
Preservat ives include:
• sugar to preserve foods such as jam
• vinegar to pickle foods like cucumbers and onions (bacteria cannot live in acidic
condit ions; as vinegar is acidic, it makes an ideal preservative)
• salt to cure meat and fish , such as ham, bacon and salt fish (salt absorbs water from
bacteria, which destroys them).
Flavourings can be used to improve the taste of a food product. Vanilla flavouring can
either be artificial, such as from vanilla essence, or natural, such as from vanilla pods,
and is often added to cakes and biscuits.
Acidity and temperature
Foods and ingredients may be acidic, neutra l or alka line. Acidity and alka linity of food
can be measured on a pH scale, which runs from 1 to 14. A strong acid will have a pH of
around 1, and a strong alka li will have a high pH value of around 14.
Acidity or alka linity affect the flavour, texture and appearance of food , and also the rate
at which microorganisms grow within food. Some foods, such as citrus fru its, are acidic;
however, ingredients such as bicarbonate of soda and cornflour are alka line but have a
bitter aftertaste. Bicarbonate of soda needs to be used with a strong flavour, such as
ginger or chocolate, to mask its bitter taste.
Remember!
Ac idity and temperature affect how quickly food deteriorates.
Did you know?
Foods that are neither acidic nor alka line, like pure water, are called neutral and have
a pH value of 7.
Acidity or all<alinity can affect food in the fo llowing ways:
• Acidic fru it mixed wit h milk will cause the mixture to curdle.
•
Bicarbonate of soda (an alka line} acts as a raising agent during baking.
•
Lemon j uice (acidic) helps prevent fru its like apples from turning brown.
• Vinegar (acidic) is added to meringue, such as a pavlova, to give it a soft
marshmallow texture.
Did you know?
Tenderising means breaking down fibres (collagens) in meat to make it more tender
and appetising. This can be done by pounding meat with a mallet, cooking it slowly,
or marinating it in something acidic such as papain, pineapple, lime and lemon juice,
vinegar or wine.
Practical cooking skills
The charts in Figure 5.3 give guidance in measurement conversions for ingredients and
oven temperatures.
Measurements
Why don't you?
Copy t he measuring cups in Figure 5.4, then shade the amount stated below each
cup onto each container.
a)
Liquid measurement conversion chart
Cup
Fluid ounces
Tablespoons
Teaspoons
MIiiiiiters
1 cup
8 oz
16 t bsp
48 tsp
237 ml
¾ cup
6 oz
12 tbsp
36 tsp
177 ml
2/3 cup
5 oz
11 t bsp
32 tsp
158 ml
½ cup
4 oz
8 tbsp
24 tsp
118 ml
1/3 cup
3 oz
5 t bsp
26 tsp
79ml
¼ cup
2 oz
4 tbsp
12 tsp
59ml
1/8 cup
1 oz
2 tbsp
6 tsp
30ml
1/16 cup
½ oz
1 tbsp
3 tsp
15 ml
b)
Ingredient
1 cup
¾ cup
2/3 cup
½cup
1/3 cup
¼ cup
2 tbsp
Flour
120g
90g
80g
60g
40g
30g
15g
Sugar
200g
150g
130g
110g
65g
50g
25g
Cornflour
120g
9 0g
8 0g
60g
40g
30g
15g
Rice ( uncooked)
190g
140g
125g
95g
65g
48g
24g
Oats ( uncooked)
90g
65g
60g
45g
30g
22g
l lg
Butter
240g
180g
160g
120g
80g
60g
30g
Veget able shortening
190g
140g
125g
95g
65g
48g
24g
Breadcrumbs ( fresh)
60g
45g
40g
30g
20g
15g
l Og
c) Oven temperatures
conversion chart
Slow cook
300-325°F
149-163°C
Moderate heat
350-375°F
177-191°C
High heat
400-425°F
204-218°C
Very hot
450-475°F
232-246°C
Figure 5.3 Measurement conversion charts
,500ml
2 cups
500 1111
2 cups
350 m l
11/2 cup
350ml
11/2 cup
3 00 ml
11/4 cup
300 m l
11/4 cup
250 ml
1cups
250 m l
cu ps
200ml
3/4 cup
200 n,1
3/4 cup
100ml
1/4 cup
L . . . - 1
_12_o_m1_____.JI
;;;;;::~
500 1111
cups
350ml
11/2 c up
300ml
1/4 cup
250ml
cups
200 1111
3/4 c up
100ml
250m l
500 1111
cups
350 1111
11/2 cup
300 1111
1/4 c up
250 1111
cups
200 n1I
/4 cup
100ml
2/3 cup
Figure 5.4 Measuring cups
Preparing fruit and vegetables
safely using a knife
The "claw grip" and "bridge hold" are
techniques that help to prevent injury when
cutting foods such as fru it and vegetables.
The claw grip
The claw grip involves making a claw shape
with your hand by partly bending your fingers
together. The other hand is used to cut the food
with a kn ife. The flats of the knuckles are used
as a guide for the kn ife. The bent fingers help to
ensure that the fingertips are not inj ured while
cutting.
Figure 5.5 Cutting an onion using the
claw grip
The bridge hold
The bridge hold involves making a bridge
shape with one hand over the food so
that fingertips are kept away from the
blade of the knife. Fingers should be on
one side of, for instance, the apple, and
the thumb should be on the other. Then
the knife is taken "under the bridge''
and can be used to cut through the
middle of the apple.
'-
Julienne vegetables
Vegetables cut into small, even,
matchstick-sized pieces are commonly
referred to as '•julienne" vegetables.
These look appealing on the plate and
Figure 5 .6 Cutting an apple using the bridge
can be eaten either raw or cooked. To
hold
produce j ulienne vegetables, cut the
vegetables, such as carrots or peppers,
into long blocks, then cut lengthways, using the claw grip, into even slices, stack them up
and then cut through the width of the slices until matchstick sized.
A mandolin or julienne peeler can be used for this task.
Why don't you?
Practise preparing j ulienne vegetables using the claw gri p.
Recipes
The following recipes will help you to apply your theoretical knowledge while carrying out
practical skills. (See Chapter 2 for more information about calories.)
1. Cream of pumpkin soup
To prepare: 10 minutes
To cook: 40 minutes
Makes 4 servings (each serving provides around 170 calories)
Ingred ients
Equipment
• 1 pumpkin (around 450 g), peeled and
• two large saucepans
• chopping board
deseeded
• 1 rib celery
• vegetable kni fe
½ onion
• measuring cups
• 240 ml water
• sieve/blender
• 1 tsp sugar
• spoons
•
½ tsp salt
•
• 3 tbsp vegetable oil
• jug
• teaspoon
• 3 tbsp plain flour
•
700 ml milk
• 112 tsp black pepper
• sprig of parsley
Method
1.
Place the pumpkin, celery, water, sugar and salt into a large saucepan. On a low
heat, cook until the pumpkin has softened.
2.
The mixture can t hen be put into a blender or food processor and blended, or
pressed through a sieve to form a thick liquid.
3.
The vegetable oil can now be added to another large saucepan and heated over a
medium heat. Mix in the flour and stir until bubbling can be seen.
4.
Little by little, add the milk while stirring continually until the mixture has thickened.
5.
Now add the blended vegetable mixture to the white sauce and heat gently. Take off
the heat when cooked.
6.
Chop up parsley and use as a garnish.
Remember!
As discussed earlier in this chapter, when flour is added to water and then heated,
the starch granules swell and then burst so the mixture becomes thicker.
2. Beef and spinach turnover
To prepare: 35 minutes
To cook: 20 minutes
Makes 8 turnovers (each turnover is around 250 calories)
Ingred ients
• vegetable oil
•
1 small onion
• 230 g lean minced beef
• 112 tsp salt
• 1 tsp vinegar
• 180 g cooked spinach
• 250 g plain flour
•
2½ tsp baking power
• 240 ml water
• 60 g margarine or butter
• 1 egg
Equipment
• chopping board
• vegetable knife
•
frying pan
• stirring spoon
•
mixing bowl
•
rolling pin
•
kn ife/fork
• jug
• baking tray
• tablespoon
• teaspoons
• baking tray
• sieve
•
pastry brush
• oven gloves
Method
1.
Grease a large baking tray with either oil or butter.
2.
Chop the onion into small pieces.
3.
Put vegetable oil into a frying pan and add the spinach leaves, 2 tbsp of chopped
onion and all of the minced beef. Stir over a medium heat until the meat is no
longer pink.
4.
Drain off excess fat.
5.
Add the salt and fry for five minutes, then remove from the heat.
6.
Preheat the oven to 350°F (180°C).
7.
To make the dough, sift the flour and baking powder into a mixing bowl. Add salt and
rub in the margarine or butter until the mixture is crumb-like.
8.
Add 180 ml of water to make dough. Add the remainder of the water if required.
9 . Lightly knead, then split the dough into eight equal portions.
10. Roll each por tion into a circ le shape (a round), about 0.5 cm thick.
11. Divide the minced meat and spinach mixture equally between the rounds. Use water
to moisten the edges of the rounds, fold over to make a D shape, and place the
edges togethe r.
12. Put the turnovers onto a greased baking tray.
13. Whisk the egg and use a pastry brush to brush the egg onto the turnovers. This will
help to give them a golden colour.
14. Bake in the oven for 20 minutes, or until the turnovers are thoroughly cooked.
3. Cheese and yam bake
To prepare: 35 minutes
To cook: 25 minutes
Makes 6 servings (around 350 calories per serving)
Ingred ients
Equipment
• 1 kg yam
• 30g margarine or butter
• 30 g plain flour
• 2 tsp mustard
• ½ tsp black pepper
• pinch of salt
• 240ml milk
• 250g grated cheese
• 1 slice bread
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
medium-sized ovenproof dish
two saucepans
vegetable knife
wooden spoon
teaspoon
masher or ricer
colander
oven gloves
food processor (optional)
Method
1.
Preheat the oven to 350°F/180°C.
2.
Grease the ovenproof dish.
3.
Wash, peel and then chop the yam into chunks.
4.
Add the yam to a saucepan and cover with boiling water. Cook until it is tender.
5.
Use another saucepan, on a low heat, to melt the margarine or butter. Now mix in
t he flour, mustard, salt and pepper.
6.
Stirring continually, slowly add the milk until the mixture thickens and then remove
from the heat. If the mixture does not thicken, you may need to add more flour.
7.
8.
Stir in two-thirds of the grated cheese until it melts into the mixture.
Drain the yams and mash them or pass them through a ricer.
9 . Add the yams to the cheese sauce and mix.
10. To make breadcrumbs, cut the bread into very small pieces or use a food processor.
11. Put the mixture into an ovenproof dish and sprinkle on the rema ining cheese and
breadcrumbs. Cook for around 20 minutes, until light brown in colour.
Cheese
Cheese is a highly versatile food and has the following uses:
• as a topping as it is tasty and makes food appealing
• as a garnish (such as on top of a lasagne)
•
in soups (stilton is a strong-flavoured cheese that is an idea l addition to soup)
•
in salads (cheddar and stilton are popular choices; however, cottage cheese is often
preferable as it is low in fat compared to other cheeses)
•
in cheesecake (a bland cream cheese is required for making a cheesecake).
Remember!
If cheese is overcooked it will become stringy, rubbery and oily.
4. Jamaican ginger cake
To prepare: 20 minutes
To cook: 45 minutes
Makes 4 servings (each serving provides around 580 calories)
Ingred ients
Equipment
•
100g butter
• small loaf t in
•
100g dark brown soft sugar
• wax paper
• 2 eggs
• jug
•
2 tbsp grated fresh root ginger
• two mixing bowls
•
1 tsp vanilla extract
• stirring spoons (wooden spoons)
•
125 ml milk
• fork
•
175 g self-raising flour
• skewer
• 2 tsp ground ginger
• sieve
•
1 tsp ground cinnamon
• teaspoons
•
¼ tsp salt
• oven gloves
•
1 tbsp icing sugar for dusting
Method
1.
Preheat the oven to 160°C fan assisted oven/180°C/325°F
2.
Grease and line a small loaf tin.
3.
Into a mixing bowl sift the flour, ground ginger, cinnamon and salt.
4.
In another mixing bowl, cream together the butter and sugar.
5.
In a jug, beat together the eggs.
6.
Slowly add the eggs to the creamed mixture and stir.
7.
8.
Then add the grated ginger and vanilla extract and stir.
9.
Pour the mixture into the loaf tin.
Beat in the flour mixture alternately with the milk and combine by mixing with a
wooden spoon.
10. Bake in a preheated oven for about 45 minutes, or until a skewer inserted into the
middle comes out clean.
11. Allow to cool.
12. Lightly sieve some icing sugar over the top before serving.
Functions of cake ingredients
Fats/oils
Fat plays an important role in baking and, of all the fats, butter has the best flavour for
cakes. The role of fats in cake-making includes:
•
providing flavour
•
keeping products moist and extending shelf life
• adding colour
•
holding air in the mixture when creamed with sugar
•
provide energy and vitamins A and D.
Did you know?
Butter will last for several weeks in a refrigerator; however, it will freeze for up to one
year in a freezer.
Flour
The main ingredient of cakes is flour, which is important fo r forming a cake 's structure
and increasing volume. Functions of flour include:
•
providing fibre (especially if wholemeal flour is used)
• enabling the mixture to rise (if self-raising flour is used), therefore increasing volume
•
providing carbohydrate, vitamin B, calcium and iron.
Remember!
Flour should be stored in an airtight container in a cool, dry place. It can last up to six
months if stored properly and indefinitely if stored in a freezer.
Sugar
Most cakes contain sugar to provide sweetness. Other functions of sugar include:
• to add colour and texture
• to retain moisture so that the end product is moist and not dry
• to help trap air in cake mixtures
• to provide energy for the body.
Remember!
Large amounts of sugar in a food product, such as jam or marmalade, help to prevent
microorganism growth, therefore sugar acts as a preservative.
Eggs
An important function of eggs in cake•making is to bind ingredients toget her. Eggs are
also useful for:
•
helping cakes to rise
• holding air in the mixture when beaten
• adding colour to mixtures
• adding a sheen to baked goods
•
providing protein, fat, iron and vitamins A, B, and E.
Did you know?
To test if an egg is fresh, place it into a bowl of salt water (brine): if the egg sinks,
it is fresh. but if t he egg stands up on the bottom it probably isn't fresh. If it floats
in the water it is like ly to be rotten. Eggs contain air pockets, which, when fresh, are
small; however, over t irne the air pockets become larger, resu lting in a floating egg.
How to check a cake is cooked
All cakes shrink away from the sides of the baking t in when they are ready to be removed
from the oven. With cakes that contain butter, the following tests can be carried out:
•
Use your finger tip or palm to press gently down onto the cake; if t he cake springs
back when you stop pressing, it is probably done.
•
Insert an item such as a cocktail stick or skewer into the centre of the cake; if the
stick is clear of wet batter when you take it out, the cake is done. However, remember
that the cake will continue to cook for a while even when it is taken out of the oven.
5. Green banana pudding
To prepare: 30 minutes
To cook: 30 minutes
Serves 4 (each serving provides around 280 ca lories)
Ingred ients
• 6 medium-sized green bananas
•
lime j uice
•
120ml milk
•
80 g brown sugar
•
2 tbsp self-ra ising flour
•
2 tbsp margarine or butter
•
2 tbsp raisins
•
2 eggs
•
112 tsp van illa essence
•
½ tsp cinnamon
•
pinch of salt
•
2 tbsp grated coconut
Equipment
•
mixing bowl
•
cake tin (7 inch) or baking dish
•
bowl
•
fork
•
spoon
• vegetable knife
•
chopping board
•
oven gloves
Method
1.
Preheat the oven to 350°F/180°C.
2.
3.
Grease the cake tin or baking dish.
Peel the bananas and place them in a bowl of water with a few drops of lime juice
added to prevent them turning brown.
4.
Cut the bananas into small pieces and add to a mixing bowl. Then beat in 60ml of
milk until the mixture is smooth.
5.
Now add the re maining milk, sugar, flour, margarine, ra isins, eggs, van illa essence,
cinnamon and salt.
6.
Beat the mixture until smooth.
7.
Pour the mixture into the cake tin or baking dish and cook for around 30 minutes.
8.
Sprinkle coconut over the top.
6. Pumpkin cookies
To prepare: 30 minutes
To cook: 30 minutes
Makes 16 cookies (each cookie provides around 120 calories}
Ingred ients
Equipment
• a pumpkin
• small saucepan
• 60 g brown sugar
• chopping board
• 30g margarine
• fork
•
1 egg (only half is used)
• large baking tray
•
pinch of salt
• vegetable kn ife
•
pinch of nutmeg
• colander/sieve
•
pinch of cinnamon
• mixing bowl
•
pinch of ground ginger
• large spoons
•
160g self-ra ising flour
• oven gloves
•
1 tsp baking powder
• 2 tbsp raisins
•
2 tbsp chopped nuts
•
¼ tsp lemon extract
Method
1.
Preheat the oven to 400°F/200°C.
2.
Grease a large baking tray.
3.
Peel the pumpkin and remove the seeds, then slice it into small chunks.
4.
Boil the pumpkin in a saucepan with water.
5.
When softened, drain and mash the pumpkin with a fork.
6.
Allow the pumpkin to cool.
7.
Place the sugar and margarine into a mixing bowl and cream the mixture.
8.
Now add and beat an egg to the mixture.
9.
Add the pumpkin, salt. nutmeg, cinnamon and ginger, and mix together.
10. Add the flou r and baking powder to the creamed mixture.
11. Now add raisins, nuts and lemon extract and beat the mixture.
12. Use a large tablespoon to scoop out the mixture and drop equal-sized circles onto
the baking tray. Ensure there is a sufficient gap between the cookies.
1 3 . Cook for around 30 minutes.
7. Bread rolls
To prepare: 50 minutes
To cook: 10-15 minutes
Makes 4 rolls
Ingred ient s
Equipment
•
250g strong flour
• baking tray
•
7 g pack of fast-action dried yeast
• sieve
•
1 x 5ml spoon sugar
• mixing bowl
•
150 ml warm water
• measuring j ug
•
1 tsp salt
• measuring spoons
• oven gloves
• cooling rack
M ethod
1.
Grease a baking tray.
2.
Sieve the flour and salt into a mixing bowl.
3.
Stir in the yeast and sugar.
4.
Make a well in the middle of the flour mixture and add the warm water.
5.
Mix to form a soft dough.
6.
Sprinkle flour onto a clean work surface and place the dough onto it.
7.
Knead the dough for 10 minutes.
8.
Divide it into four pieces and shape into rolls.
9.
Place the rolls on the greased baking tray.
10. Preheat the oven to 1 . 220°C/ fan assisted 200°c.
11_ Cover the dough and leave to prove for around 3 0 minutes in a warm place until the
rolls double in size.
12. Bake for 15 to 20 minutes until golden brown .
To understand the action of yeast in bread-making see page 71 in this chapter.
Did you know?
The difference between the processing of wholewheat and white flour is that the
refining process associated with making white flour separates the fibre-rich bran
from the rest of the grain, so white flour typically contains less fibre than whole-grain
flour. Dietary fibre is important in the diet as it prevents constipation, lowers blood
cholesterol and may also be a useful aid to weight loss.
8. Exotic avocado salad
To prepare: 30 minutes
Makes 2 servings (around 260 calories per serving)
Ingred ients
•
2 tbsp pumpkin seeds
•
1 ri pe papaya
•
1 ripe avocado
• 50 g watercress
• fresh mint leaves
• juice of half a lime
•
1 tbsp olive oil
• salt and black pepper to season
Equipment
• frying pan
• chopping board
• vegetable kn ife
•
large bowl
• j ug
• tablespoon
Method
1.
Dry-fry the pumpkin seeds In a frying pan for a few minutes until they appear
toasted and then place into a large bowl.
2.
Peel the papaya, halve it lengthways and scoop out the seeds. Cut the flesh into
long, thin slices.
3.
Halve the avocado and remove the stone. Then slice the flesh lengthways into
thin slices.
4.
Put the papaya, avocado and watercress into the large bowl.
5.
Chop about 1 tablespoon of the mint leaves and set aside. Pick the remaining
leaves from the stalks, tear them and place them into the large bowl.
6.
Mix the lime juice and olive oil with the tablespoon of chopped mint to make a
dressing, and season wit h salt and pepper to taste.
7.
Pour the dressing over the salad and gently mix all the ingredients together. It is
now ready to serve.
9. Jam-making
To prepare: 45 minutes
To cook: 20 minutes
Ingred ients
Equipment
• 480g guavas (cut into chunks
and with all seeds removed)
•
• 6 0 ml orange j uice
• vegetable kn ife
• chopping board
• masher
•
2 tbsp dry pectin
• 480g white sugar
medium-sized
saucepan
•
•
•
•
•
wooden spoon
ladle
sterilised jam jars
tea spoon
small plate
Did you know?
Pectin is a carbohydrate that is a natural ly occurring thickening agent found in certain
ripe fru its, such as berries and apples. To make j am, ensure that fru it is fresh and
slightly under-ripe as at this stage fruit contains large quantit ies of pectin and acid.
M ethod
1.
Dice the guavas into cubes and ensure all seeds are removed.
2.
Place guavas into t he saucepan and simmer for 30 minutes on a low heat.
3.
Pass guavas through a sieve to remove seeds.
4.
Return guavas to the saucepan and add the orange juice and pectin and stir
continually over a medium-high heat until th e mixture begins to boil.
5.
Now stir in the sugar, and return to the boil, again stirring constantly. When the jam
begins to boil, let it continue to do so for one minute.
6.
7.
Take the saucepan away from the heat.
8.
Ladle the hot j am into hot, sterilised j ars and seal with lids and ri ngs (the jars
should have a label providing an ingredients list, date of production, expiry and
other important informat ion).
9.
Allow to cool to room temperature.
Carry out a plate test (see next page).
Remember!
Jam recipes mostly comprise equal weights of fruit and sugar, e.g. 1kg of fruit and
1kg of sugar.
Plate test
The plate test (also known as th e wrinkle test) and flake test help to determine when
jam is ready for bottling. For the plate test, spoon a small amount of j am onto a cold
plate and allow to cool slightly. Then push with your finger; if there is wrinkling, the jam
is ready to be bottled. The flake test involves dipping a wooden spoon into jam, cooling it
slightly and allowing it to run slightly over th e side of a spoon. If it comes off the spoon
in wide flakes, jam has reached setting point.
10. Eddoe fritters
To prepare: 20 minutes
To cook: 10 minutes
Makes 12 fritters (each serving is around 110 calories)
Ingred ients
• 250g eddoes
• 40g finely chopped onion
•
15g finely chopped celery
•
15 g plain flour
•
1 tbsp milk
• 112 tsp vinegar
•
pinch of salt
•
½ egg white
• vegetable oil
Equipment
• chopping board
• vegetable kn ife
• grater
• fork
• jug
•
large bowl
• deep fryer
• tablespoon
• fish slice
•
paper towels
Method
1.
Wash, peel and grate the eddoes.
2.
Place the eddoes into a large bowl and add the onion and celery.
3.
Use a fork to mix in the flour, milk, vinegar and salt with the eddoes.
4.
In a separate small bowl, beat the egg white until stiff peaks form.
5.
Now fold the egg white into the eddoe mixture.
6.
Heat the vegetable oil in a deep fryer.
7.
Add tablespoons of the mixture one at a t ime into t he oil and cook until golden brown.
8.
Get rid of excess fat and serve.
11. Beef with rice
To prepare: 40 minutes
To cook: 30 minutes
Makes 6 servings (around 210 calories per serving)
Ingred ients
• 250 g minced lean beef
•
1 tbsp vegetable oil
• 375g cups tomatoes
•
75g red sweet pepper
•
75g celery
•
75g onion
•
½ tsp salt
•
½ tsp hot pepper
•
550g rice
•
parsley to garnish
Equipment
• frying pan
• vegetable knife
• chopping board
• colander
• stirring spoon
• saucepan
Method
1.
Chop the vegetables.
2.
Add the meat to an oiled frying pan and fry until brown.
3.
Add the tomatoes, red sweet pepper, celery, onion, salt and hot pepper.
4.
5.
Simmer for 10-15 minutes. While the meat is simmering, cook the rice.
Cook the rice by adding it to a saucepan containing boiling water. Gently stir.
6.
Cook for around 15 minutes (see packet instructions). Drain the rice.
7.
Serve the rice and beef dish, with parsley as a garnish.
12. Carrot dumplings
To prepare: 20 minutes
To cook: 10 minutes
Makes 6 dumplings (each dumpling is around 100 calories)
Ingred ients
• 5 0 g carrot (grated)
•
125 g self-rai sing flour
•
1 tsp baking powder
• 3 0 g margarine or butter
•
½ tbsp sugar
•
pinch of salt
•
1½ tbsp water
Equipment
• grater
• chopping board
•
large bowl
• tablespoon
• teaspoons
•
kn ife
•
large saucepan
• mixing spoon
Method
1.
Grate t he carrots.
2.
Mix together the flour and baking powder in a large bowl.
3.
Rub together the flour mix and margarine or butter until it resembles breadcrumbs.
4.
Add th e carrot, sugar and salt and stir togethe r.
5.
Add 1 1/2 tbsp water and mix until a dough is formed. Add more water if required.
6.
Divide into six portions and roll each one into a ball.
7.
Drop the balls into boiling water or soup.
8.
Cover and simmer for around 10 minutes.
13. Caribbean croque monsieur
To prepare: 10 minutes
To cook: 15 minutes
Makes 1 serving (around 700 calories)
Ingred ients
• 2 slices of bread
• 2 tbsp butter
• 2 slices of cheese, such as Gruyere
• 2 thin slices of ham
•
1 tbsp honey
• 2 slices of tomato
• 2 slices of avocado
•
1 tsp vegetable oil
Equipment
• chopping board
• table kn ife
•
paring kn ife
• wax paper
• fish slice
• teaspoon
• frying pan or skillet
Method
1.
Cut the cheese, tomato and avocado into slices.
2.
Butter one side of each slice of bread.
3.
4.
Put one slice of the bread butter side down onto wax paper.
5.
Drizzle the honey over the ham.
6.
Then put the tomato onto the ham, followed by the avocado. Then add the second
slice of bread, butter side up.
7.
Put the vegetable oil into a skillet or frying pan and then use a fish slice or similar
to lift the sandwich off the wax paper, then fry it over a rnedium heat until golden.
8.
Use a fish slice or similar to gently turn over the sandwich.
9.
Place the rema ining slice of cheese on top of the sandwich and fry for about
2 minutes until the cheese has melted.
Place one slice of cheese, followed by the ham, onto the slice of bread.
10. Cut the sandwich in half and serve.
14. Curried tuna
To prepare: 30 minutes
To cook: 30 minutes
Makes 4 servings (each serving provides around 170 calories)
Ingred ients
•
1 tbsp vegetable oil
•
1 small onion
•
1 small green pepper
•
1 stick of celer y
•
2 tbsp curry powder
• 2 tsp chopped garl ic
•
1 tomato
• 60 ml of water
• 2 cans (185g) of tuna in brine
•
1 tbsp honey
•
parsley (to garnish)
Equipment
• chopping board
• vegetable kn ife
• garlic press
• frying pan
• wooden spoon
Method
1.
Chop the vegetables into small pieces.
2.
3.
Heat the vegetable oil in a large frying pan on a medium heat.
Add the onion, pepper, celery, garlic and curry powder to the frying pan and stir for
around 15 minutes.
4.
Now add the tomato, water and tuna to the frying pan and stir, then simmer (cook
on a low heat) for about 10 minutes.
5.
Add honey and continue to simmer fo r a further 10 minutes.
6.
Remove from the heat and add parsley for garnish.
15. Spicy chicken drumsticks
To prepare: 30 minutes
To cook: 25 minutes
Makes 2 servings (each drumstick provides around 1 15 calories)
See Chapter 3 about precautions to take when preparing and cooking chicl<en. If chicken
is undercooked and contains salmonella bacteria, there is a risk th at the consumer may
suffer food poison ing.
Ingred ients
Equipment
• 6 small drumsticks
• chopping board
•
• vegetable kni fe
1 small onion
• 2 tsp chopped garlic
• mixing bowl
•
1 small stick of celery
• spoon
•
1 tsp black pepper
• casserole dish
•
1 tsp dried thyme
• oven gloves
• ¼ tsp ginger
•
pinch of ground nutmeg
•
pinch of clove
•
180 ml tomato ketchup
Method
1.
Preheat the oven to 375°F/190°C (fan oven) or 210°C non-fan oven.
2.
Chop the vegetables into small pieces.
3.
In a mixing bowl, add and mix the garlic, 2 tbsp of chopped onion, half the chopped
celery, 1 tsp black pepper, 1 tsp dried thyme,¼ tsp ginger, a pinch of clove and
pinch of nutmeg.
4.
Dip and roll the chicken drumsticks into the mixture.
5.
Now place the chicken drumsticks into a casserole dish or similar. Pour the tomato
ketchup over them. Cover the dish and bake in the oven for 15 minutes.
6.
Remove the cover and cook for 10 minutes or until the juices of the chicken run
clear when cut.
Remember!
You should not wash raw chicken as harmful bacteria can be carried in the water
droplets and land on surfaces.
16. Papaya and milk smoothie
To prepare: 30 minutes
Makes 4 servings (each serving provides around 150 calories)
Ingred ients
•
1 ripe papaya
• 600 ml cups milk
• 3 tbsp lime juice
•
1/2 tsp lime rind (freshly grated)
• 50g sugar
•
½ tsp vanilla extract
•
120 ml crushed ice
•
lime wedges for decoration (optional)
Equipment
• chopping board
• vegetable knife
• whisk/blender
• glass to serve in
Method
1.
Peel the papaya then cut it in half lengthwise; remove the seeds, then chop the
papaya flesh.
2.
Place the papaya chunks and the rest of the ingredients, except the garnish, into
a blender or food processor (or put the ingredients inside a jug and whisk by hand,
although this will take a lot longer).
3.
Mix on high speed for 20 to 30 seconds, until the mixture is smooth and thick.
4.
Pour the smoothie into a glass, garnish with a lime wedge, and serve at once.
17. Pineapple upside-down pudding
To prepare: 30 minutes
To cook: 20-30 minutes
Serves 4 (each serving provides 350 calories)
Ingredient s
Equipment
•
100g soft margarine
• wooden spoon
•
100g caster sugar
• mixing bowl
•
100g self-raising flour
• spatula
•
4 glace cherries
• small cake tin
• 1 egg
• tablespoon
• 2 tbsp golden syrup
• fork
•
• sieve
1 small t in of pineapple rings
• oven gloves
M ethod
1.
Preheat the oven to 375°F/ 190°C/170°C fan.
2.
Grease a cake tin.
3.
Put 1 tablespoon of golden syrup in the bottom of the t in.
4.
Drain the pineapple rings and place them on top of the syrup.
5.
Place a glace cherry the middle of each pineapple ring.
6.
Sift the self-ra ising flour into a bowl.
7.
Add the soft margarine.
8.
Add the caster sugar.
9.
Add the egg.
10. Beat the mixture until it is soft and creamy.
1 1 . Place blobs of the mixture on top of the pineapple and spread evenly.
12. Bake in the oven for 20 to 30 minutes, until the mixture has risen and springs back
to touch.
Did you know?
When all the ingredients go into the bowl together and are mixed, it is known as the
"all-in-one" method. Steps 6 to 10 are an example of this.
18. Beef and breadfruit soup
To prepare: 30 minutes
To cook: 40 minutes
Serves 4 (each serving provides 100 calories)
Ingred ients
• 225 g sliced, peeled breadfruit
• 950 ml water
•
125g lean beef (cut into chunks)
• 40g diced onion
•
½ tsp salt
•
¼ tsp black pepper
•
1 tbsp chopped parsley
Equipment
• chopping board
• vegetable kn ife
•
saucepan
• colander
• masher
•
stirring spoon
Method
1.
Peel the breadfruit and cut it into slices.
2.
Add water to a saucepan, boil the breadfruit for 10 minutes or until softened.
3.
Drain but do not throw away the cooking water.
4.
Mash the breadfruit until smooth.
5.
6.
Return the liquid and breadfruit to the saucepan.
In a skillet, brown beef thoroughly on all sides in the cooking oil, turning often with a
slotted spoon or spatula. Then add onions and stir.
7.
Now add the beef, onion, salt and pepper to the saucepan. Simmer for 30 minutes,
stirring occasionally.
8.
To ser ve, sprinkle some parsley on top .
19. Penne pasta salad
To prepare: 40 minutes
To cook: around 15 minutes
Makes 5 servings (around 220 calories per serving)
Ingred ients
Equipment
•
• saucepan
285g cups penne pasta (or pasta of
your choice)
• colander
• 50 g harn strips
• large bowl
•
50 g cubed cheese
• large spoon
•
75g sliced tomato
• 30 g sliced onion
• 30 g sliced celery
•
75g chopped sweet pepper
• 2 tbsp mayonnaise
•
75g lettuce
• Sufficient salted water to cover pasta.
Method
1.
Place the penne pasta in a saucepan and add enough water to cover the pasta.
Then follow the cooking instructions on the packet.
2.
Drain the pasta and put into a bowl.
3.
Add the ham, cheese, tomato, on ion, celery and pepper to the bowl.
4.
Add mayonnaise to the pasta mixture and lightly mix.
5.
6.
Put into a refrigerator until ready to serve.
To serve, place the mixture onto a bed of lettuce.
Why don't you?
Create a recipe book, with your own recipes.
Choose one of the fol lowing titles or choose your own theme for your book:
• low-fat recipes
• gluten-free recipes
• low-salt recipes
• meat and poultry recipes
• vegetarian recipes
• Chinese recipes
•
Indian recipes
• desserts
• soup recipes
• breads
• cakes and biscuits
• low-sugar recipes.
You will need to do the fo llowing:
•
Design a front cover for your book.
• Think about the layout of your book - you can access recipe templates via
Microsoft Office.
• You will need to include at least 20 recipes and state serving sizes, preparation
time, the cooking temperature requ ired and how long they take to cook.
• The first part of the book should include useful information for the reader, such as
a we ight and volume equivalent chart.
• A contents sheet with page numbers is required so that the reader can readily
access recipes.
• Photographs can be taken, printed and entered into the book so that the reader
will know how the dish should look.
• You should include a section on healthy eating, explaining, for example, what
makes
a balanced diet. Discuss how to restrict calories by making good food choices.
You will need to discuss the importance of nutrients in the diet and explain what
should be restricted.
• Another section will provide any cooking terms (glossary) you have used throughout
your book, such as creaming, and a description.
Useful link
Recipes
A good website for research ing recipes: http://allrecipes.com
Kitchen layout
A kitchen should be designed so that staff can work efficiently, safely and hygienically.
When planning a kitchen layout, the following should be taken into consideration:
•
placement of t he sink, cooker and refrigerator to form the work triangle
•
placement of a work surface next to the cooker for putting down hot pots and pans
• adequate ventilation to remove smells, steam and smoke
• adequate lighting to help avoid accidents
• easy-to-clean kitchen surfaces to avoid cross-contamination
• work tops to be at a satisfactory height for an individual, to ensure safety and comfort
• cupboards to be at a reachable height for staff to help avoid injuries and accidents
• non-slip flooring to prevent accidents
• access to a first-a id box or kit to treat common inj uries.
To help prevent cross-contamination, specific tasks should be carried out in separate
areas of the kitchen, for example:
• The meat, poultry and fish preparation area should be separated from the preparation
of other foods, as these food items are high risk and can contaminate other areas
and foods.
• Vegetable preparation
areas requ ire a work
surface and a sink for
washing and draining.
• The area for washing up
plates, cutlery, pots and so
on needs to be separated
from areas of food
preparation and cooking
because there is a risk of
cross-contamination.
A good kitchen layout allows
staff to work in one direction,
which helps to avoid crosscontamination and prevents
staff from getting in each
other's way. When designing
a kitchen, the flow chart in
Figure 6.1, showing the basic
workflow, should be taken into
consideration.
Delivery of goods
t
t
Storage of goods
Food preparation - hot and cold areas. Food must be
kept at the correct temperature. (See Chapter 3 for
more information about the temperature danger zone.)
t
t
t
Cooking
Holding food
Providing meals to customers/consumers
i
Washing up and disposal of waste
Figure 6 .1 Flow chart showing basic kitchen workflow
Four types of kitchen layout
There are four basic kitchen layouts: U-shaped, the one-wall, the two-wall and L-shaped.
See Figure 6.2 for examples.
□+-+-Sink
••
••
Cooker
Sink
Refrigerator
Work Triangle
Cooker
Refrigerator
Sink
Cooker
Sink
I" 0 I
I,. 0
I
Work Triangle
Refrigerator
••
••
Figure 6.2 Four basic kitchen layouts
The "kitchen work triangle" helps to produce an efficient workspace and is made up of
the imaginary lines between the sink, cooker and refrigerator, which ideally need to be a
certain distance from each other to ensure optimal productivity. If they're too far apart,
people cannot work as efficiently; however, too close together and there may not be
sufficient space to work comfortably.
The U-shaped kitchen has cabinets, countertops, appliances and other kitchen elements
on three sides. It easily incorporates a "work triangle" and more than one cook can work
efficiently within it. However, it is more expensive than the other kitchen layouts because
of additional countertops and appliances.
The one-wall kitchen layout is useful for smaller ki tchens; however, it is only designed
for one cook. The two-wall kitchen (also known as a •·corridor") layout is similar to the
one-wall layout, but the cabinets, countertops and appliances are organised along two
walls. This layout allows an efficient work triangle and is useful for small kitchens.
However, there may not be sufficient space for more than one cook.
The L-shaped kitchen layout is set up along two adjoining wa lls and allows an effective
work triangle. It is ideal for a small or medium-sized kitchen and there may be space for
an eating area too. Depending on the size, it may not be suitable for more than one cook.
Why don't you?
Use the information you have learnt so far in this chapter to design an ideal kitchen.
Ensure the kitchen is safe and efficient for staff and there is minimal risk of crosscontamination.
Kitchen equipment and utensils
When preparing food, utensils and equipment should be positioned near to the food
prepa ration area. A stainless steel work surface is commonly used in an industrial
kitchen because it is easy to clean, sturdy and res istant to water, heat and stains.
See Table 6.1 for different types of kitchen equipment.
Table 6 .1 Kitchen equipment
Kitchen equipment
Examples
Labour-saving devices
Food mixer, toaster, pressure cooker, slow cooker,
blender and food processor
Flatware
Spoons, forks , l<nives
Knives
Chef's knife, carving kn ife, paring kn ife, vegetable
kn ife, palette kn ife, boning kn ife, fi lleting kn ife
and cleaver
Cutting and grinding equipment
Graters, pastry cutters, food slicers/choppers
Pots and pans
Frying pan, wok, muffin pan, pudding mould, patty tin
Measuring tools
Scales, measuring cups and spoons
Cookers and other large
equipment
Ovens, microwave ovens, slow cooker, steamers
and refrigerator and freezer
Why don't you?
Use a textbook or the Internet to research the various types of kitchen equipment
and describe how each is used. Then, describe the factors to be considered when
purchasing kitchen equipment in order to get the best value for money. You can add
your findings to your portfolio of evidence.
Oven
An oven is an extremely important piece of kitchen equipment. Many ovens are fan
assisted, which speeds up the cooking process and also allows the convectional current
to flow evenly around the inside of the oven, ensuring food is baked equally throughout.
Most oven doors have a glass panel so that the cooking food can be observed, therefore
reducing the need to open the oven, which resu lts in loss of heat.
Remember!
The temperature of the oven is controlled by a thermostat .
Methods of cooking
Cooking involves applying heat to foods to prepare them for eating. There are three
methods of heat transfer: conduction, convection and rad iation. Cooking food commonly
uses a combination of these rnethods (see also Table 6.2).
Conduction
Heat is transferred from one place to another by conduction. Pans are made of metal
because they are good conductors of heat. When a pan of liquid or food is placed on a
hob, heat is transferred from the molecules of the hot surface to the molecules of the
pan bottom, then from the pan bottom to the pan sides and then to the contents of the
pan. Conduction can also occur when grilling food , for example when the food touches
the cooking utensil.
Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat through liquids or gases. When a pot of liquid is
placed onto a hob to boil, the water molecules, in contact with the interior of the pot,
heat up, and convection causes the molecu les to move away and be replaced by cooler
molecules. Convection currents are formed within the water due to this continual
movement and transfer heat; therefore, if food is within the pan, its surface will heat up
and the heat is transferred to the interior of the food.
Radiation
Radiation involves the transfer of rad iant energy through rapid ly t ravelling energy waves.
For example, through the broiler (similar to a grill) in a cooker or through lighted coals
from a barbecue grill. Radiation involves the transfer of rad iant energy through rapidly
travelling energy waves. For example, through the broiler in a cooker, lighted coals from a
barbecue grill or roasting food on a spit.
Microwave rad iation, produced by microwave ovens, is an electromagnetic wave that is
read ily absorbed into food substances. The vibrations of the molecules within food or
liquid leads to friction and therefore increases the temperature of it.
Did you know?
Foods with high moisture, sugar or fat contents absorb microwaves best and heat up
more read ily.
Radiation
Conduction
1
(j t \
~ ~convection
I
'
\ I
'
'
I
Figure 6 .3 Conduction, convection and radiation
Table 6 .2 Cooking methods and their meth od of heat transfer
Cooking method
Method of heat transfer
Bolling
Convection or conduction
Steaming
Convection of steam
Grllllng/brolllng
Mostly rad iation from heat source, secondarily conduction
from grate and convection of air between food and heat
Deep-frying
Convection of oil
Pan-frylng/ sauteing
Conduction of pan and oil
Baking/ roasting
Mostly convection of air but also radiation from oven wa lls
and conduct ion from baking pan
Microwave
Radiation
Why don't you?
Create a poster which discusses th e three methods of heat transference: conduction,
convention and radiation. Don't forget to include pictures.
First aid in the kitchen
The kitchen can be a dangerous place and occasionally accidents and injuries will
happen. The most common to occur are listed in Table 6.3. First aid is the initial
treatment given to any person suffering a sudden illness or injury.
Table 6.3 Common kitchen inj uries and illnesses and the first-aid treatment that should
be given
Common Inj ury/ Illness
First-aid treatment for Injury or Illness
M inor burn/scald
1 . Run the affected area under cool water for at least
10 minutes.
2 . Gently remove any j ewellery before swelling occurs.
3.
After the burn has cooled it can be covered in cling fi lm
to prevent infection of the area.
4. Medical advice should be sought if the burn is larger than
the injured person's hand or if the casualty is a child.
Cut s
1 . If dirty, clean the wound under runn ing water and then
pat dry. It should then be covered with a sterile gauze.
2 . The injured part should then be ra ised above the level
of the heart to help slow the bleeding.
3.
Ensure the area around the wound is clean by using
soap and water and then pat dry.
4. If required, the wound covering can be re rnoved and a
new steri le dressing can be applied.
Electrocution (person
unconscious)
Do not approach the casualty until the electrical contact
has been broken.
Call the emergency services.
The person will need to be treated for shock and any burns.
Be prepared to resuscitate, if able to.
Food poisoning (see
Chapter 3)
The symptoms of food poisoning include feeling sick,
stomach cramps and diarrhoea. It is recommended to take
the following action:
1 . Ensure the sufferer takes regu lar small sips of water if suffering with diarrhoea it is important to drink water
to replace lost fluids (an oral rehydration solution can
help to replace lost salts and minerals).
2.
If symptoms get worse seek medical advice.
Anyone showing symptoms of food poisoning should be
prevented frorn preparing or serving food.
Faint
1.
If a person fa ints, while they are lying on the floor, raise
their legs to help blood flow back to the brain.
2.
Reassure the casualty and help them to sit up slowly.
3.
If they don't regain consciousness again quickly, call
the emergency services
4.
Ensure their airway is open and check their breathing.
Figure 6 .4 First-aid kit contents
Remember!
A first-a id kit should be close to hand when working in a kitchen.
Why don't you?
Research the contents of a first-a id kit and ensure you understand the purpose of
each item. Then produce a leaflet describing each first-aid kit item and explaining how
and why they are used.
Useful links
For the contents required for a first-a id kit see: http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/
indg214.pdf
Why don't you?
Copy t he diagram of the kitchen layout below.
•
Now resea rch the folioing items, and add labels to identify where they should be placed
on the diagram:
•
Fire extinguishers: what types do you need in a commercial kitchen and where wou ld
you put them?
•
Smoke alarm: whe re should it be positioned?
•
Type of worktops: what is their purpose and what should they be made from?
•
What equipment is required to run it as a commercial kitchen?
•
Consider a food storage area. What should you ensure when storing food?
•
Wash hand basin with hot and cold tap. The basin should ideally be lever, elbow, knee
or automatically operated to avoid contamination.
•
Hand drying method: wh ich method will you choose and why?
•
Sink for wash ing food. Ideally it should be separate from the sink in which hands are
washed.
•
Fly killing devices, as fl ies contaminate food.
•
Insect screen for windows and doors that open to the outside.
•
Ventilation: consider how the kitchen will be ventilated, e.g. a canopy hood. Catering and
cooking can produce unhealthy fumes and vapours, as we ll as large amounts of heat.
•
Type of flooring requ ired: consider how to prevent slipping accidents.
•
First aid kit: a we ll stocked kit is important to deal with minor injuries.
•
Sanitising products for personal and kitchen hygiene. What products do you need?
•
Lighting: correct lighting will help to ensure a safe and productive workspace.
•
Rubbish bins must have lids and be regu larly emptied. Where do think they should be
positioned?
What other health and safety factors should be cons idered?
7. Consumerism and purchasing of food
The eating habits of consumers (people who purchase and eat food) have changed
significantly over the last few decades. This is due to many factors , including modern
technology, advertising, availability of food, the media and cost.
Food budgeting is important for many people, but it is also essential that healthy food
choices are made when purchasing food . It is important to avoid impulse buying, which is
defined as an unplanned decision, made with little thought, to buy a product or service.
Comparison shopping involves the shopper comparing items or services to determ ine
which gives the best quality and value for money.
Did you know?
A green consumer is a customer who buys products that are considered
environmenta lly friendly.
Preparing meals on a budget
When preparing meals on a budget, consider the following advice:
•
Make a plan of meals and snacks in advance so that costs can be considered.
• Compile a shopping list, then ensure you do not buy additional products
when shopping.
•
Make meals that can be frozen.
•
Use cheaper ingredients to bulk out expensive food items such as meat - for example
by using vegetables to bulk out casseroles, stews and stir-fry dishes.
• Cut out money-saving coupons from magazines, newspapers, etc.
• Compare supermarket prices and consider discount stores.
•
Use a calculator while shopping to ensure you stick within budget.
•
Do not go shopping while hungry - you wi ll be more tempted to buy additional food.
• Avoid pre-packed food as you often pay extra for the packaging.
•
Products often work out cheaper if bought in bulk.
How to read a nutrition label
Understanding food and nutrition labels can help to ensure that healthy food products
are purchased. The food industry has to ensure that food is labelled, advertised and
presented in a way that is not false or misleading. Many food products have a nutrition
label on the back or side of their packaging, which includes information about the
amount of energy (kJ/kcal), fat, saturates (saturated fat), carbohydrate, sugars, protein
and salt contained within the product The nutrit ion label in Figure 7.1 is taken from a
packet of cookies.
A portion is the amount of food that someone may choose to eat for a meal or snack.
A serving is a measured amount of food or drink. Servings are measured in units such
as cups or pieces (such as one cup of milk or one slice of bread), fo llowed by the metric
amount, for example weight in grams.
Did you know?
Many foods that come as single portions may actually contain two or more servings!
Nutrition Facts
Serving Size 3 cookies (34!V1.2 oz)
Servings Per Container About 5
Amount Per Serving
Calories 180
Calories from Fa1 90
% Dally Val ue•
15%
~
Total Fat 10g
Saturated Fat 3.5g
Pol~unsaturated Fat :!,S
Monounsaturated Fat 5g
Cholesterol 10 mg
Sodium 80mg
Total Carbohydrate 21g
Oletar;i: Fiber 1g
Sugars 1 1g
Protein 2g
The amount of fat,
carbohydrates. fibre '
protein and salt pe r serv1ng
are listed. See Chapter 2
for more informationon
these nutrients.
Vitamin A 0 %
Calcium 0%
Thlamin 6%
Niacin 4%
18%
3%
3%
7%
4%
.
Vitamin C 0%
.
.
Iron 4%
Riboflavin 4%
~
Dally values are dlfl\erent
for all people; howe ver, the
average man needs around
2.500kcal (10,500kJ) and
the average woman
requires around 2,0
kcal
(8,400 kJ). Dalty va lues
give a useful guide of how
much energy an average
person requires.
To understand If a food
product contai ns little or a
lot of a nutrient the
following points will help:
A typical serving size according
to this pecket is three cookies;
however, many people will eat a
larger portion size than thi s,
therefore wlll consume more
calories.
Recommended Dietary
Allowance (ROA) is the average
dally level of intake sufficient to
meet the nutrient requirements
of nearly all (97- 98 per cent)
healthy people. The %DV (dally
value) shows if a food product
has a little or a lot of nutrient.
>-- The amount of vitamins and
minerals are listed next - see
Chapter 2 for more information
about these nutrients.
• Pe,cent Dally Values are based on a 2,000
calorie diet. Your dally values may be higher or
IO'N(U depending on your calorle needs:
Calorles:
2,000
2,500
~
oo
Total Fat
Sat Fat
Cholestetol
Less than
Less tha1'1
Less than
Less than
Sodium
Total Carbohydrate
Dietary Fiber
65g
80g
20g
25g
300mg 300mg
2,400mg 2,400mg
300g
375g
25g
30g
lng,edlents: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Most pre-packed foOd products
Unbleached enrlc~od wheat flour [flour, nlaclr,,
contain a list of ingredients
reduced Iron, thlamln mononttrate (vitamin B,),
that are listed In order of
sweet chocolate (sugar, chocolate liquor,
Cocoa butte,, soy lecithin added as an emulsifier,
weight , therefore th e main
vanilla extract), sugar, partially hydrogenated vegetable
ingredients will be found
shortening (soybean, cottonseed and/or canola oils)
towards the top of the list. If
nonfat milk, whole eggs, cornstarch, egg whites,
the first few ingredients listed
salt, vanilla extract, baklr,g soda and soy lecithin.
are high in fat, such as cream,
butter or oil . then the food is a
high-fat foOd.
Figure 7 .1 Nutrition label
To understand if a food product contains little or a lot of a nutrient the following points
will help:
1.
Most pre-packed food products contain a list of ingredients that are listed in order of
weight, therefore the ma in ingredients will be found towards the top of the list. If the
first few ingredients listed are high in fat, such as cream, butter or oil, then the food
is a high-fat food.
2.
A typical serving size accordi ng to this packet is 40 g; however, many people will eat
a larger portion size than this, therefore will consume more calories.
3. The amount of fat, carbohydrates, fibre, protein and salt per serving are listed. See
Chapter 1 for more information on these nutrients.
4 . The amount of vitamins and minera ls are listed next - see Chapter 2 for more
Information about these nutrients.
5 . The %DV (daily value) shows if a food product has a little or a lot of a nutrient. If a
food has a daily value (DV) of 5 per cent or less, it is considered to be low in that
nutrient. A daily value between 10 per cent and 19 per cent means the food is a
good source of a nutrient, and a food containing 20 per cent or more of the daily
value is considered an excellent source of that nutrient.
6.
Daily values are different for all people; however, the average adult requires
2000 kcal (8,400 kJ). They give a useful guide of how much energy an average
person requires. To understand if a food product contains little or lot of a nutrient
the following points will help:
•
Don't forget! If a labels states 5 per cent DV of less there is little amount of
the nutrient; however, if is there is 15 per cent DV or more it contains a lot.
• A daily value between 10 per cent and 19 per cent means the food is a good source
of a nutrient.
•
If a food contains 20 per cent or more of the daily value, it is considered an excellent
source of that nutrient.
Table 7 .1 A sample label of nutritional information
per 100 g
per 1/2 pie serving (24 0 g)
653 kJ/
1 567 kJ/
156 kcal
374 kcal
Fat
8.0 g
19.2 g
of which saturates
0.9 g
2.2 g
Carbohydrate
13.6 g
32.6 g
of which sugars
0.9 g
2.2 g
Fibre
0.5 g
1.2 g
Protein
7.1 g
1 7.0 g
Salt
0.9 g
2.2 g
Energy
Ingredients
Water, Beef (25%), Puff Pastry (24%) (Wheatflour (with Calcium Carbonate, Iron,
Niacin, Thiamin), Margarine (Palm Oil, Rapeseed Oil, Water, Salt, Emulsifier (Mono- and
Diglyce rides of Fatty Acids), Wate r, Salt), Ale (contains Barley, Wheat) (9%), Stabiliser
(Xanthan Gum), Onions, Wheatflour (with Calcium Carbonate, Iron, Niacin,
Thiamin), Modified Maize Starch, Salt, Spices, Sugar, Niacin, Thiamin), Barley Malt
Extract, Yeast Extract, Flavouring, Beef Extract, Chicory Extract, Colour (Plain
Caramel), Tomatoes, Garlic, Sunflower Oil
Why don't you?
Study Table 7.1 and answer the following questions:
1.
Do you think this is a healthy product? Why?
2.
3.
What are the five main ingredients in this product?
Which ingredients are common allergens?
Remember!
A food allergy occurs when the body's immune system reacts abnormally to a certain
food and mistakes it as being harmful to the body, resulting in symptoms such as
itching, a rash, swelling and breathing difficu lties. On a nutrit ion label well-known food
allergens may be highlighted in bold or enclosed in brackets.
Enriched and fortified foods
Food fortification can be applied to a wide variety of food and is the practice of adding
vitamins and minerals (e.g. iron, vitamin A and folic acid) to staple foods such as
wheat flour, rice, sugar, vegetable oil and salt to improve their nutritional content. It can
help prevent many diet-related diseases such as anaemia, spina bifida, rickets and
osteoporosis. The added nutrients should be listed in the nutrition facts label.
Enrichment invo lves replacing nutrients that have been lost during processing, such
as niacin, thiamin, riboflavin and iron that are found in the germ and bran, and wh ich
are lost when the germ and bran are removed. Producers of food products made from
re fined grains, such as bread, pasta and crackers, can use enriched flours to replace lost
nutrients. Other examples include:
•
Specially formu lated spreads, drinks, yogu rts and cream cheeses that contain
cholesterol-reducing ingredients, called plant stanol esters, wh ich are believed to
help lower the risk of coronary heart disease.
• Probiotics, wh ich are live bacteria and yeasts that are added to food and are
promoted as having health benefits. Probiotic drinks and yogurts help to encourage
the growth of friendly (useful) bacteria in the gut and so restore a natural balance of
gut bacteria. There is evidence to show that probiotics can help to prevent diarrhoea
associated with taking antibiotics.
•
Eggs that are enriched with omega-3 fatty acids, a process that involves
adding omega-3 oils or flax seeds to the hen's feed. The aim is to lower the risk of
heart disease.
Functional foods are foods that are fortified or enriched in some way to provide
health benefits.
Misleading product labels
Be aware that the following statements on food labels can sometimes be misleading:
•
Food labels that use the words light or lite give the impression that the product must
be healthy; hovvever, this isn't always the case as many of these foods contain high
amounts of sugar or fat.
• Some product labels state that there is no added sugar or that the food or beverage
is sugar free, but the product may already contain a high concentration of naturally
occurring sugars; however, it does mean a type of sugar called sucrose has not
been added.
• Low-fat almost always means that even though the amount of fat in a product has
been reduced, more sugar has been added to ensure the taste is appea ling.
Did you know?
" Low calorie" foods are those that contain no more than 40 kcals per 100 g or 100 ml.
Additional information found on food labels
The following information should also be contained on food labels:
•
product name
• brand name
• country of origin
•
shelf life
•
manufacturer's name and address
•
list of ingredients in descending order by weight
•
serving or portion size
• expiry dates.
Remember!
Food with a "best before" date is expected to rema in at its best quality up to and
including this date (assuming it has been stored correctly). However, food may still
be eaten after this date if it appears to be in good condition. "Use by" dates on food
products refer to the final date when the food can be eaten. After this date, food or
drink should be thrown away and not consumed as it may be harmful.
UPC/ bar code
A """"'sal p,Oduct -
iS also k,ow, as a ba, OOde a<>d "''" be fouod M IO-Od ProduO/
information:
labels. The ba, ,.., "m&de up ol black lloes '"" ,umbe,,. aod '""•• /he rouow,,g
• count,y ,n wh,ch the prOc/uct was made
• name of manufacturer
•
date of manufacture
•
PrOduct and packet srze
• contents (what 1s found In the PfOduct)
• serial number (batch number).
Figure 7.2 A bar COde
Consumer protection agencies
Consumer protection is a group of laws and organisations which help to ensure the rights
of consumers. Consumer protection agencies include:
• Consumer Affairs Division: helps to inform consumers of their rights and
responsibilities by educating, protecting and empowering them.
•
Bureau of Standards: helps to ensure the standards are maintained for the
improvement of goods, services and practices.
• Weights and Measures Division: ensures that weights and measures are consistent
in relation to products bought by consumers. This helps to ensure consumers are
treated fairly.
Why don't you?
Design or create a box or packaging for an imaginary food product. Ensure all
necessary information, found in t his chapter, is included on the box. You may need to
research food products to help with this ta sk.
Useful links
The following websites are useful for understanding nutrition labels:
US Food and Drug Adm inistration: Fda.com
American Heart Association: www.heart.org
8. Putting together a portfolio
of evidence
To pass your programme you wi ll need to show evidence in your portfolio including:
• Observation of performance
•
Examination of products
• Oral questioning
• Written test ing
• Any other type of evidence
You will be provided with a portfolio checklist, such as on page xxx, to help ensure you
include all the evidence required for you to pass your programme.
Getting started
You will need a ring binder, page separators, stickers and plastic wallets.
At the front of the portfolio you will need a cover sheet containing your name and school,
including the year that you are in, and the title of the programme and the qualification
you are taking.
On the next page, you will need to add a table of contents so assessors can see what is
contained within the portfolio and on which page.
On the fol lowing page, there should details about you and your training experiences,
including what you expect from t he programme and what you hope to gain by the end
of it.
Formative assessment
The next section contains evidence of formative assessment. The goal of formative
assessment is for assessors to monitor student learning by providing ongoing feedback,
either written or verbally, that can be used by students to improve their learning and
skills. Formative assessments help students identify their strengths and weaknesses,
and target areas that need work so that teachers can help them to improve their work.
Therefore, the following types of evidence will be included in this section:
• Activities such as multiple choice questions, fill in the blanks, labelling of diagrams,
etc. that have been marked by a teacher. Evidence of learning should be shown.
• Any resea rch carried out and evidence of knowledge of health and safety skills.
• Written proof that you've worked as a team and carried out practical work, and can
include checklists and rating scales used for the practical session.
You need to include the following:
1.
Case study - perhaps your case study involved helping someone to improve their
diet to make it healthier. You will have written details of your case study including
their diet and lifestyle, what advice was given and why you gave it, evidence of
research, and the outcome.
2.
Any projects undertaken during the programme, or samples of work. Perhaps you
had to put toget her a menu for vegetarians. You wi ll have resea rched and written
about vegetarian foods and meals, and how they differ to a non-vegetarian diet.
3.
Essay work that has been marked by teacher. Maybe you are given the task of
writ ing an essay about health and safety in the kitchen. You can include designing
a safe kitchen layout, statistics about accidents and how worke rs should pay
attention to their personal hygiene and presentation. It should include hazards that
can occur in a kitchen and how they can be prevented.
4.
Any experience you have gained while on a field trip or within industry relating to
your programme. Maybe you have carried out work experience within, for instance,
a bakery.
Summative assessments
Finally, the last section contains summative assessments. The goal of these
assessmen ts is to evaluate student learning towards the end of the programme.
It will include:
1.
An assessment plan, which is a plan agreed between the student and the assessor
showing how, where and when evidence will be produced and collected.
2.
Evidence of oral questioning by your assessor, which help to test know ledge of
the subject.
3.
An observation checklist to ensure you have been observed by an assessor while
carrying out practical tasks relating to the subject studied.
4.
A peer evaluation checklist will show that your work has been observed and
evaluated by your peers (classmates).
5.
Any evidence of important formative and summative assessments carried out during
the programme, such as proj ect work, written work such as marked examinations or
observation assessment.
6.
Now it's time to reflect on your progress during the programme. After each unit or
units, you will have written about how you fe lt about the work so far, how you could
improve your skills, what went we ll and what didn't go to plan, and why. Although you
need to show progression, it's fine if you have made mistakes throughout - that's
how we learn!
7.
In your final reflective summary, you wil l sum up your progress. You can discuss
how you feel about your written and practical work throughout the programme,
and what you have learnt compared to the start of the course. Your confidence
should have grown a grea t deal; however, although you may have strengths there
may also be areas of weakness that can be worked on in the futu re and can be
set as objectives.
Candidate's portfolio checklist
Neatly compiled binder/ folder with each unit or cluster of units with page separators.
YES
NO
• Cover/title page: Caribbean Vocational Qualification, school,
occupational area, assessor's name, candidate's name, and year.
• Table of contents
• Introduction:
- Candidate profile (personal data, training experiences)
- Expectations of the programme
Formative assessments based on lesson plan with mark scheme to Include
YES
NO
YES
NO
• Unit questions - e.g. Fill in the blanks, multiple choice, labelling of
diagrams, etc.
• Research/safety skills
• Team work - practical assignment
• Any other two (2) from the list below:
- Case study
- Project/work samples
- Rest ricted essays
• Field trip/industry collaboration to reflect the occupational area
Summative assessments
Assessment plan
Oral questions checklist to include "what if" questions from
Dimension of Competency
Observation checklist
Peer evaluat ion checklist
Hard or soft copies of key formatives and summative projects/
acti vities
Reflections after each unit/cluster of units
Summary/ reflection at the end of the programme
General comments
• • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • I • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• •
A
acidity 78,-9
additives 78
artificial additives 78
natural additives 78
uses tor additives 78
adolescents 55
aeration 7 4--5
allergies 61, 116
alpha linolenlc acid
{omega.3) 7
amino acids 2
anaemia 12. 19
animal products 23
ascorbic acid (vitamin
C) 11
avocado
exotic avocado salad
92
B
bacteria 35, 36
food poisoning 43-4
baking 109
baking blind 76
baking terms 76-7
bananas
green banana pudding
89,
bar codes 118
basal metabolic rate
(BMR) 30
batters 76
beans 21
beating 76
beef
beef and breadfruit
soup 101- 2
beef and spinach
turnover 83-5
beef with rice 95
beriberi 10
'best before' dates 117
beta-carotene 12
binding 76
biological aeration 74
blanching 52
BMI {body mass Index)
31
boiling 109
bread 75-6
bread rolls 91
breadfruit
beet and breadfruit
soup 101- 2
bridge hold 82
broi ling 109
browning 78
budgeting for food 113
preparing meals on a
budget 113
buffets 65
cold holding 66-7
hot holding 66
bulking 75
Bureau of Standards
119
burns 110
buttercream 77
C
cakes 75
checking a cake Is
cooked 88
functions of cake
Ingredients 87-8
Jamaican ginger cake
86-7
calcium 12. 60
calories 29
low calorie foods 117
cancer 27
carbohydrates 2
complex carbohydrates
4-5
food preparation
69-70
what are sugars? 4
cardiovascular disease
27
Caribbean croque
monsieur 96-7
Caribbean Public Health
Agency (CARPHA) 19
carrot dumpl ings 95-6
cheese 86
Caribbean croqve
monsieur 96-7
cheese and yam bake
85
chemical aeration 7 4
chicken
spicy chicken
drumsticks 98,-9
children 54-5
chilling foods 38, 49
cholecalciferol (vitamin
D) 11
cholesterol 7
choosing food 51
dairy products 52
eggs 51
fruit and vegetables 51
meat, poultry and fish
51
claw grip 81
coagulation 71
cobalamin {vitamin 812)
11
coeliac disease 61
conduction 108,-9
Consumer Affairs Division
119
consumer protection
agencies 119
convection 108-9
cookers 107
cooking 49
acidity and temperature
78,-9
aeration 74--6
baking terms 76-7
binding, enroblng and
setting 76
cooking methods
108,-9
finishing techniques 78
knife skills 81-2
measurements 79-81
raising agents 73-4
coronary heart disease
(CHD) 9
cream cheese icing 77
creaming 77
curdling 77
cuts 110
cutting equipment 107
D
dairy products 52
deep.frying 109
denaturation 71
diabetes mellitus (type 2
diabetes) 27-8
diet 19
assessing a person's
diet 29-33
diet history 32-3
food diaries 33
multi-mix principle
24-6
poor nutrition 26-9
six food groups 19-23
dietary fibre 2, 4, 5
soluble and insoluble
fibre 5
digestive system 14
conditions associated
with the digestive
system 15-16
organs of the digestive
system 15, 18
process of digestion in
the mout h and stomach
14
disaccharides 4
E
eddoe fritters 94
eggs 51 , 88
egg custard 72
elderly people 56-7
electrocution 110
emulsification 72
emulsifying agents 72
enriched foods 116-17
enrobing 76
ethylene 52
F
fainting 111
FATTOM 37-8
fat-soluble vitamins 9
fats 2, 6 . 23, 87
difference between fats
and oils 6
effect of a high-tat diet
9
food preparation 72-3
functions of fat 8
how to reduce
saturated fat in the diet
8,-9
types of fats 6-7
fermentation 36
FIFO 41
first aid 110-11
fish 51
flash cards 18
flatware 107
flavourings 78
flour 87
foams 71
folate 56
folding in 7 7
fondant Icing 77
food groups 19-23, 34
food Intolerances 61
food poisoning 43, 110
bacterial food poisoning
hlgh-<Jensity lipoproteln
(HDl) 7
hypertension 28
hypocobalamlnemla 11
hypothyroidism 13
M
tats 6-9
minerals 12-13
magnesium 13
poor nutrition 26-9
Maillard reaction 69
protein 2-3
malnwltlon 26
vitamins 9-12
marasmus 3
nutritional status 30
meals 24--6
I
anthropometric
43-4
choosing and storing
Icing 77
measurements 30-2
chemical food
fresh fOOd 51-2
Infants 54
diet history 32-3
poisoning 45
food allergies and
Iodine 13
laboratory tests 32
Intolerances 61
food Infection and food
Iron 13, 59
physical observation
Intoxication 46
meal preparation 52-4
Iron-deficiency anaemia
32
parasites 45
planning for different
13
nuts 21
age groups 54-7
prevention 47-50
viruses 45
preparing meals on a
J
0
food safety 35, 42- 3
budget 1 13
Jam-making 93
obesity 9, 26-7
contamination and
religious diets 60
plate test 93-4
oesophagus 15
vegan 59
spoilage 3 7-9
Julienne vegetables 82
oils 6, 23, 8 7
handling fOOd safely
vegetarian 58-9
39-43
oligosaccharides 4
measurements 79-81
K
omega-3 7, 59
microbes that affect
measuring tools 107
kitchen equipment
omega-6 7
food 35-6
meat 51
107-9
osteomalacla 11
preventing fOOdborne
mechanical aeration 7 4
kitchen layout 105
osteoporosis 12
Illnesses 4 7-50
meringues 72, 75
four types of kitchen
ovens 107-8
food storage 41
metabolism 30
layout 106-7
overnutritlon 26
metabolic rate 30
non-perishable foods
health and safety 112
41-2
micro-organisms 35
p
knife
skills
81
perishable foods 41,
microbes 35-6
bridge hold 82
51-2
microwaving 109
pan-frytng 109
clawgrlp 81
milk
pancreas 15
fortified foods 116-17
Julienne vegetables 82
freezing foods 38
pans 107
papaya and milk
knives
107
frosting 77
smoothie 99-100
pantothenlc acid (vitamin
kwashiorkor 3
fruits 21, 51
minerals 2, 12
BS) 10
calcium 12
papaya and milk
functional fOOds 11 7
L
fungi 35
iodine 13
smoothie 99-100
Iron 13
labelling 113-18
parasites 45
G
magnesium 13
additional information
pasteurisation 52
117
phosphorus 12
pathogenic bacteria 35
gall bladder 15
peas 21
potassium 12
best before dates 117
gelatin 71
sodium 13
pectin 93
ginger
enriched and fortified
foods 116-17
monosaccharides 4
pellagra 10
Jamaican ginger cake
monounsaturated fats 6
how to read a nutrition
penne pasta salad
86--7
mouth 14
102-3
label 113-16
grace Icing 7 7
misleading product
multi-mix principle 24-6
peristalsis 5
glazing 78
labels 117
creating a meal 24-5
pernicious anaemia 11
gluten 72
four-mix meals 25--{;
Phosphorus 12
UPC/bar code 118
glycogen 4
photosynthesis 4
use by dates 117
three-mix meals 25
goitre 13
labour-saving devices
two-mix meals 25
pineapple upside-down
grilling 109
107
pudding 101
grinding equipment 107
N
lactose intolerance 61
plasticity 73
polysaccharides 4
large Intestine 15
H
niacin (vitamin B3) 10
leavening agents 73
polyunsaturated fats 6
night blindness 10
haem iron 23
legumes 21
potassium 12
nutrients 2
haemoglobin 13
linolelc acid 7
pots 107
matching nutrients to
hand washing 47--8
liver 15
poultry 51
function 17
health 2. 19
low-density llpoprotein
pre-school children 54
preparing vegetables
health and safety 1 12
(lDlJ 7
52-4
pregnant women 55-6
first aid 110-11
preparing fOOd 69
nutrition 2
carbohydrates 4-5
carbohydrates 69-70
combining foods to
make food products
73-9
fats 72-3
protein 70-2
preservatives 78
protein 2
excess protein in the
diet 3
food preparation 70--2
Importance of protein in
the diet 2
protein deficiency in the
diet 3
protein requirements
throughout life 3
sources of protein 2, 3
proving 7 4, 75, 9 1
pumpkin
cream of pumpkin soup
82- 3
pumpkin cookies 90
pyridoxlne (vitamin 86)
11
R
radiation 1 08-9
raising agents 73-4
recipes 82
beef and breadfruit
soup 101 - 2
beef and spinach
turnover 83- 5
beef with rice 95
bread rolls 91
Caribbean croque
monsieur 96-7
carrot dumplings 95-6
cheese and yam bake
85
cream of pumpkin soup
82- 3
create your own recipe
book 103-4
curried tuna 97-8
eddoe fritters 94
exotic avocado salad
92
green banana pudding
89,100--1
j am-making 93-4
Jamaican ginger cake
86-7
papaya and milk
smoothie 99-100
penne pasta salad
1 02- 3
pineapple upside-down
pudding 101
pumpkin cookies 90
spicy chicken
drumsticks 98-9
rectum 1 5
reduction 70
religious diets 60
restaurants 6 1-3
buffets 65-8
setting tables 6 4-5,
67
sanitising food
preparation surfaces
48
satiety 5
saturated fats 6 , 8-9
sauteing 109
scalds 110
scurvy 11
setting 76
shortening 73
sifting 77
small intestine 1 5
sodium 1 3
spinach
beef and spinach
turnover 83-5
staple foods 20
starches 4
steaming 1 09
stomach 1 4, 15
stroke 27
sugars 4, 87
T
table settings 64-5, 67
temperature 78-9
thawing foods 39
thlami n (vitamin 81) 10
tocopherol (vitamin E) 12
toddlers 54
trans fats 7
tuna
curried tuna 97- 8
retinol (vitamin A) 1 0
riboflavin (vitamin 82) 1 0
rice
beef with rice 95
rickets 11
roasting 109
royal icing 77
rubbing in 77
u
s
undernutrition 26
universal product codes
salivary glands 15
salt 28
recommendations for
daily intake 29
1 18
unsaturated f ats 6, 7
'use by' dates 117
utensils 107
V
vegans 59-60
vegetables 22, 51
j ulienne vegetables 82
preparing vegetables
52-4
vegetarians 58-9
viruses 35, 36, 45
vitamins 2, 9
fat-soluble vitamins 9
vitamin A 10
vitamin 81 10
vitamin 812 11, 60
vitamin 82 10
vitamin 83 10
vitamin 85 10
vitamin 86 11
vitamin C 11
vitamin D 11, 60
vitamin E 12
water-soluble vitamins
9
w
waist-to-hip ratio 31 -2
water 1 3-14
water-soluble vit amins 9
~Veights and Measures
Division 119
whipping 77
y
yams
cheese and yam bake
85
yeasts 36, 75
z
zesting 77
Study Guide
OXFORD
UNIV E RSI'I'Y P R.ESS
How to g et in toud1:
web mvw.oup.com/caiibbean
email schools.enquiries.uk@>ou p.com
tel
+44 (0)1536 452620
fax
+44 (0)1865 313472
ISBN 978-0-1&-837473-2
911sl,JJ37 73ll