Dement and Kleitman
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED: the ultradian rhythm of sleep and whether
dreaming occurs during REM or non-REM sleep, using an EEG
AIMS:
1. To see if dream recall occurs during REM or non-REM sleep.
2. To see if there is a link between the estimate of dream length and length of REM
period
3. To see if the pattern of eye movements is related to dream content.
4. To see if there is a positive correlation between the duration of REM sleep and the
number of words given in a dream narrative.
METHODOLOGY: experiment, correlation and interview
DESIGN: repeated measures design
VARIABLES:
a) AIM 1:
 I.V.: whether woken up during REM or non-REM sleep
 D.V.: whether the participant could recall the content of their dream in detail
b) AIM 2:
 I.V.: whether woken up 5 or 15 minutes after the onset of REM
 D.V.: perception of whether they had been dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes
c) AIM 3:
 I.V.: eye movement pattern before waking
 D.V.: the description of their dream
d) AIM 4:
 Co-variable 1: the number of minutes spent in REM sleep
 Co-variable 2: the number of words in the dream narrative recording
SAMPLE: 7 adult males and 2 adult females; 5 were studied more intensively and the data
from the other four being used to confirm the results
PROCEDURE:
- participants were asked to avoid alcohol and caffeine, but to eat normally
- 2 or more electrodes were placed near their eyes to record eye movements
- 2 or 3 electrodes were fixed to the scalp to record brain waves
- participants were taken to a quiet, dark room to sleep
- participants were woken at various times by a doorbell
- participants described the content of their dream into a recording device near their bed
- occasionally, the experimenter would enter the room to question them further about an
aspect of their dream
RESULTS:
 Dream recall occured predominantly in REM sleep and accuracy of dream duration
estimation was high
 Dream content matched eye gaze direction during REM sleep
 Positive correlation between duration of REM and number of words in dream
narrative
Evaluating Dement and Kleitman
ETHICAL ISSUES: maintaining confidentiality was a strength of this research. The
researchers used participants’ initials when discussing their results.
RELIABILITY: a strength of this research was the high level of standardisation in the
procedure
VALIDITY: a strength is that the researchers ensured nobody else was present when the
participants recalled their dreams
of the 152 dreams recalled, the recordings for 6 had to be discarded as they could
not be understood from the tape
one weakness is that there may have been individual differences in how verbal
each participant was when recalling dream content
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: quantitative data and the use of an EEG (scientific
equipment)
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: one weakness of the sample is that there was
a significant variation in the duration of sleep cycles even between the small number of 5
main participants.
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: a weakness is that the study lacks ecological
validity as participants were sleeping in a laboratory attached to an EEG with electrodes on
their heads
HASSET ET AL. (monkey toy preferences)
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED: whether stereotypical sex differences in toy
preferences result from the role of hormones in prenatal exposure or due to socialisation
AIMS:
1. To test is sex differences in children’s toy preferences result from biological factors
2. To investigate if male and female rhesus monkeys have similar toy preferences to
human infants
METHODOLOGY: experiment, observation, behavioural checklist
DESIGN: independent measures design
VARIABLES:
 I.V.: sex
 D.V.: whether the monkeys interacted more with the plush or wheeled toys
SAMPLE: 135 rhesus monkeys  14 had previously participated in another study  39
babies were not included  out of the 82 monkeys, only 34 interacted more with the toys and
were included in the study
PROCEDURE:
- 7 25-minute observations were completed in the outdoor area
- toys were always placed 10 metres apart and the positions were counterbalanced
- the toys varied in size, shape and colour
- 6 wheeled toys: wagon, truck, car, construction vehicle, shopping cart and dump truck
- 7 plush toys: Winnie-the-Pooh, Raggedy-Ann, Scooby-Doo, koala, armadillo, teddy, turtle
- a video camera was focused on each toy so that all interactions could be recorded for later
analysis
- 2 observers watched the videos and used a behavioural checklist to code every interaction
between the monkeys and toys
- the checklist included: extended touching, holding, sitting on, dragging, carrying, touching,
sniffing, mouthing
RESULTS:
a) Female monkeys show no consistent preference: although the females showed some
preference for the plush toys, compared with the wheeled toys, the difference was not
significant
b) Male monkeys preferred wheeled toys: male monkeys’ singificant preference for the
wheeled toys, compared with the plush toys. They also played less with plush toys
compared with females
c) Duration of interactions: When the females played with wheeled toys, they did not
play with them for as long as the males and they also played longer with the plush toys
than the males did. Males played significantly longer with wheeled than plush toys.
d) Social rank and toy preference: Higher-ranking monkeys interacted more with the
toys. *The higher the rank, the more time females spent interacting with plush toys.
CONCLUSION: Hasset et al. concluded that sex-typed toy preferences in humans may result
from biological sex differences.
Evaluating Hasset et al.:
ETHICAL ISSUES: a strength of Hasset et al is that ethical guidelines for working with
primated were upheld
RELIABILITY: - a strength was the use of a behavioural checklist
- a weakness was that the standardised procedure was abandoned on one of
the trials, due to one of the monkeys ripping apart one of the plush toys
VALIDITY: one strength was the use of video cameras rather than having human observers
present in the monkey enclosure. The presence of a human might have affected the
spontaneity of their play
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: - one strength was the use of quantitative data
- a weakness was that the researchers who
analysed the videotapes were both very familiar with the monkeys => potential bias
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: the lack of adult males in the sample was a
weakness (only 11)
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: a weakness of this research is that is was
conducted with monkeys living in captivity.
HOLZEL ET AL. (mindfulness and brain scans)
PSYCHOLOGY INVESTIGATED: the effects of mindfulness, a stress-reduction technique
to improve wellbeing, and localisation of function, the idea that specific brain structures are
responsible for specific behaviours
AIMS:
1. To identify if regular participation in MBSR (Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction)
leads to measurable neurological changes
2. To identify brain structures which changed as a result of an 8-week MBSR programme
METHODOLOGY: experiment, correlation
DESIGN: longitudinal design, independent measures design
VARIABLES:
2 I.V.:
 Whether the participants received MBSR or not
 Whether the data was collected at the beginning or the end of the 8-week period
3 D.V.:
 Grey matter concentration in specific brain structures, calculated using VBM
 The five facets of mindfulness measured using the Five Facets of Mindfulness
Questionnaire (FFMQ)
 Time spent on mindfulness exercises between the weekly sessions, which was
recorded in a daily diary
SAMPLE: 33 right-handed, healthy adults, aged 25-55 years old, recruited from 4 MBSR
courses at the Center of Mindfulness, New England, USA.
6 males + 10 females => MBSR group
11 males + 6 females => control group
PROCEDURE:
a) Before the MBSR sessions: MRI scans were conducted 2 weeks before the
experimental group’s first MBSR session. Next, the researchers analysed the models
using VBM to measure the concentration of grey matter. All participants also complete
the FFMQ.
b) During the eight-week programme: The experimental group took part in eight
weekly MBSR sessions. The participants in the experimental group were given a 45minute audio recording of guided mindfulness exercises (e.g. body scan, yoga,
meditation) to help them to complete the exercises at home
c) After the eight MBSR sessions: Further MRI scans of the brain were taken 2 weeks
after the last MBSR session for all participants, including the control group, and
everyone took the FFMQ again. Each participant’s 2 scans were compared using VBM
to measure any differences in grey matter concentration and in the five facets of
mindfulness.
RESULTS:
 the MBSR group engaged in an average of 22.6 hours of MBSR exercises. Overall,
participants spent 27 minuted per day in mindfulness exercises, mostly body scanning.
 the FFMQ showed significant improvements in „acting with awareness”, „observing”
and „non-judging”
 the MBSR group experienced a significant increase in grey matter concentration
Evaluating Holzel et al.
ETHICAL ISSUES: researchers took many steps to protect their participants from physical
and psychological harm
RELIABILITY: - a weakness of this study is the lack of standardisation between the weekly
mindfulness sessions
- a strength was the use of the FFMQ, before and after the MBSR
programme
VALIDITY: - one strength was the use of the independent measure design, therefore the
researchers were able to measure changes in the grey matter concentration for people who
have and have not taken part in MBSR
- a weakness was the lack of control of confounding variables (e.g. potentially
making new friends at their weekly sessions)
- another weakness was the use of self-reported quantitative data on the FFMQ,
because participants sometimes think less carefully about their answers as they go on
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: a = strength was the use of quantitative data to
measure grey matter concentration
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: another weakness was the use of an
opportunity sample of only 33 participants, all of whom shared certain characteristics. It
would be helpful to see whether similar effects would be found with older adults or people
with lower levels of formal education.
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: another strength was that the researchers
encouraged the experimental participants to incorporate mindfulness into their everyday lives.
ANDRADE (doodling)
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED: Andrade proposes that doodling can enhance
attention and lead to better memory.
AIMS:
1. To investigate whether doodling improves our ability to pay attention to auditory
information.
2. To investigate whether doodling affects later recall of auditory information.
METHODOLOGY: laboratory experiment
DESIGN: independent measures design
VARIABLES:
I.V.: whether the participants were allowed to doodle while they listened to the phone
message or not
D.V.:
 Monitoring accuracy: the number of correct names recorded while listening to the
tape
 Memory for monitored information: number of correct names recalled after false
alarms were deducted
 Memory for incidental information: number of correct places recalled
SAMPLE: 40 participants aged 18-55
17 females + 3 males => doodling group
18 females + 2 males => control group
PROCEDURE:
a) The tape: 2.5-minute mock telephone message about a party. The message was read
in a flat tone of voice at a speed of 227 words / minute. The message mentioned:
 8 people who were able to come to the party
 3 people and 1 cat who could not come to the party
 8 places: London, Penzance, Gloucester, Colchester, Harlow, Ely,
Peterborough and Edinborough
b) Listening to the recording: Each participant completed the experiment on their own
in a quiet, dull room. The experimental group were given the A4 response sheets with
the shapes to shade and a pencil. There was a 4.5 cm margin on the paper to record the
target names. Those is the control group were given a sheet of lined paper with no
shapes to shade.
c) The surprise memory test: Half of each group were asked to recall the names first
and then the places, and the other half were told to recall the places first and then the
names.
d) Analysing the responses: The researchers included any names or places that they
thought had simply been misheard as correct – for example, Greg for Craig.
RESULTS:
 The experimental group shaded an average of 36.3 shapes (range 3-110). One person
did not shade any shapes so they were replaced with another participant.
 The total recall score (out of 16) was 29% higher in the doodling group compared with
the control group.
Evaluating Andrade:
ETHICAL ISSUES: one weakness of Andrade’s study is that the participants were deceived
about the true purpose of the study.
RELIABILITY: a strength of Andrade’s study is the highly standardised procedure, which
means the study can be easily replicated.
VALIDITY: - a strength of the design was that the order in which participants recalled the
monitored information (names) and incidental information (places) was counterbalanced.
- a weakness of this study was the operational definition of doodling.
- a strength of the study is that Andrade checked to see whether any of her
participants had detected the deception
- a strength was the use of „lures”
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: a weakness of the study was the decision to mark
misheard words as correct.
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: a weakness is the overwhelming number of
females in the study compared to males, meaning it can be described as ’gyncentric’
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: a weakness of this laboratory experiment is that
the task was conducted in a highly controlled setting, which is unlikely to reflect a real-world
setting.
BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test)
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED: Theory of mind (the ability to determine the
mental state of another person) and social sensitivity (how effectively an individual can
identify, understand and respect the feelings of another person during social interactions)
AIMS:
1. To test adults with high-functioning autism (HFA)/Asperger syndrome (AS) on the
revised eyes test to see if the deficits on the original test were still seen.
2. To see if there is a negative correlation between autism spectrum quotient (AQ) and
eyes test scores.
3. To see if females score higher than males.
METHODOLOGY: experiments and correlations
VARIABLES:
I.V.:
 Whether the participant had HFA/AS or not
 Sex: male versus female
D.V.:
 Eyes test scores
 AQ scores
Co-variables for the correlation:
 AQ score
 Eyes test score
SAMPLE:
Group
1 HFA/AS adults
Sample
15 male adults with
HFA/AS
2 General population 122 neurotypical
controls
adults
Mean IQ
115
Information
Volunteer sample
-
3 Students
-
Exeter or Cambridge
(both UK). Broad
range of occupations
and education levels.
Assumed to have high
IQ due to very high
university entry
requirements
Matched on IQ to
Group 1
4 IQ-matched
controls
103 neurotypical
undergraduate
students from
Cambridge
14 randomly selected
people from the
general population
116
PROCEDURE:
- participants in all four groups took the revised eyes test in a quiet room, alone, in either
Exeter or Cambridge
- the test required them to select which of four words matched the expression of a set of eyes
- participants with HFA/AS were also asked to determine the gender of the eyes as a control
task
Problems with the original test
There were only 2 possible responses for
each question
Parents of children with autism scored
similarly to people with HFA or AS, even
though they did not have the condition
themselves
There were not many possible scores above
chance level, leading a ceiling effect.
Some items were too easy as they were
basic mental states such as happy, sad and
angry
Some items could be guessed from eye
direction
More female than male faces
The target word and the foil were always
semantic opposites
It was unclear whether some people could
understand all words.
Solutions in the new test
To remedy these issues, Baron-Cohen et al’s
new test increased the number of items on
the test (from 25 to 36) and increased the
number of response options for each
question (from 2 to 4)
The new version contained only complex
mental states
These were omitted on the new test
An equal number of male and female faces
was used
In the new version, the 3 foils were similar
to the target word
A glossary was included
RESULTS:






Group 1’s eyes test mean was significantly lower than the mean for the other groups
Females scored higher than males on the eyes test
Group 1 scored significantly worse than Groups 3 and 4 on the AQ (group 2 did not
take the AQ test)
Males scored higher on the AQ than females
No correlation between eyes test score and IQ
A negative correlation between AQ score and eyes test score
CONCLUSION: the eyes test is a valid way to detect subtle impairments in social
intelligence for those with normal Iqs
Evaluating Baron-Cohen et al.
ETHICAL ISSUES: it may have caused psychological harm to participants with HFA/AS
(distress or embarrassment)
RELIABILITY: a strength of Baron-Cohen is the high level of standardisation
VALIDITY: - lack of random allocation, as the independent variables were naturally
occurring
- a weakness of the study is that it may not have been measuring theory of mind,
as it claimed to. The study only aimed to measure the first stage of theory of mind,
determining the mental state of a person, without the second stage of understanding reason
behind their emotion
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: the data was objective, there was no interpretation
necessary on the part of the researchers
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: a weakness is that the findings may not be
generalisable to other individuals with HFA/AS, because the sample was very small
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: a weakness of the eyes test is that the stimuli of
the eyes used are static and do not reflect the processing of human emotions in a real-life
setting
POZZULO ET AL. (line-ups)
PSYCHOLOGY INVESTIGATED: the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies for children,
specifically the factors that affect false positive responses when asked to select someone they
had previously seen from a line-up.
AIMS: The study aimed to investigate whether children:
 are less able to recognise human faces than adults
 make more false positive identifications than adults when faced with:
- target-absent line-ups versus target-present line-ups
- human faces and cartoon characters
METHODOLOGY: laboratory experiment, interview, questionnaire
DESIGN: repeated measures design
VARIABLES:
I.V.:
 age – young children or adults
 nature of target faces – cartoon or human
 type of line-up – target-present or target-absent
D.V.:
 correct identification rates for target-present line-ups
 correct rejection rates for targent-absent line-ups
SAMPLE: - children aged 4-7 (21 female and 38 male) selected from 3 private schools
- adults aged 17-30 (36 females an 17 males)
PROCEDURE:
a) Creating the video clips and photo-array line-ups:
- the researchers created 4 video clips, 2 starring familiar cartoon characters Dora and Diego.
Dora was speaking to the audience in one video and Diego was putting on safety gloves.
- the other 2 videos included a male and a female main character, both human actors. The
woman was brushing her hair and the man was putting on his coat
- all clips were in colour, with no sound, six seconds long
- each video had an accompanying photo-array line-up of 4 black-and-white headshots:
 In the target-present line-ups, one of the photos was the target person/cartoon
character and the other 3 photos were foils (people who looked similar)
 In the target-absent condition, the target was swapped for another foil in the same
position
- human foils were selected from a set of 90 male and 90 female faces by 3 researchers
- cartoon foils were selected online
b) Before the testing phase:
- the parents of the child participants completed informed consent forms and the Demographic
and Cartoon Watching Form, an eight-item questionnaire
- parents were asked to estimate how long their child spent watching cartoons each week
- they were also asked their child’s age, gender, primary language and ethnicity and whether
they had any siblings
- children were tested individually at their schools
- the 4 female researchers were introduced as people doing research on TV shows and games
- the children and the researchers participated in some craft activities to get to know eachother
c) Watching the videos:
- the child participants were told they would be watching some videos and to pay attention as
they would be asked some questions and shown some pictures afterwards (What did the
cartoon character/person look like? and Do you remember anything else?; if they did not
answer, they were asked: Do you remember anything from the video?)
- the researcher wrote the children’s answers down, although they would not be analysed
- the procedure was identical for adults, except they wrote down their own answers
d) The photo-array line-ups:
- children pointed to a box on the screen
- the adults recorded their answers on a sheet rather than pointing to a screen
e) After testing was complete:
- the child participants were thanked and given gifts of crayons and a colouring book
- the adult participants completed the Demographic and Cartoon Watching Form and were
debriefed and thanked
RESULTS:
Target-present line-ups:
- children were significantly better at identifying familiar cartoon characters than unfamiliar
human faces
- the adults were also significantly better when faced with target-present cartoon line-ups than
unfamiliar faces
- there was no significant difference in the success rate of adults and children in identifying
the cartoon characters
Target-absent line-ups:
- the children had a significantly higher success rate with target-absent line-ups including
cartoon characters compared with human faces
- the adults also perfomed significantly better with the cartoon characters compared with
human faces and their performance was also significantly better than the children for both
cartoon and human faces
- children had a much higher rate of false positives compared with adults
- the lower rate of correct responses in the target-absent line-ups demonstrates that children’s
false positive responses are likely to be driven by social factors rather than cognitive factors
CONCLUSION: the influence of social factors appears to be at least partly responsible for
children’s errors in target-absent line-ups
Evaluating Pozzulo et al.
ETHICAL ISSUES: one strength of the study is that, despite exploring false memory and
using target-absent line-ups, there was no deception
RELIABILITY: - a strength is the standardised procedure and instructions, which means the
study can be easily replicated
- a weakness is that the researchers did not ask everyone the exact same
questions as part of the 2-minute filler task (some were asked 2 questions and some 3
questions)
VALIDITY: - the use of the repeated measures design was a strength that increased the
internal validity of the findings. Participants took part in both types of line-up with both types
of target (human and cartoon)
- a weakness of the design was that the researchers were actually altering 2
things: familiarity and whether the character is a 2D animation or 3D human.
- a final strength was the high degree of control that was possible due to the
carefully created materials
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: a strength is that the study tried to minimise
subjectivity in the choice of foils for the photo-arrays. This was done by having 3 raters who
were shown around 10 different cartoons as potential foils for each target.
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: a weakness is that the findings may not be
generalisable to participants from lower socio-economic backgrounds (the children were all
from private schools, suggesting that they were from relatively wealthy families)
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: a weakness of this laboratory experiment is the
artificial nature of the video clips. In a real-life situation, the witness would also have been
exposed to other sensory information, such as sound and smell.
BANDURA ET AL. (aggression)
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED: Social Learning Theory, which proposes that
people observe and imitate the behaviour of others, especially those with whom they identify
(e.g. people who are attractive, powerful or popular); Aggression
AIMS:
1) To investigate whether children imitate aggression of a model in the absence of that
model
2) To investigate whether children are more likely to imitate the behaviour of a same-sex
model
METHODOLOGY: experiment, observation
DESIGN: 8 experimental conditions
SAMPLE: 72 children from Stanford University nursery (36 girls and 36 boys, aged from 37
to 69 months)
PROCEDURE:
a) Experimental conditions:
- the participant was brought to a room full of toys and seated at a table in the corner by the
experimenter, who showed them how to make pictures with potato prints, multi-coloured
picture stickers were also provided
- the experimenter then took the model to another corner of the room which had a table and a
chair, tinker toy set, mallet and inflatable Bobo doll, before leaving the room
b) Non-aggressive condition: the model played with the tinker toys in a quiet manner
and ignored the Bobo doll
c) Aggressive condition: the model focused on the Bobo doll and was aggressive
towards it (the model laid the Bobo doll on its side, sitting on it and punching its nose, then
lifted it and hit it on the head with the mallet, followed by throwing the Bobo doll up in the air
aggressively and kicking it around the room).
d) Aggression arousal
- before the test for imitation, all participants were taken to a game room to induce mild
aggression arousal. This was to ensure that all participants were primed to initiate aggressive
acts equally, regardless of the situation they had observed.
- the room had attractive toys: a fire engine, a train, a fighter plane, a cable car, a colourful
spinning top and a doll set
- the participants were told that the toys were for them to play with, but as soon as they
became engaged, the experimenter announced that these were her very best toys and they
were being reserved for other children
e) Test for delayed imitation:
- the experimental room contained a range of toys, including:
 toys from the room with the model: Bobo doll and mallet
 other novel aggressive toys: two dart guns
 non-aggressive toys: a tea set, crayons, a ball, 2 dolls, 3 bears, toy vehicles, animals
- the participant spent 20 minutes in this room while their behaviour was recorded using a
behavioural checklist every 5 seconds. The male model from the experiment observed all
trials and for half of the trials there was a second observer
f) Response measures:
Categories for imitation:
 Imitation of physical aggression:
- hitting the Bobo doll with a mallet
- sitting on the Bobo doll and punching it on the nose
- kicking the Bobo doll
- tossing the Bobo doll into the air
 Imitative verbal aggression:
- ”Sock him in the nose”
- ”Hit him down”
- ”Throw him in the air”
- ”Kick him”
- ”Pow”
 Imitative non-aggressive verbal responses:
- ”He keeps coming back for more”
- ”He sure is a tough fella”
Partially imitative behaviour:
 mallet aggression: striking something other than the Bobo doll with a mallet
 sits on Bobo doll
Non-imitative aggressive acts:
 punches Bobo doll
 any acts or words that were aggressive but not performed by the model
 aggressive gun play
RESULTS:
- participants in the aggressive condition showed more physical and verbal aggression
- boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression than girls
- girls were slightly more likely to imitate verbal aggression than boys
- children who viewed a same-sex model imitated them more than an opposite-sex model
Evaluating Bandura et al. (aggression)
ETHICAL ISSUES: one weakness of the study is the risk to the children of psychological
harm
RELIABILITY: a strength of the study is the standardised procedure and instructions
VALIDITY: - a strength of this study was that participants were matched on prior aggression
levels (physical aggression, verbal aggression, aggression towards inanimate objects and
aggression inhibition)
- a weakness was that only one stooge was used in each male and female
condition throughout the experiment
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: - a strength was that quantitative data was
collected in this study (behavioural checklist)
- a weakness was that the main observer for all of
the trials was the male model from the experiments and he may have been more subjective in
his interpretation of the behaviours
- a strength is that the main observer did not know
which condition each child had been in for any trials for which he had not been the model
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: a weakness is that the findings may not be
generalisable to participants from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (the children were all
from the nursery of a prestigious university)
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: a weakness of this study is that the situation
presented to the children lacked mundane realism as it was an usual set-up (it is very rare that
an adult will be seen to attack a toy)
FAGEN ET AL. (elephant learning)
PSYCHOLOGY INVESTIGATED: how the principles of operant conditioning, including
positive, negative, primary and secondary reinforcement, can be used to improve elephant
welfare. Elephants are taught a procedure called the trunk wash using shaping and chaining.
AIM: To investigate whether secondary positive reinforcement could be used to train the
elephants to voluntarily complete a trunk wash
METHODOLOGY: controlled observation (using a behavioural checklist)
SAMPLE: 5 female elephants (4 juveniles aged 5-7 years old and 1 adult). The young
elephants were all born in captivity. The adult elephant was at least 50 years old.
PROCEDURE:
a) Training the elephants: elephants were trained in the morning (7.30-10.00 a.m.)
and/or afternoon (4.00-7.00 p.m.)
b) What did the elephants have to do?
To complete a trunk wash, elephants had to:
1 Put their trunk into the trainer’s hand (so saline water can be inserted)
2 Lift their trunk and hold (so the fluid can flow into the base of the trunk)
3 Lower their trunk into a bucket
4 Blow into the bucket (to remove the fluid)
5 Hold steady
c) How were the elephants trained?
1 Capturing: the elephants were encouraged to perform natural behaviours, using rewards (if
an elephant spontaneously lifted her trunk up, she would be given chopped banana)
2 Luring: if the trainer needed the elephant to stretch its trunk out, they would put a treat out
of reach to lure them towards it
3 Shaping: to begin with, elephants were rewarded for all behaviours that were similar to the
final goal. Gradually, the elephants were only rewarded for accurate behaviours. Their
behaviours were shaped to become more accurate over time
4 Secondary reinforcers: the trainers taught the elephants to associate the sound of a whistle
(a secondary reinforcer) with the arrival of chopped banana (a primary reinforcer)
d) Verbal cues and behavioural chaining: the trainers introduced one-syllable verbal
cues to prompt the elephants once they had successfully learned all 5 behaviours
e) The syringe and sample fluid: the syringe was only introduced when the elephants
had learned the trunk-wash behaviours. The syringe is an aversive stimulus as the
elephants might find it unpleasant. To help them accept the syringe, the trainers
gradually brought it closer to the elephant’s trunk, rewarding them with banana, until
they were happy to have the syringe touch their trunks (desensitisation)
f) Measures variables: there were 3 main measured variables recorded by an assistant
who observed each training session:
 minutes of training from the point at which the elephant was offered her first cue to
her response to the last cue
 number of offers/cues made by the trainer to the elephant
 success rate for each behaviour and each sequence
RESULTS: The 4 juvenile elephants all learned the full trunk wash in 25-35 sessions. The
older elephant failed to learn the full sequence of the trunk wash in the time available
CONCLUSION: Secondary positive reinforcement is effective for training juveline,
traditionally trained elephants to voluntarily and reliably participate in a trunk wash.
Evaluating Fagen et al. (elephant learning)
ETHICAL ISSUES: one strength is that the ethical guidelines were followed for both the
animals and the trainers (despite the elephants’ leg chains, they were able to walk away from
their trainers if they did not want to participants, therefore trainers were safe from the animals
who could have become unco-operative)
RELIABILITY: another strength was the use of a behavioural checklist, which detailed the
exact operational descriptions of each of the taught behaviours
VALIDITY: - one strength was that the mahouts complied with the researchers’ request not to
speak to or signal to the elephants in any way
- a weakness was that the total training time included training on a few
behaviours that were not part of the trunk wash
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: a weakness was that the measurement of the
elephant’s performance was subjective. Despite the detailed behavioural checklist, the trainer
had to decide whether they felt the elephant would be successful if they were performing a
real trunk wash
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: another weakness is the small sample size,
specifically the lack of male and adult elephants in the sample
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: a strength of the study is that the data was
collected in a lively, naturalistic setting. This increases ecological validity, suggesting that it
would be possible to achieve similar results with elephants in their normal settings, such as
zoos or safari parks.
Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED:
 Phobias – intense fear or anxiety
 Classical conditioning – if a neutral stimulus is present at the same time as something
scary, we may learn to associate the neutral stimulus with the scary stimulus
 Evaluative learning – if a neutral stimulus is paired with something that the person
finds really disgusting, then the previously neutral stimulus may now provoke the
same negative reaction as the disgusting stimulus
 Operant conditioning – the researchers used positive reinforcement (praise from the
mother) to reward him for handling buttons during therapy => this made it more likely
that the boy would approach buttons in a positive way in the future
AIMS:
1. Highlight the role of evaluative learning and disgusts in the development and
treatment of children’s phobias.
2. Test the efectiveness of imagery exposure as part of an exposure-based cognitivebehavioural treatment for a specific phobia of buttons
METHODOLOGY: case study, interview, observation
DESIGN: longitudinal study (the boy’s behaviour was observed before, during and after
treatment, during follow-up sessions at 6 and 12 months)
SAMPLE: 9-year-old Hispanic-American boy from Florida, USA. His phobia had started
when he was 5 years old
MEASURES VARIABLES: the boy’s approach and avoidance behaviours were carefully
observed and recorded. Approach behaviours included: touching, holding and manipulating
the buttons.
 A feelings theormometer was used to score the participants’s level of distress (0-8)
PROCEDURE:
1. The initial assessment / diagnosis:
- the boy and his mother were interviewed using a semi-structured interview schedule to
confirm that he had a phobia, called the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IVChild and Parent versions (ADIS-C/P)
- the researchers also asked the boy and his mother about stressful life events that may have
triggered the phobia
- they also checked to see if he met the criteria for any other disorders, such as OCD (he
didn’t)
2. Treatment: behavioural exposure – 4 50-minute exposure-based sessions, 30
minutes on his own and 20 minutes with his mother
- creating a disgust/fear hierarchy (large denim jean buttons caused least distress / small
coloured and small clear plastic buttons caused the most distress)
- in vivo exposures: gradual exposure to buttons in real life. If the boy was able to tolerate the
buttons, his mother would reward him with praise (positive reinforcement)
3. Treatment: disgust-related imagery exposure
- 7 sessions where the therapists asked the boy to describe how buttons look, feel and smell
and how he felt while imagining them
- the therapists asked him to imagine buttons of different sizes
4. Post-treatment and the follow-up phase:
- the ADIS-C/P was used directly after the treatment to measure the efficacy of the treatment
and again after 6 and 12 months
How did the phobia begin?
 The boy was working on an art project when he ran out of buttons for his poster. He
went to the front of the class to take some more buttons from a large bowl on the
teacher’s desk. As he reached in, his hand slipped and the buttons fell onto him.
RESULTS:
 Following behavioural exposure, the boy could tolerate more buttons, but distress
ratings remained
 Following disgust-related imagery exposure for buttons, ratings of distress on the fear
thermomether decreased
CONCLUSION: image-exposure therapy may be more a more effective treatment for
disgust-based phobias than exposure-based treatments
Evaluating Saavedra and Silverman
ETHICAL ISSUES: - an important strength of this study is that the researchers gained
informed consent from the boy and his mother
- a weakness is that the detailed description of his past may have
compromised his anonymity
RELIABILITY: - a strength of this study was the use ADIS-C/P (excellent reliability)
- a weakness is the lack of standardisation, the procedure cannot be
replicated easily (therapy sessions are spontaneous situations)
VALIDITY: - a strength of this study was the follow-up sessions at 6 and 12 months (good
evidence)
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: one weakness was the self-reported data from the
mother and the child (it is possible that in later sessions the boy might have wanted to make
the researchers feel that their work with him had been successful)
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: a weakness of the study is that it is only
focused on one child, who was treated at a prestigious university (the therapy might not have
been as effective for a child from a different background)
Milgram (obedience)
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED: Obedience is the result of social pressure
(one person complies with the direct order of another person who they perceive to have a
higher level of authority than themselves)
AIM: To investigate the level of obedience when an authority figure orders a person to
administer physical punishment to a stranger.
METHODOLOGY: observations, interview (laboratory setting)
DESIGN: independent measures design
DEPENDENT VARIABLE: the maximum shock the participant was willing to administer
before refusing to continue (levels from 0-30, level 30 representing 450 V)
Obedience was defined by Milgram as delivering the maximum 450 V shock level and
any participant who stopped before then was termed defiant.
SAMPLE: 40 males aged 20-50. It was a volunteer sample via a local newspaper
advertisement and direct mail solicitation for a study on memory and learning at Yale Uni.
Participants were paid $4.50 for their participation.
PROCEDURE:
 the study took place in a laboratory setting at Yale University, with a male high school
teacher playing the role of the experimenter.
 1 naive participant and a male actor playing the role of the learner took part in each trial
 the participant was told that they were taking part in a study on the effect of punishment on
learning or how much punishment is best for learning
 participants then drew a slip of paper from a hat to determine whether they would play the
role of „teacher” or „learner” (it was rigged so the participant always took „teacher”)
 both the teacher and the learner were then taken to a room where the learner was strapped
into an electric chair and an electrode attached to his wrist.
a) Learning task:
 the learner had to memorise word-pair associations
 the learner was required to select an option and if the answer was incorrect, the participant
was required to administer an electric shock
 the participant was required to announce the voltage level before giving the shock
b) Preliminary run:
 participants undertook a preliminary run of 10 trials in order to practise the procedure so it
went smoothly
 7 of these trials involved delivering shocks (max 105 V)
c) Regular run:
 when shock levels of 300 V and 315 V were administered, the learner was heard protesting
by pounding on the wall
 after 300 V, he stopped responding to questions
 the participant was told to treat no answer as an incorrect answer
 if a participant expressed an unwillingness to continue with the study, the experimenter
used a series of prods:
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PROD 1: Please continue or Please go on
PROD 2: The experiment requires that you continue
PROD 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue
PROD 4: You have no other choice, you must go on.
RESULTS:
a) Quantitative:
- 26/40 of the participants were fully obedient and administered the maximum 450 V
- 40/40 of the participants went up to 300 V. At this point, 5 participants refused to continue
b) Qualitative:
- extreme tension was observed (sweating, trembling, biting their lip)
- 14 participants showed signs of nervous laughter and smiling
- 3 participants had full-blown seizures
- participants who continued to 450 V seemed under extreme stress
CONCLUSIONS:
1. Participants appeared willing to go against their own moral values and obey an
authority figure, even when it meant harming another person.
2. Following orders to administer electric shocks to another person caused extraordinary
tension and emotional strain
Milgram provided reasons he thought obedience had occured:
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the prestigious location of the study: Yale University
the experiment was seen to be a worthy contribution to science
a sense of obligation and commitment
the participants were paid to take part
the participants were told the shocks were not dangerous
Evaluating Milgram:
ETHICAL ISSUES: - one ethical strength of Milgram’s research is that he was pioneering in
debriefing the participants after the study was over (not common at the time)
- one weakness of Milgram’s research is the psychological harm
potentially suffered by participants (they had full-blown seizures)
- one weakness is that there were several instances of deception
RELIABILITY: one strength of the laboratory setting is that Milgram was able to exert tight
controls over his procedure (high level of standardisation)
VALIDITY: - a weakness is that the study lacks mundane realism, which reduces the
usefulness of the findings, since it does not reflect obedience situations in everyday life
- a strength if that Milgram gathered qualitative data throughout the experiment,
giving deeper insight into the high level of tension participants experienced
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: a strength was the use of voltage as a dependent
variable, which allowed for objective quantitative data to be collected
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: a weakness is that Milgram’s study has low
population validity, as the entire sample consisted of American males
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: one weakness of Milgram’s research is that it
was conducted in a laboratory setting, under the guise of a study into learning and memory
(lacks ecological validity)
Perry et al. (personal space)
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED: interpersonal distance (personal space),
empathy (a person’s ability to understand the thoughts, feelings and experiences of another),
social hormones (oxytocin, a social hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter and plays a role
in social bonding)
AIM: To investigate how oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance for those scoring
high or low in empathy traits.
METHODOLOGY: 2 experiments in a laboratory setting
DESIGN:
a) I.V.: whether the participants received nasal drops containing oxytocin or a placebo
(saline solution)
- as all participants took part in both conditions, this part of the experiment was repeated
measures design
- the researchers randomised whether the participant received the oxytocin first of the saline
- a week later, they received the alternative treatment
- the administration of the treatments was double-blind
b) I.V.: whether oxytocin affected people in different ways depending of their level of
empathy
- Perry et al. divided participants into 2 groups
- as participants could only be in one group, high or low empathy, this part of the design was
independent measures
- high or low empathy was operationalised using a 28-item online questionnaire called the
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)
EXPERIMENT 1:
- Perry measured preferred interpersonal distance (the dependent variable) using a
computer animation.
- the animation tested people on their preferred interpersonal distance from different
people (a stranger, an authority figure and a friend) and an object (a ball) THIS PART WAS
REPEATED MEASURES
EXPERIMENT 2:
- computer-based task called „choosing rooms” to calculate values for 2 different
dependent variables:
- the mean average preferred distance between different items of furniture
- the mean average preferred angle between different items of furniture
- the participants were told that the task was to help plan the layout of a room where
they would be having a conversation with another participants about a personal topic
- researchers compared preferences for spatial arrangement of the chairs (a measure
of interpersonal distance preference) and a table and a plant (a control condition)
- this was the final independent variable in the study
- as all participants gave preferences relating to both the chairs and the table and plant,
this part was repeated measures design
SAMPLE: 54 male undergraduates from the University of Haifa in Israel, aged 19-32 years
5 were left-handed, 0 had any history of psychiatric or neurological conditions
All had normal or corrected-to-normal eyesight
PROCEDURE:
a) Oxytocin administration and empathy assessment:
- participants visited the laboratory twice, a week apart, at the same time
- on their first visit, they were randomly given either oxytocin or a placebo (saline)
- 3 droplets were self-administered to each nostril
- next, participants completed the empathy questionnaire, the IRI
- participants had to for 45 minutes in a quiet room, alone, so that their oxytocin levels would
plateau
b) Experiment 1: CID
- the CID paradigm is a computer animation used to measure preferred interpersonal distance
- first, the word friend, stranger, authority or ball appears on the screen for 1 second
- next, the participant must gaze at a fixation point which appears on the screen for 0.5
secondsd
- the next screen shows a plan of a circular room with a stick person at the centre representing
the participant
- next comes an animation that lasts up to 3 seconds: a stick person or circle (the ball) (Perry
calls this the protagonist) enters the circle from one of 8 doors around the edge, before
approaching the person in the middle
- the participant had to press the spacebar on the keyboard when they want the protagonist to
stop
- there were 96 trials in total with the 4 protagonists appearing 3 times from each of the 8
doors
c) Experiment 2: Choosing rooms
- participants were told they would be having a meeting with another participant to discuss
personal topics and that the room would be laid out according to their preferences, as
measured by a computer program (not true)
- the computer program showed the participants still colour images of pairs of rooms where
the chairs, table and plant were at slightly different angles and distances from each other
- 84 pairs of rooms were shown twice => 168 pairs
- during the task, participants sat 60 cm from the computer screen and were shown each pair
of rooms for 2 seconds
- they had to fixate on a point on a blank screen for 0.5 seconds between each pair
-participants chose between the left or the right room
RESULTS: oxytocin decresed the preferred mean distance from another person in the high
empathy group and increased it in the low empathy group
CONCLUSION: oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance, dependent on empathy
levels
Evaluating Perry et al.
ETHICAL ISSUES: one key criticism of this research is that in experiment 2 participants
were deceived about choosing a room for a personal meeting, only to be told that the meeting
would not take place (psychological harm)
RELIABILITY: a strength of this research is its high level of standardisation (computer)
VALIDITY: - the use of a double-blind procedure in the administration of either oxytocin or
the placebo was a strength, because neither the participant nor the experimenter knew which
solution was being administered in weeks one and two (this avoided experimenter effects or
demand characteristics)
- one weakness of the design was that participants were categorised as being
high or low in emapthy on the basis of their own self-report, which may be biased
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: a strength of this research was the use of
quantitative data, which did not require subjective interpretation from the researchers
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: one weakness of this study is that it only
used male participants
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: one weakness of this research is the fact that it
used computer-based tasks in a laboratory setting, which lacks ecological validity
Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)
PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED: Bystander apathy (the lack of help offered in
some situations) and diffusion of responsibility (the more people are present, the less personal
responsibility each individual feels)
AIMS: Piliavin et al aimed to investigate factors affecting helping behaviour on a New York
subway train. Specifically, they wanted to see how the following factors affected help offered
to a passenger who collapsed in the carriage:
 the type of victim: drunk or ill
 the race of the victim: black or white
 modelled help provided by another passenger
 number of people in the carriage (group size)
METHODOLOGY: field experiment, observation
DESIGN: independent measures design (each scene was carried out in front of a different
carriage)
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Observer 1: recorded the number of people in the car and the race, sex and location of
each passenger in the critical area. She also noted how many people assisted the
victim, as well as their race, sex and location
Observer 2: recorded the race, sex and location of passengers in the adjacent area, as
well as the time taken to assist after the collapse
Both observers noted comments made by passengers.
VARIABLES:
1. I.V.: - the condition of the victim (drunk or ill),
- the race,
- how close the helpful model was to the victim (critical area or adjacent),
- how quickly help was offered and group size
2. D.V.: - time taken for help to arrive (before and after modelled help)
- sex and race of the first helper
- movement of passengers out of the critical area of the carriage
- passengers’ spontaneous comments about the collapse
SAMPLE: approximately 4450 men and women, 45% were black and 55% white. The mean
people per car was 43; the mean number of people in the critical area, where the incident took
place, was 8.5. Participants were an opportunity sample who did not give informed consent.
PROCEDURE: a team of 4 students boarded a carriage on the New York subway train via
separate doors
- 2 female observers took separate seats, while the 2 male students playing the role of the
victim and model remained standing
- the victim always stood in the critical area
- 70 seconds into the journey, the victim collapsed on the floor and laid until they received
help
- if no help was given by the time the train reached the next station, the model helped the
victim
- the team would then re-board another train in the opposite direction (6-8 trials/day)
Victim: there were 4 teams of students, each with a victim aged between 26 and 35 who were
dressed identically in the same old trousers, jacket and no tie
- 1 victim was black and 3 were white
- 38 trials of the drunk condition / 65 trials of the ill condition
- the ill victim carried a black cane / the drunk victim carried a liquor bottle wrapped in a
brown bag and smelt of alcohol
Model: all the models were white males aged between 24 and 29
- 4 conditions in which the model helped the victim to a sitting position
- there was also a no model condition
- the order of conditions was randomised
The model conditions were:
1. Critical area-early: stood in critical area and gave help after 70 seconds
2. Critical area-late: stood in critical area and gave help after 150 seconds
3. Adjacent area-early: stood adjacent to the critical area and gave help after 70
seconds
4. Adjacent area-late: stood adjacent to the critical area and gave help after 150
seconds
RESULTS:
Type of victim
A person appearing ill is more likely to receive help than one appearing
drunk. The ill victim was helped 100% of the time when there was no
model
Race of victim
There was no tendency for same-race helping unless the victim was
drunk. The drunk white victim was helped 100% of the time, while the
drunk black victim was only helped 73% of the time and more
frequently by black helpers.
Modelled help
Early models were more likely to motivate additional help than late
models
Group size
There was a weak positive correlation between group size and helping
behaviour. (groups of 7 or more were faster to respond)
Additionally, males were more likely to help the man than females.
CONCLUSION: Despite the collapses taking place on busy trains, help was offered
frequently and quickly. Piliavin et al proposed that witnessing an emergency situation leads to
the creation of an emotional arousal state, which a person then wished to rid themselves of.
Evaluating Piliavin et al:
ETHICAL ISSUES: one weakness is that this research lacks informed consent (a person
collapsing in their subway carriage might have caused them psychological harm)
another weakness is that, due to the nature of the subway and the large
number of participants leaving the train at their stop, no debrief could take place
RELIABILITY: a strength is that the researchers controlled several aspects of the procedure
(the victims always wore the same clothing and the collapse always took place when the train
passed the first station => procedure could be repeated)
VALIDITY: - one weakness is that the location and activity of people in the carriage was not
controlled (some people may have been distracted, therefore not seeing the victim collapse)
- a strength was that qualitative data was also collected in the study, which
allowed for further insight into the bystanders’ justification for lack of helping behaviour
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY: a strength of this study was the collection of
mainly quantitative data, which allowed the researchers to objectively compare helping
behaviours beween the drunk and the cane conditions
GENERALISING BEYOND THE SAMPLE: - one strength of this research was the large
sample size
- a weakness is that the research also lacked
population validity, as participants were likely to consist predominantly of commuters on a
specific New York subway route
GENERALISING TO EVERYDAY LIFE: a strength of this research was that it was a field
experiment, taking place on a real subway route (demand characteristics were avoided and the
participants showed genuine responses)