CALEB BRITISH INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, MAGODO
2ND TERM SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON NOTES
SUBJECT: Chemistry
CLASS: YEAR 11
Week
1
2
TOPICS
Rate of chemical reaction
Enthalpy Change
3
Chemical equilibrium
4
5
6
Non metals
Mid term test
Non metals
7
Mid term break
8
Organic chemistry
9
Organic chemistry
10
11
Organic chemistry
Revision
12
Exam
SCHEME OF WORK FOR 2ND TERM, 2024/2025 SESSION
YEAR 11
WEEK 1
TOPIC; Rate of Chemical Reaction.
SUBTOPIC: RATE CURVE
Objective: At the end of the lesson, learners will be able to explain
1. Meaning of Rate of Chemical Reaction.
2. Rate Curve.
3. The Collision Theory.
MEANING OF RATE OF REACTION
The rate of a chemical reaction is the number of moles of reactants converted or products formed per unit
time.
Rate of reaction = change in concentration of reactant or product (mol/dm3)
Time taken for the change (seconds)
RATE CURVE
The rate curve is a graphical illustration of the rate of a reaction.
The following graph illustrate rate curve
FEATURES OF RATE CURVE
1. It passes through the origin. This is because there is no change in concentration or mass at the start of
reaction.
2. It steeps at first, this because the rate is fast at the beginning.
3. It becomes less steep later. This is because the rate slows down.
4. It finally becomes horizontally. This is because the reaction has reached the end points.
The following can be determined from the rate curve
1. Average rate of reaction
Average rate = total number of mole / mass involved
Time taken
2.
Rate at a particular instant during the reaction
Rate at instant = Gradient at a point on the curve
When the rate of reaction has direct variation with concentration, then
Rate of reaction α[Concentration of A]
R α [A]
R = k[A]
Where k is called Rate constant
COLLISION THEORY
The collision theory states that for a chemical reaction to occur the reactant particles must collide and they
must collide with a certain minimum amount of energy known as activation
energy.
Reacting particles are in continuous motion, thus they possess energy and they also collide with one another.
Not all collisions result into chemical reaction. Collisions, which result into chemical reaction, are called
EFFECTIVE COLLISIONS. Minimum amount of energy required by reacting particles for chemical reaction to
occur is called ACTIVATION ENERGY. Activation energy is the ENERGY BARRIER the reactants must overcome
for reaction to occur. It is the minimum energy required for bond breaking for chemical reaction to
occur.
Chemical reaction occur only when the energy of the colliding reactant particles is equal to or more than the
activation energy. Activation energy must be equal to energy barriers also for chemical reaction to occur.
Every reaction has its own energy of activation. Reactions with low activation energy have high rate of
reaction and occur spontaneously. Reaction with high activation energy have low rate of reaction and are not
spontaneous.
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION
From the collision theory, it can be seen that rates of reaction depends on the following features.
1. The energy of the particle.
2. The frequency of collision of the reaction.
3. The activation energy of the reaction.
These features of a chemical reaction are in turn affected by some factors, which can make them to change
and consequently affect the rate of reaction. These are factors that affect the rate of reactions. Some
important ones are:
1. Nature of reactants.
2. Concentration / pressure (for gases) of reactants.
3. Surface area of reactants
4. Temperature of reaction mixture
5. Presence of light
6. Presence of catalysts
To study the effect of any one of these factors on rate of reaction all other factors must be kept constant.
GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1. List and explain three factors that can affect the rate of reaction of the following reaction: CaCO3(s) +
2HCl(aq)→ CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2. In a chemical reaction, after 10seconds, 6moles from the initial concentration of 16moles of the
reactant disappeared. Calculate the rate of the reaction.
3. State THREE characteristics of catalyst.
4. What is the volume in dm3 of 8g of oxygen gas at s.t.p?
5. Calculate the percentage of water in sodium trioxocarbonate (VI) heptahydrate
YEAR 11
WEEK 2
TOPIC; Heat Content (Enthalpy)
SUBTOPIC: EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
Objective: At the end of the lesson, learners will be able to explain
1. Heat Content (Enthalpy) of a substance.
2. Define standard heat of formation and standard heat of neutralization
3. Define exothermic and endothermic reactions giving two example each
HEAT CONTENT (ENTHALPY) OF A SUBSTANCE
Heat content or Enthalpy of a substance is the characteristic internal energy possess by the substance, which
is due to the structure and physical state of a substance. The potential energy is due to the structure while the
kinetic energy is due to the physical state. Enthalpy of one substance is different from another. Total enthalpy
cannot be measured but only enthalpy change. Generally, an enthalpy change (∆H) is the heat that would be
exchanged with the surrounding, that is, it is the amount of energy involved in a reaction.
Thus,
Enthalpy change = Heat of products – Heat of reactants
That is, ∆H = Hproducts - Hreactants
The enthalpy change of a given reaction is always written side by side with the given equation and it may be
either a positive or negative value.
Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = -57.3kJ
Unit of enthalpy change(∆H) is Joules(J) or kilojoules(kJ)
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
EXOTHERMIC REACTION
A chemical reaction in which heat is given off to the surrounding is known as exothermic reaction. When an
exothermic reaction occurs, heat is liberated and transferred from the chemicals to the surroundings and the
temperature of the reaction mixture rises. The reaction vessel will feel hot.
Examples of exothermic reactions include:
1. Reaction between calcium oxide and water
2. Reaction between an acid and a base.
3.
4. Combustion of fuel
5. Corrosion of metals
6. Respiration
In exothermic reaction, enthalpy change is negative since the heat content of the products is less than the
heat content of the reactants.
ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
An Endothermic reaction is a type of reaction in which heat is absorbed from the surroundings. When an
endothermic reaction occurs, heat energy is absorbed and transferred from the surrounding to the reactants
and the temperature of the reaction mixture falls. The reaction vessel will feel cold.
Examples of endothermic reactions are:
1. Thermal decomposition of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV)
2. Thermal dissociation of ammonium chloride
3. Action of light on silver bromide in photographic film
4. Photosynthesis in plants
In endothermic reaction, the heat content of the product is more than the heat content of the reactant; hence
the enthalpy change is positive.
GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1. Define standard heat of formation and standard heat of neutralization
2. Define exothermic and endothermic reactions giving two example each
YEAR 11
WEEK : 3
TOPIC; CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
SUBTOPIC; Properties of system in equilibrium.
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, learners will be able to explain:
1. Equilibrium of a system.
2. Properties of system in equilibrium
3. Reversible reactions
1.
2.
3.
EQUILIBRIUM
Equilibrium can be defined as the state of a system where there is no observable or detectable change in the
properties of the system with respect to time. A reversible reaction is one which proceeds in both forward and
backward directions under suitable conditions.
For example: NH4Cl(s)
NH3(g) + HCl(g)
A reversible reaction is said to be in dynamic equilibrium when both the forward and backward reaction are
occurring at the same rate, thereby producing no net change in concentrations of the reactants or products.
Properties of system in equilibrium
A chemical reaction at equilibrium is in dynamic state with the rates of the forward and backward reactions
are equal.
The equilibrium position can be reached from reactants alone or form product alone
For equilibrium to be established, the system must be closed
FACTORS AFFECTING THE POSITION OF EQUILIBRIUM
The position of equilibrium depends on the following set of condition
i.
Temperature
ii.
Concentration
iii.
Pressure (for gases)
Variation in any of these factors will upset the balance of the system and results in a shift in the position of the
equilibrium. These factors and their effect on chemical systems in equilibrium were studied by Le Chatelier’s
who formed the Le Chatelier’s principle.
Le Chatelier’s principle states that if a chemical system is in equilibrium and one of the factors involved in the
equilibrium is altered, the equilibrium position will shift so as to neutralize the effect of the change.
Importance of Le Chatelier’s principle in chemical industry: It helps to
i.
Define optimum conditions for chemical process
ii.
Reduce undesirable reversibility
iii.
Predict the effect of an altered factors on the equilibrium
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
For an endothermic reaction, increase in temperature shifts the position of equilibrium to the right. That is,
the forward reaction is favoured while a decrease in temperature favours the backward reaction. The reverse
is the case for exothermic reactions.
EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION
In a system of equilibrium, if the concentration of reactants is increased or product decreased, the forward
reaction will be favoured, that is; equilibrium position shifts to the right. Also, if the concentration of the
products is increased or reactant decreased, the backward reaction will be favoured, equilibrium position
shifts to the left.
EFFECT OF PRESSURE
Pressure of gas is proportional to the number of moles. Increase in number of moles implies increase in
pressure and vice visa. If the forward reaction proceeds by decreases in number of moles (pressure), an
imposed increase pressure will favour forward reaction. Reverse is the case if it proceeds by increase in
number of moles (pressure). In other words, when high pressure is applied, equilibrium will shift to the side
with less number of moles while when low pressure is applied, equilibrium will shift to the side with greater
number of moles.
N2(g)
+
3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
1 mole
3 moles
2 moles
Increase in pressure favours forward reaction while decrease in pressure favours backward reaction
EFFECT OF CATALYST
A catalyst does not change (affect) the position of equilibrium. Addition of catalyst, however increase the rate
of both forward and backward reaction by lowering the activation of energy of the reaction.
Equilibrium position is attained at faster rate when a catalyst is present.
EVALUATION
1.
State Le Chatelier’s principle
2.
Explain the effect of
i.
Increase in temperature
ii.
decrease in pressure
on the following reaction
2SO2(g) +
O2(g)
2SO3(g) H = -3957KJmol-1
YEAR 11
WEEK 4
TOPIC: Oxygen and Chlorine
SUBTOPIC: Oxygen.
Objective: By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to explain



Preparation,
Properties and Uses of Oxygen and hydrogen.
Oxides: Classification.
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF OXYGEN
1. By the thermal decomposition of potassium trioxochlorate (V) in the presence of MnO2 as catalyst
2KClO3(s)heat 
2KCl2(s) + 3O2(g)
2. By decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 in the presence of MnO2 as catalyst
2H2O2(aq) heat 
2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Hydrogen peroxide also reacts with acidified KMnO4 in the cold to produce oxygen
5H2O2(aq) + 2KMnO4(aq)
+
3H2SO4(aq)

K2SO4(aq) + 2MnSO4(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 502(g)
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION
i.Electrolysis of water
ii.Fractional distillation of liquid air: This preparation involves two main processes:
a. Liquefaction of air.
Air is first passed through caustic Soda, NaOH(aq) to remove CO2. It is then subjected through series of compressions,
expansions and cooling until liquid air is obtained at -200oC.
b. Fractional distillation of liquid air.
The liquid air is led to a fractional distillation column. On distillation, nitrogen with a lower boiling point of -1960C is
evolved first, leaving behind liquid oxygen. Further heating converts the liquid oxygen to a gas at -1830C.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is colourless , odorless and tasteless diatomic gas
2. It is neutral to litmus
3. It is slightly soluble in water
4. Gaseous oxygen is denser than air
5. Gaseous oxygen liquefies at -1830C
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Reaction with metals: Oxygen combines directly with most metals to form basic oxides
2Ca
+
O2

2CaO
The oxides of very electropositive metals, K, Na, Ca dissolves in water to form alkalis
2 K2O
+
2 H2O 
4KOH
2. Reaction with non-metals: Non-metals burn in oxygen to acidic oxides. These are known as acid anhydrides as
they dissolve in water to form acids.
3. Most hydrocarbon and compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen burn in oxygen to give CO2 and H2O
C2H5OH(l)
+
3O4(g)

2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
TEST FOR OXYGEN
When a glowing splinter is inserted into a gas jar containing an unknown gas and the glowing splinter is rekindled,
then the gas is likely oxygen gas or dinitrogen (I) oxide gas.
If the gas is colourless and reacts with nitrogen (II) oxide to produce reddish-brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide,
then the gas is confirmed to be oxygen gas.
OXIDES
Oxides are binary compounds formed when oxygen combines with other elements
Types of oxides (classification)
1. Basic Oxides: These are oxides of metals e.g. Na2O, K2O, MgO, CaO etc. They react with acids to form salt and
water only. Example
Na2O(s) +

2HCl(aq)
2NaCl(s) + H2O(l)
2. Acidic Oxides: These are oxides of non-metals which dissolves in water to form acids e.g. CO2, SO2, NO2 etc. They
react with alkali to form a salt and water only e.g. CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)

Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
3. Amphoteric Oxides: These are oxides of metals which can react with both acids and alkalis to form salt and
water only. They include the oxides of Al, Zn, Pb and Sn. Example
ZnO(s) + H2SO4

ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O
ZnSO4(aq) +

H2O(l)
Na2Zn(OH)4(aq)
4. Neutral Oxides: These are oxides of non-metals which are neither acidic nor basic. They are neutral to
litmus. They include CO2H2O and N2O
5. Peroxides: These are oxides which contain higher proportion of oxygen than ordinary oxides e.g Na2O2, CaO2
and BaO2. They react with dilute acid to produce hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
CHLORINE
Chlorine is the most important element in the halogen family. It does not occur as free element in nature because it
is too reactive. It is usually found in combined state as chlorides.
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CHLORINE
1. By the oxidation of concentrated HCl with strong oxidizing agent such as MnO2 or KMnO4
MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
2. By heating concentrated H2SO4 with a mixture of NaCl and MnO2
2NaCl(s) + MnO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + MnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION
Chlorine is manufactured industrially by the electrolysis of brine and molten NaCl, MgCl2 or CaCl2.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES; Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas with unpleasant chocking smell, poisonous gas, about 2.5
times denser than air, can be liquefied under a pressure of about 6atm, and moderately soluble in water.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is very reactive and tends to attain stability by forming electrovalent compound with metals and a single
covalent bond compounds with non-metals.
2. It displaces other halogens from solution of their acids and salts
3. It combines directly with other elements except oxygen, nitrogen carbon and the noble gases; to form chlorides
4. It has a very strong affinity for hydrogen; it removes hydrogen from its compounds.
5. It is a powerful oxidizing agent: it oxidizes green Fe2+ to yellow Fe3+
6. It has a bleaching action: in the presence of water, chlorine bleaches most dyes and inks except printer’s ink. The
bleaching action of chlorine is due to its ability to react with water to form oxochlorate (I) acid which decomposes to
release oxygen which oxidizes the dye to form a colourless compound.
7. It reacts with hot concentrated NaOH solution to give a mixture of trioxochlorate (V) and chloride of the metal.
With cold dilute solution of NaOH, a pale yellowish mixture of oxochlorate (I) and chloride of the metal is formed.
8. It reacts with slaked lime solutions to produce bleaching powder
TEST FOR CHLORINE
1. It turns damped blue litmus paper pink and then bleaches it. It is acidic gas.
2. It turns damped starch-iodide dark blue. Chlorine turns starch-iodide paper blue because it displaces iodine from
the iodide. The iodine liberated then turns the starch blue.
TEST FOR CHLORIDES
The test solution is acidified with dilute trioxonitrate (V) acid to prevent precipitation of other salts. Few drops of
AgNO3(aq) is then added to the acidified solution in a test tube, a white precipitate of AgCl which readily dissolves in
excess NH3(aq) solution indicates the presence of a chloride.
GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1. Explain why hydrogen chloride in toluene does not conduct electricity but its aqueous solution does conduct
electricity.
2. Describe a test for a soluble chloride.
3. Give FOUR uses of chlorine gas.
YEAR 11
WEEK 6
TOPIC: NITROGEN
SUBTOPIC: OXIDES OF NITROGEN.
Objective: By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to explain



Preparation of Nitrogen and its oxides.
Properties and Uses of Nitrogen and its compounds.
Nitrogen Cycle.
NITROGEN
LABORATORY PREPARATION
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION
From Air
Industrially, nitrogen is obtained by fractional
distillation of liquid air.
It can be obtained from air by passing air through
caustic soda to remove CO2 and
overheated copper
respectively.
turnings
to
remove
1.
Thermal decomposition
dioxonitrate (III)
of
ammonium
+ NH4Cl(aq)
→ NH4NO2(aq)
a.
+NaCl(aq)
NaNO2(aq)
b.
NH4NO2(aq)
→ 2H2O(l) + N2(g)
of
3. Slightly soluble in water
boiling point is -
ammonium
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. It reacts with very electropositive metals to
form nitrides.
3. Oxidation of ammonia by hot Copper (II) oxide
+ 3CuO(s)
2. Pure nitrogen is lighter than air.
4. Melting point – 2100C and
1960C
→ Cr2O3(s) + 4H2O(l) + N2(g)
2NH3(g)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless
2. Thermal
decomposition
heptaoxodichromate (VI)
(NH4)2Cr2O7(s)
O2
→
3Cu(s)
+
3H2O(g) + N2(g)
4. Reduction of dinitrogen (I) oxide by red-hot
copper.
N2O(g) + Cu(s)
→ CuO(s) + N2(g)
2. It reacts with non – metals like hydrogen and
oxygen to form ammonia and oxides respectively.
NITROGEN (IV) OXIDE, NO2
LABORATORY PREPARATION
Nitrogen (IV) oxide is prepared by thermal decomposition of lead (II) trioxonitrate (V) because the
nitrate does not contain water of crystallization which can interfere with the preparation.
Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO(s) + O2(g) + 4NO2(g)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES; It is a reddish – brown gas, has an irritating smell, poisonous, turns damp
blue litmus paper red, dissolves in water to form acidic solution, liquefies into yellow liquid at 21oC
and It is much heavier than air.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Nitrogen (IV) oxide exists mainly as dinitrogen (IV) oxide, N2O4 at low temperature. It
decomposes on heating as follows.
N2O4(g)
2NO2(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g)
2. It supports combustion as it decomposes on heating to nitrogen and oxygen
3. It is reduced to nitrogen by reducing agent.
4. It dissolves in water to form a mixture of dioxonitrate (III) and trioxonitrate (V) acids. It is a
mixed acid anhydride.
5. It reacts with alkalis to form mixture of dioxonitrate (III) and trioxonitrate (V) salts.
AMMONIA
Ammonia is a hydride of nitrogen. It is produced in nature when nitrogenous matter decays in the
absence of air. Thus, traces of ammonia may be found in the atmosphere but being very soluble in
water, it is dissolved by rain water and washed down into the soil.
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF AMMONIA
Ammonia is prepared in the laboratory by heating calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (slaked lime) with
ammonium chloride.
Ammonia is dried using calcium oxide, CaO. Ammonia being alkaline cannot be dried using Conc.
H2SO4 or fused CaCl2, because they will react.
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION
Ammonia is manufactured from nitrogen and hydrogen by the Haber process. It involves mixing
nitrogen and hydrogen in ratio 1:3 by volume. The reaction is reversible so special conditions listed
below are required for optional yield of ammonia.
i.Finely divided iron catalyst is used
ii.Temperature of about 450Oc is used
iii.Pressure of about 200atm is used.
The yield is about 15% under this condition
N2(g) +3H2(g)

2NH3(g) + heat
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is a colorless gas with a characteristic choking smell.
2. Ammonia in large quantity is poisonous as it affects respiratory muscles.
3. It is the only known alkaline gas.
4. It is about 1.7 times less dense than air.
5. Solid ammonia melts at -34.4OC and the liquid boils at -77.7OC.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Ammonia burns readily in oxygen to form water vapor and nitrogen
2. Ammonia reacts as reducing agents reacting with Chlorine.
3. Ammonia reacts with carbon IV oxide to form Urea and water vapour.
4. Ammonia reacts with acid to form ammoniums salts.
TEST FOR AMMONIA
Ammonia has a choking smell. It can be confirmed using:
1. Litmus paper: Damped red litmus is dipped into the gas jar containing the unknown gas. If the
litmus paper turns blue, then the gas is ammonia.
2. Hydrochloric acid: a glass rod is dipped in concentrated HCl and then inserted in the gas jar
containing the unknown gas. If white fumes are observed on the glass rod, then the gas is ammonia.
SULPHUR
Sulphur is an element. It occurs freely as deposits and in combined state as sulphide and as
tetraoxosulphate (IV).
EXTRACTION OF SULPHUR
Sulphur is extracted from underground by Frasch process. A three concentric sulphur pump is driven
down a hole dug to the sulphur bed. The solid sulphur is melted at 115oC by super – heated water at
170oC and 10atms. The molten sulphur is forced out by hot compressed air at 15atm. The molten
sulphur is then continuously pumped out and allowed to solidify in a large tank. The sulphur
obtained is 99.5% pure.
SULPHUR (IV) OXIDE, SO2
LABORATORY PREPARATION
Sulphur (IV) oxide is prepared in the laboratory by heating sodium or potassium trioxosulphate (IV)
with tetraoxosulphate (IV) acid or hydrochloric acid.
Na2SO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Sulphur (IV) oxide is a colourless poisonous gas with smell like that of burning matches, very
soluble in water, about 2.5 times denser than air.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. As an acid, it reacts with alkali to form normal salt of trioxosulphate and water only
2NaOH(aq) + SO2(g) → Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
2. As reducing agent, sulphur (IV) oxide reacts with many oxidizing agents such as acidified KMnO4;
acidified K2Cr2O7; FeCl3, HNO3, chlorine gas. It decolorizes acidified purple KMnO4 and turns acidified
orange K2Cr2O7 to green.
2. It reacts as bleaching agent decolourising dye by its bleaching action. The bleaching action is
similar to that of chlorine in that there must be water. But, while chlorine bleaches by oxidation
sulphur IV oxide bleaches by reduction.
2. Sulphur (IV) oxide reacts as oxidizing agent in the presence of strong reducing agent such as
hydrogen sulphide.
TETRAOXOSULPHATE VI ACID, H2SO4
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF H2SO4
Industrially, tetraoxosulphate VI acid is manufactured by Contact process. The following steps are
involved in Contact process.
S(s) + O2(g)
2SO2(g) + O2(g)
→ SO2(g)
→ SO3(g) + heat
H2SO4(aq) + SO3(g) → H2S2O7(aq)
H2O(l) + H2S2O7(aq) → 2H2SO4(aq)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: It is a colourless, vicious liquid with density of 1.84gcm-3, corrosive and
cause burns when in contact with the skin, highly soluble in water evolving large amount of heat.
CHEMICAL PROEPERTIES
1. As an acid, it reacts with metal which are above hydrogen in the electrochemical series to
liberate hydrogen gas, with bases to form salts and water, with alkali to form normal and acidic salt,
with trioxocarbonate (IV) to liberate carbon (IV) oxide. As oxidizing agent, concentrated H2SO4
oxidize metals, non –metals and hydrogen sulphide in the following ways.
2. Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is a dehydrating agent, removing water from
compounds like sugar, ethanol, methanoic acid and ethanedioic acid
EVALUATION



Give the laboratory Preparations of Hydrogen Sulphide.
Explain 4 chemical properties of Sulphur IV oxide.
Give 4 Uses of tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.
Week 8 -10
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CONTENT
 Unique Nature of Carbon.
 Characteristics Features of Organic Compounds
 Classification of Hydrocarbons.
 Definition of Terms used in Organic Chemistry
 Alkanes
 Alkene
 Alkanols
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds with the exception of compounds such as
carbon (II) oxide, carbon (IV) oxide the trioxocarbonate (IV).Carbon has unique ability to form numerous
organic compounds because it has ability to catenate. Catenation is the ability of atoms of an element to
form bonds between its own atoms and produce long chain structure.
All organic compounds contain carbon as the main element together with one or more other elements
such as hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, nitrogen and sulphur.
UNIQUE NATURE OF CARBON
1.
The valency of carbon: the electronic configuration of carbon is as follows:
C = 6: 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Carbon form covalent bonds and after bond formation it has neither vacant orbital nor lone pair
of electrons. This makes many carbon compounds chemically stable.
2.
The bond between carbon and hydrogen is non-polar. Thus, hydrogen atoms attached to carbon
do not weaken carbon-carbon bonds.
3.
The types of orbital hybridization available to carbon: carbon can form three types of
hybridizations: SP3, SP2 and SP hybridization. Hence, it has ability to form single, double or triple
covalent bonds between its atoms.
4.
Large amount of energy is required to break carbon single bond.
CHARACTERISTICS FEATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1.
Organic compounds are covalent in nature.
2.
They are non-polar substances and are insoluble in polar solvents.
3.
They have low melting and boiling points.
4.
They are highly flammable.
5.
Their reactions are relatively slow compared to inorganic chemical reactions.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Organic compounds are classified into Aliphatic and Aromatic compounds.
Aliphatic Compounds: These are compounds whose molecules are composed of chains of carbon atoms.
They can be
1.
Straight chain compounds e.g pentane
2.
Branched chain compounds e.g 2-methylbutane
Straight and branched chain aliphatic compounds exist as open chain and are called ACYCLIC
compounds. Aliphatic compounds which exist as closed chain are called the CYCLIC compounds e.gcyclo
propane.
Aromatic Compounds: Benzene, C6H6, is a typical aromatic compound. Other aromatics compounds are
derivatives of benzene e.g C6H5OH.
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Homologous series is a family of organic compounds which follows a regular structural pattern and in
which each successive member differs in its molecular formula by –CH2- group.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
1.
All members conform to general molecular formula , e.g for alkanes, CnH2n+2
2.
Each successive member differs in molecular formula by – CH2- group.
3.
All members undergo similar chemical reactions.
4.
The physical properties of members change gradually along the series.
5.
All members are prepared by the same method.
ALKYL AND FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Alkyl groups: Alkyl groups are all groups derived from the alkanes by the loss of a hydrogen atom. Alkyl
groups have a general formula of CnH2n+1.They are named after the parent alkane by replacing the
ending –ane by –yl. The alkyl group derived from the first two members of the parent alkane series are:
Parent alkane
Alkyl group
Formula
Methane, CH4
Methyl
-CH3
Ethane, C2H6
Ethyl
-C2H5
Functional groups: The substituent of hydrogen atom in the alkane series to form the alkyl group
determines the chemical properties of the compound formed thereafter. This substituent is called
FUNCTIONAL GROUP.
A functional group is an atom, a radical or a bond common to a homologous series and which
determines the chemical properties of the series.
Examples of functional groups include: Hydroxyl group -OH, amino group NH2, carboxyl group -COO,
double and triple bonds.
Alkyl group in a compound determines the physical properties of the compound; while functional group
determine the chemical properties of the compound.
ALKANES
For n=1 CH4
Methane
n=2 C2H6 Ethane
n=3 C3H8 Propane
n=4 C4H10 Butane
n=5 C5H12 Pentane and so on.
There is no functional group in the alkane series.
RULES FOR THE IUPAC NOMENCLATURE
1.
2.
Select the longest continuous carbon chain as parent hydrocarbon.
Number the longest carbon chain starting from the end that gives lowest possible number to the
suffix (functional group).
3.
Indicate the other substituents by prefixes preceded by numbers to show their position on the
carbon chain.
4.
If the same alkyl or other substituents group occurs more than once as side chain, show how
many are present by using prefix di, tri, tetra etc and indicate by various numbers the position of
each group on the longest carbon chain.
5.
If there are several different alkyl groups attached to the parent chain, name them in alphabetical
order.
METHANE (CH4)
LABORATORY PREPARATION
Methane is prepared in the laboratory by heating ethanoate salt with corresponding alkalis e.g sodium
ethanoate and soda-lime. Soda-lime is quick lime slaked with a concentrated solution of sodium
hydroxide. It is used in preference to caustic soda because it is not deliquescent and does not attack
glass so readily.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1.
Methane is a colourless and odourless gas.
2.
It is slightly soluble in water.
3. It is less dense than air
4. It has no action on litmus paper
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1.
2.
Combustion: Methane burns in air or oxygen to produce steam, carbon(IV) oxide and a lot of heat
Substitution reaction: Substitution reaction involves the direct displacement of atom or group by
another atom or group. Methane reacts with chlorine in the presence of ultra-violet light to yield
a mixture of products.
CH4(g) + Cl2(g)
CH3Cl(g)
+ HCl(g)
ALKENES
LABORATORY PREPARATION
Ethene is prepared by heating ethanol with excess concentrated tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid at 170o C. The
acid acts as a dehydrating agent by removing water from the ethanol. Thus the process is called
dehydration.
The reaction occurs in two stages
C2H5OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
C2H5HSO4(aq)
C2H5HSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
C2H4(g) + H2SO4.
CHEMCIAL PROPERTIES
1.
Combustion: Ethene undergoes combustion in air or in the presence of oxygen and produce
carbon (IV) oxide and steam.
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)
2.
2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Addition reaction: This is a reaction in which two molecules combine to form one molecule.
3. Polymerization of ethane to produce polythene.
EVALUATION.
1.
Write and name the geometric isomers of compound with the molecular formula C5H10
2.
Write balanced chemical equation to show how ethene reacts with the following:
a. concentrated H2SO4b. bromine water c. acidified KMnO4
ALKANOLS
Alkanols is a homologous series with general molecular formula of CnH2n+1OH or ROH.
The functional group in alkanols is the hydroxyl (-OH) group.
NOMENCLATURE:
The names of alkanols are obtained by substituting “e” in alkanes with “ol”.
Example: Methanol - CH3OH, Ethanol - CH3CH2OH
CLASSIFICATION
The alkanols are classified based on the number of alkyl groups directly linked to the carbon atom carrying the
hydroxyl group.
1.
Primary alkanols (10): It has only one alkyl group attached to the carbon atom that carries the hydroxyl
group. Example
H
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
OH
C OH
H
Ethanol
1.
H
Methanol
Secondary alkanols (20): They have two alkyl groups directly linked with the carbon atom carrying the
hydroxyl group. Example
H
H
H
HC
C
C
H
H
OH
H
Propan - 2- ol
2.
Tertiary alkanols (30 ): The alkanols here have three alkyl groups attached to the carbon atom holding the
hydroxyl group
CH3
CH3
C
CH3
OH
2 – methylpropan -2 –ol
ETHANOL
LABORATORY PREPARATION
1.
2.
Hydrolyzing ethyl esters with hot alkali
Reducing ethanol with nascent hydrogen
PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL FROM STARCHY FOOD
Ethanol can be prepared from starchy food like rice, potatoes, maize etc.
The following steps are involved;
-
-
Crush and pressure cook the starchy materials.
Extract the starch granules by mixing with water.
Allow the starch granules to settle and decant
Treat the starch granules with malt (partially germinated barley which contains the enzyme, DIASTASE) at
500C for one hour.
The starch is then converted to MALTOSE.
2(C6H10O5)n + nH2O
nC12H22O11
Then yeast is added at room temperature for some time (at least one day). Yeast contains two enzymes,
namely MALTASE and ZYMASE. Maltase converts maltose to two glucose units, while Zymase converts
the glucose to ethanol and carbon (IV) oxide.
C12H22O11 + H2O maltase2C6H12O6
C6 H12 O6
Zymase
2C2H3OH + CO2
PROPERTIES OF Ethanol
1.
Esterification:
This is the reversible reaction between alkanol and alkanoic and to produce sweet smelling compound
known as ester. The reaction is catalysed by concentrated H2SO4. Example
CH3CH2OH +CH3COOH
2.
H+
CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
Dehydration:
Alkanols are dehydrated to alkenes in the presence of concentrated H2SO4.
CH3CH2OH + H2SO4
CH3CH2HSO4 + H2O
CH3CH2HSO4170oCC2H4 + H2SO4
3.
Reaction with sodium and potassium: Sodium and potassium react vigorously with alkanols to liberate
hydrogen gas and form corresponding organic salt of sodium and potassium.
2C2H3OH + Na
2C2H3ONa + H2
GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1.
Describe how ethanol can be prepared from cane sugar.
2.
Using balanced equations, state five chemical properties of ethanol.
3.
Describe a test to identify an unknown solution to be ethanol.
4.
What is the number of oxygen atoms in 32g of the gas? [NA = 6.02 x 1023]
5.
5.6dm3 of oxygen gas was evolved at the anode during the electrolysis of dilute copper (II)
tetraoxosulphate (VI) using platinum electrodes. What mass of copper is deposited at the cathode during
the process? [Cu = 64, Molar volume of a gas at s.t.p = 22.4dm3, 1F = 96500C]
(a).Write the structural formula of two named primaryalkanols.
(b). Explain the structural different between secondary and tertiary alkanols giving one example each.
2
(a).What is fermentation?
(b). Describe the preparation of ethanol from table sugar.